05-02-2020

18MEC107T APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING

UNIT II: Fuels

Presented by
Dr.C.Selvam

Syllabus…

• Unit I: Gas power cycles

• Unit II: Fuels

• Unit III: IC engines

• Unit IV: Air compressors

• Unit V: Refrigeration and A/C system

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References
1. Engineering thermodynamics, R.K. Rajput
2. Thermodynamics (An Engineering approach),
Yunus A. Cengel.
3. A Textbook of Thermal Engineering RS Khurmi and
JK Gupta.pdf

UNIT-II : Contents….
1. Solid, liquid and gaseous fuels
2. Stoichiometry
3. Exhaust gas analysis
4. Heat calculations

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Introduction to Fuels
• Fuel may be chemical or nuclear. Here we shall
consider briefly chemical fuels only.

• A chemical fuel is a substance which releases heat

energy on combustion. The combustible elements of
each fuel are carbon and hydrogen.

• Though sulphur is a combustible element too but its

presence in the fuel is considered to be undesirable.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

• Fuels can be classified according to whether :

1. They occur in nature called primary fuels

2. They are prepared called secondary fuels ;

• They are in solid, liquid or gaseous state.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

STOICHIOMETRIC
• Stoichiometric (or chemically correct) mixture of air
and fuel is one that contains just sufficient oxygen
for complete combustion of the fuel.
• A weak mixture is one which has an excess of air.
• A rich mixture is one which has a deficiency of air

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Exhaust gas analysis

• Dry analysis
• Wet analysis

Exhaust gas analysis

CO O2 CO
2

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Conversion volumetric analysis into gravimetric analysis

• The conversion of volume percentage to mass percentage is referred as conversion of
volumetric analysis to gravimetric analysis.
• If the volumetric analysis of a mixture is known, it can easily be converted into gravimetric
(mass) analysis by using the relation

mi = ni Mi
where, mi = mass of the ith constituent
ni = number of moles of the ith constituent
Mi = molar mass (molecular weight) of the ith constituent

The following steps should be taken into consideration for such conversion.
1. Start with volume percentage of each constituent.
2. Multiply the volume percentage of each constituent by its molecular
weight.
3. Take the sum of products of the step 2 above.
4. Find the percentage analysis by mass as (mi/Ʃmi ) * 100

Conversion volumetric analysis into gravimetric analysis

The percentage analysis of a gas by volume is given as

CO2 = 5.5 % ; CO = 38.3 % ; CH4 = 0.4 % ; O2 = 0.1 % ; H2 = 52.8 %; N2 = 2.9 % .
Obtain the percentage analysis by mass.
Solution

Constituent % Volume molecular Mass % Mass in mixture =

(ni) weight (Mi) mi = ni Mi (mi/Ʃmi ) * 100

CO2 5.5 44 242 16.02

CO 38.3 28 1072.4 70.98
CH4 0.4 16 6.4 0.423
O2 0.1 32 3.2 0.211
H2 52.8 2 105.6 6.99
N2 2.9 28 81.2 5.37
Ʃmi = 1510.8 100%

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Conversion gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

• Reverse of volumetric analysis to gravimetric analysis.
• The conversion of mass fraction to mole fraction.
• Generally applied to gaseous fuel.
• If the gravimetric analysis (mass) of a mixture is known, it can easily be converted into
volumetric analysis by using the relation

ni = mi / Mi
where, mi = mass of the ith constituent
ni = number of moles of the ith constituent
Mi = molar mass (molecular weight) of the ith constituent
The following steps should be taken into consideration for such conversion.
1. Start with mass percentage of each constituent.
2. Divide the mass percentage of each constituent by its molecular weight.
3. Take the sum of quotients of the step 2 above.
4. Find the percentage analysis by volume as (ni/Ʃni ) * 100

Conversion gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

A gaseous mixture contains CO2 = 16 % ; CO = 1 % ; O2= 8 % and N2 = 75 % by mass.

Convert this gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

Solution

Constituent Mass molecular No of moles % Volume in mixture

percentage weight (Mi) ni = mi / Mi =
(mi) (ni/Ʃni ) * 100

CO2 16 44 0.36 10.81

CO 1 28 0.035 1.05
O2 8 32 0.25 7.52
N2 75 28 2.67 80.48
Ʃni = 3.33 100%

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Stoichiometry
Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion of Solid Fuel
• The minimum amount of air that supplies just sufficient oxygen for the complete
combustion of all the carbon, hydrogen and sulphur present in the fuel is called the
theoretical amount of air or stoichiometric air.
• It is also called the chemically correct amount of air required for complete
combustion.
• For 1 kg of fuel consisting of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, the minimum amount of
O2 required can be obtained with the help of basic combustion. Equations
respectively as
1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of O2
C kg of carbon requires [8C/3] kg of O2
Similarly
S kg of sulphur requires (S) kg of O2
H kg of hydrogen requires (8H) kg of O2
Total Oxygen required = (8/3) C + 8 H + S in Kg
Minimum Air Required
= (100/23) [(8/3) C + 8 H + S]

Stoichiometry…
Equivalence ratio
It is the ratio of actual air-fuel ratio to the theoretical air-fuel ratio for
complete combustion. The reactants form a rich mixture when the equivalence
ratio is less than unity. Accordingly, for excess air supplied with fuel, the
equivalence ratio is always greater than unity.

Air Fuel ratio

A frequently used quantity in the analysis of the combustion processes is the
air-fuel ratio. It is usually expressed on mass basis and is defined as the ratio of
mass of the air to the mass of the fuel during combustion process. It is
designated as A/F.
A/F = Mass of the air / Mass of fuel
Simply A/F ratio is the equivalent amount of air required for burning of 1 kg of
fuel completely. Air-fuel ratio can also be interpreted on mole basis as the ratio
of number of moles of air to the number of moles of fuel. But the former
definition is normally used.

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Air Fuel ratio (from flue gas analysis)

When the volumetric analysis of products of combustion is known, then the actual air-
fuel ratio can be obtained by using the following methods:
1. Carbon balance method
2. Hydrogen balance method
3. Carbon Hydrogen balance method
1. Carbon Balance Method
If all carbon present in the fuel burns completely without leaving traces in flue gases
then carbon balance method is used to obtain the actual amount of air used to form the
dry products of combustion.
In this method, the mass of carbon present in the fuel is balanced with mass of carbon
present in the dry flue gases. It is a quite accurate method.
Let C be the mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel; and CO2 and CO are the masses of carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide, respectively, formed per kg of flue gases.
Then 1 kg of CO2 contains 3/11 kg of carbon
(because 1 kg of carbon produces 11/3 kg of CO2), and
1 kg of CO contains (3/7) kg of carbon
(because 1 kg of carbon produces 7/3 kg of CO

Air Fuel ratio (from flue gas analysis)…

Then the mass of Carbon per kg of dry flue gases
= (3/11) CO2 + (3/7) CO kg/kg of flue gases
The mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
m dry flue gases = Mass of carbon present in 1 kg of fuel / Mass of carbon present
in 1 kg of flue gases
Hydrogen Balance Method
When some solid carbon is suspected in combustion products, then the carbon-balance
method cannot give an accurate mass of air used in combustion. In such a situation, the
hydrogen method is used. In the hydrogen-balance method, the mass of hydrogen in the
fuel composition is balanced with the mass of hydrogen per kg of flue gases.
The mass of vapour formed per kg of fuel during combustion
mH2O = 9 x H2 present per kg of fuel
Then the total mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
m flue gases = m dry flue gases + mH2O
Carbon-Hydrogen Balance Method
If the Orasat apparatus cannot measure the percentage of nitrogen accurately, the
masses of carbon and hydrogen are balanced in fuel composition and products of
combustion. It is a very accurate method.

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1. A coal sample gave the following analysis by weight,

Carbon 85 per cent, Hydrogen 6 per cent, Oxygen 6 per
cent, the remainder being incombustible. Determine
minimum weight of air required per kg of coal for
chemically correct composition

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2. The percentage composition of sample of

liquid fuel by weight is, C = 84.8 %, and
H2 = 15.2 %. Calculate (i) the weight of air
needed for the combustion of 1 kg of fuel ; (ii)
the volumetric composition of the products of
combustion if 15 percent excess air is supplied

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3. Percentage volumetric analysis of a sample of flue

gases of a coal fired boiler gave CO2 = 10.4 ; CO = 0.2 ;
O2 = 7.8 and N2 = 81.6. Gravemetric percentage analysis
of coal was C = 78, H2 = 6, O2 = 3 and incombustible =
13. Estimate : (i) Weight of dry flue gases per kg of fuel
(ii) Weight of excess air per kg of fuel.

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4. The following is the ultimate analysis of a sample of

petrol by weight : Carbon = 85 %; Hydrogen = 15 %.
Calculate the ratio of air to petrol consumption by
weight if the volumetric analysis of the dry exhaust gas
is : CO2 = 11.5 %; CO = 1.2 %; O2 = 0.9 %; N2 = 86 %.
Also find percentage excess air.

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H2

C H2

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Theoretical or Minimum volume of Air

required for complete combustion
• Total O2 required for complete combustion of 1 m3
of fuel
TO2  0.5CO  0.5H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4 m3

• If some O2 is already present in the fuel, The total O2

required for complete combustion of 1 m3 of fuel becomes

 0.5CO  0.5H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4   O2 m3

100
Vmin of Air   0.5CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4   O2   m3
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• A producer gas used as a fuel, has the

following volumetric composition H2=28%,
CO=12%, CH4=2%, CO2=16%, and N2=42%.
Find the total volume of O2 and also find
volume of air required for complete
combustion of 1 m3 of this gas.

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• Total O2 required for complete combustion of 1 m3

of fuel
TO2  0.5CO  0.5H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4 m3

• If some O2 is already present in the fuel, The total O2

required for complete combustion of 1 m3 of fuel becomes

 0.5CO  0.5H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4   O2 m3 O2=0

100
Vmin of Air   0.5CO  0.5 H 2  2CH 4  3C2 H 4   O2   m3
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=1.143 m3

5. A sample of fuel has the following percentage

composition : Carbon = 86 %; Hydrogen = 8 % ;
Sulphur = 3 %; Oxygen = 2 %; Ash = 1 %. For an
air-fuel ratio of 12 : 1, calculate :
(i) Mixture strength as a percentage rich or weak.
(ii) Volumetric analysis of the dry products of
combustion

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Physical laws of Combustion

There are certain physical laws on which the analysis of combustion process is based.
Law of Conservation of Mass
During a chemical reaction, the mass is conserved, that is, the mass of the reactants
equals the mass of the products. The total mass of each chemical element must be
same on both sides of the equation even though the elements exist in different
chemical compositions in reactants and products.
However, the number of moles of products may differ from the number of moles of
reactants.
For Example
1H2 + 0.5 O2 => H2O
By introducing the molar masses,
2Kg of H2 + 16 Kg of O2 => 18 Kg of H2O
Hence, mass of reactant is equal to mass of products.
When using number of moles,
1 mole of H2 + 0.5 mole O2 => 1 mole of H2O
Thus, number of moles of the product differ from no of moles of reactant

Basic combustion reactions

Combustion of solid fuel
Generally the solid and liquid fuels consists of Carbon , Hydrogen and Sulphur. The
product of combustion may be CO, CO2, H2O, SO2 .
The basic combustion reactions for these three elements are following.
Incomplete combustion:
2C + O2 2CO
By introducing the molar masses,
(2*12) Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 56 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of C + (4/3) Kg of O2 (7/3) Kg of CO
It indicates 1 Kg of C requires 4/3 Kg of O2 to produce 7/3 Kg of CO
Intermediate combustion:
2CO + O2 2CO2
By introducing the molar masses,
(56) Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 88 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of CO + (4/7) Kg of O2 (11/7) Kg of CO2
It indicates 1 Kg of CO requires 4/7 Kg of O2 to produce 11/7 Kg of CO2

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Basic combustion reactions

Combustion of solid fuel
Complete combustion:
C + O2 CO2
By introducing the molar masses,
12 Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 44 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of C + (8/3) Kg of O2 (11/3) Kg of CO2
It indicates 1 Kg of C requires 8/3 Kg of O2 to produce 11/3 Kg of CO2

Burning of sulphur:
S + O2 SO2
By introducing the molar masses,
32 Kg of S + 32 Kg of O2 64 Kg of SO2
Or
1 Kg of S + 1 Kg of O2 2 Kg of SO2
It indicates 1 Kg of S requires 1 Kg of O2 to produce 2 Kg of SO2

Basic combustion reactions

Combustion of solid fuel

Burning of hydrogen:
2H + 0.5 O2 H2O
By introducing the molar masses,
2 Kg of H+ 16Kg of O2 18 Kg of H2O
Or
1 Kg of H + 8 Kg of O2 (9/8) Kg of H2O
It indicates 1 Kg of H requires 8 Kg of O2 to produce (9/8) Kg of H2O

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Basic combustion reactions

Combustion of gaseous fuel
In gaseous fuels the volumes or number of moles may be substituted for gas elements.
Burning of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide;
2 mole of CO + 1 mole of O2 2 mole of CO2

1 volume of CO + (1/2) volume of O2 1 volume of CO2

Or
It indicates 1 volume of CO requires 1/2 volume of O2 to produce 1 volume of CO2
Burning of hydrogen gas:
2H + 0.5 O2 H2O

1 mole of H2+ (1/2) mole of O2 1 mole of H2O

Or
1 volume of H2 + (1/2) volume of O2 1 volume of H2O
1 volume of H2 requires 1/2 volume of O2 to produce 1 volume of H2O

Basic combustion reactions

Combustion of gaseous fuel
Burning of mash gas (methane)

1 mole of CH4 + 2 mole of O2 1 mole of CO2 + 2 mole of H2O

By introducing the molar masses,

16 Kg of CH4 + 64 Kg of O2 44 Kg of CO2 + 36 Kg H2O

1 Kg of CH4 + 4 Kg of O2 (11/4) Kg of CO2 + (9/4) Kg H2O

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Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)

The calorific value of powdered and liquid fuels is determined at

constant volume in the bomb calorimeter.
It resembles the shape of a bomb, and thus it is known as the bomb
calorimeter.
Construction
The fuel is burnt in a strong steel chamber, known as bomb, which is
immersed in a known mass of water. The fuel sample is placed in a
crucible inside the bomb, which is tilled with oxygen under a pressure
above 25 atm. It is then ignited by an electrically heated platinum wire.
The combustion thus takes place at constant volume, the fuel burns
almost in a constant-pressure environment due to the high pressure of
oxygen. To reduce any losses of heat, the calorimeter is also provided
with additional water jacket and air. A motor-driven stirrer is used to
keep the water temperature uniform around the bomb and an accurate
thermometer (Beckman type) is immersed in water to measure the
temperature accurately.

Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)

Procedure A known quantity of fuel sample as a briquette is placed

into the crucible and a fuse wire is connected with the electrodes. The
bomb is then placed in a calorimeter with a weighed quantity of water.
After making necessary connections, the stirrer is started and
temperature measurements are taken every minute. At the end of the
fifth minute, a charge is fired and temperature readings are taken
carefully every 10 seconds during this period. When the temperature
readings begin to fall, the frequency of readings may be reduced to one
every minute.
After experimentation, the bomb is taken out from its housing. The
products of combustion are released through the release valve. Then it
is opened, and the unburnt fuse wire, if any, is collected and weighed. A
temperature-time curve is plotted. The measured temperature rise is
corrected for various losses. The allowance for combustion of fuse wire
is determined from the weight of the fuse and its known calorific value.
The water equivalence of a calorimeter must be used in calculation to
accommodate its allowance.

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Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)…

The heat released by combustion of fuel is absorbed by water surrounding the bomb
and calorimeter. Thus an energy balance yields to
Mass of fuel * calorific value + mass of fuse wire burn * calorific value of fuse wire =
Mass of water equivalent of calorimeter) * specific heat of water x corrected
temperature rise
mf CV+ mfuse CV1 = (mw + me) Cpw [(T2 -T1) + Tc]
mf = [(mw + me) Cpw [(T2 -T1) + Tc] - mfuse CV1 ] / CV
where
Tc = radiation correction to temperature, it is obtained from graphical presentation of
observation before and after firing
mf= mass of fuel
mfuse = mass of fuse wire
mw = mass of water filled in calorimeter
me = water equivalent of the calorimeter
CV1=Calori1ic value of fuse wire
T2-T1 = Observed temperature difference
The bomb calorimeter measures a higher calorific value of fuel. If a liquid fuel is being
tested, it is contained in a gelatin capsule and the firing may be assisted by paraffin of
known calorific value in the crucible.

Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)…

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Determination of calorific value of fuel (Dulong’s fomula)

Normally, fuels contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ash and sulphur.
The nitrogen and ash are inert to the combustion.
The carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen are participating in the combustion.
Let C, H, O and S be the percentage of these constituents, respectively in the
fuel.
The calorific value of these constituents can be obtained from Calorific value
Table.
For carbon (C) = 393520 kJ/kmol / 12 kg/kmol = 33,000 kJ/kg
For hydrogen (H) = 286043/2 = 143000 kJ/kg (HCV)
= 242000/2 = 121000 kJ/kg (LCV)
For Sulphur(S) = 293120/32 = 9160 kJ/kg (HCV)
Heat produced after complete combustion
HCV = 33000 C + 9160 S + 143000 (H-O/8) KJ/Kg
Where, C,S,H and O are % constituents in 1 Kg of fuel.
LCV = 33000 C + 9160 S + 121000 (H-O/8) KJ/Kg

Thank you

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