DATA ANALYSIS

(Statistical Treatment of Data)

Goals

The purpose of this lesson is to help students and beginning researchers to develop DATA
ANALYSIS for their experimental research proposals. It is organized into three areas:
• To define and determine the significance of DATA ANALYSIS in a research proposal.
• To determine the method of selecting the appropriate DATA ANALYSIS procedure of the
research proposal.
• To write the process in DATA ANALYSIS of the research proposal.

Explore

In previous lessons, we have discussed the basic principles of conducting

experimental designs. Before examining specific experimental designs and the way that
their data are analyzed, we thought that it would be a good idea to review some basic
principles of statistics. We assume that most of you reading this individual learning
material have discussed statistics in your previous research subject. However, our
experience is that statistical knowledge has a mysterious quality that inhibits long-term
retention. Actually, there are several reasons why students tend to forget what they
learned in a statistics topics, but we won’t dwell on those here. Suffice it to say, a lesson
to refresh that information will be useful. When we conduct a study and measure the
dependent variable, we are left with sets of numbers. Those numbers inevitably are not
the same. That is, there is variability in the numbers. That variability can be, and usually
is, the result of multiple variables. These variables include extraneous variables such as
individual differences, experimental error, and confounds, but may also include an effect
of the independent variable. The challenge is to extract from the numbers a meaningful
summary of the behavior observed and a meaningful conclusion regarding the influence
of the experimental treatment (independent variable) on participant behavior. Statistics
provide us with an objective approach to doing this.

Learn

A. Definition of Statistics

Statistic / Statistics

• (Noun) a number that represents a piece of information (such information about

how often something is done, how common something is, etc).

• (Noun) a type of mathematics that deals with the study of statistics.

• A branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of numerical data.

• Based on its recorded history as early as 3800BC – population, occupation, birth,

death, baptism, and marriages.
STATISTICS
Refers to numerical observations of almost any kind. Originally, statistical data took
the forms of figures on tax returns, population, births deaths, trade, and others which were
considered important information to a political state. Today, the use of statistics has
extended to such things as theater attendance, basketball results, car sales in a month,
heights, weights and so many others that can be expressed numerically. According to
Cristobal M. Pagoso et.al, statistics refer to the science that deals with the COLLECTION,
TABULATION OR PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, and INTERPRETATION of numerical
or quantitative data.

1. Collection - refer to the process of obtaining numerical measurements.

2. Presentation - refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs, or charts, so that
logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected
measurements.

3.Analysis– pertains to the process of extracting from the given data relevant
information from which numerical description can be formulated.

4. Interpretation - refers to the task of drawing conclusions from the analyzed data. It is
also normally involving the formulation of forecasts or predictions about larger
groups based on the data collected from small groups.

TYPES OF STATISTICS

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS – is concerned with the gathering, classification, and

presentation of data and the collection of summarizing values to describe group
characteristics of the data. It involves different measures such as:
❖ Measures of Central Tendency
❖ Measures of Positions, and
❖ Measures of Variability
 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS / STATISTICAL INFERENCES – a type of statistics that
demands a higher order of critical judgment and mathematical methods. It aims
to give information about large group of data without dealing with each of every
element of these groups. It uses only a small portion of the total set of data in
order to draw conclusions or judgments regarding the entire set.
Among the topics included in the study of inferential statistics are estimation
and testing of hypothesis. Estimation involves: Point estimate and interval
estimate; point estimate of population means and proportions, while hypothesis
testing are divided into parametric test and the non-parametric test.

Non-parametric test

- are tests that do not require a normal distribution, at the same time it utilizes both
nominal and ordinal data. Not normal distribution means the value of the skewness is
either positive or negative.

Parametric Test

- are tests applied to data that are normally distributed, the levels of measurement
of which are expressed in interval and ratio scale. Normally distributed means,
skewness is equal to zero and kurtosis equals .265

3(𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 −𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
SK = Where: SK means skewness
𝑆𝐷

𝑄𝐷
Ku = Ku means Kurtosis, and
𝑃90 − 𝑃10

𝑄3 − 𝑄1
QD = QD mean quartile deviation
2

Levels of Measurement
 1.Nominal data - come from categories such as male and female, yes or no, political
affiliates like LP, LDP, Lakas; religious groupings, and other categories.

2. Ordinal Data - are data expressed in rankings showing an order, such as ranks, it
can be Outstanding, very satisfactory, satisfactory, fair, poor. Or data such as strongly
agree, strongly disagree, no opinion, and other data which employ rankings and ordering.

3. Interval data - provide numbers that reflect differences among items. With interval

scales the measurement units are equal. Examples are scores of intelligence test, and
time reckoned from the calendar. They have no true zero value

4. Ratio data - are the highest type of scale. The basic difference between the interval
and the ratio scale is that the interval scale has no true zero value while the ratio scale
has an absolute zero value. Common ratio scales are measures of length, width, weight,
capacity, loudness, and others.

Most commonly used tests under the parametric tests:

❑ t-test for Independent samples

❑ t-test for Correlated sample
❑ z-test for Two Sample Mean
❑ z-test for one sample Mean
❑ F test (ANOVA)
❑ r (Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of correlation)
❑ Simple Linear Regression Analysis
❑ Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

Most commonly used tests under the nonparametric tests:

❖ The chi-square tests

➢ test of Goodness-of-fit
 ➢ test of Homogeneity
➢ test of Independence
❖ The Wilcoxon rank-sum test or Wilcoxon Two- Sample test, or U-test.
❖ The Kruskal-Wallis test or Kruskal-Wallis, or H-test
❖ The Spearman rank Order Coefficient of Correlation (𝑟𝑠 )
❖ A Sign Test for Two Correlated Samples (Fisher Sign Test)
❖ The McNemar’s Test for Correlated Sample
❖ The Freidman Test, Fr Test for Randomized Block Designs.
❖ The Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance, W.

Population and Sample

• Population refers to the totality of people/object/thing under study.

• Sample are people/object/things that are part of the population.

DATA - Refers to any information obtained about a sample or a population.

Types of Data:

1. Primary data/ Original Data – refer to information which are gathered directly from an
original source, or which are based on direct or first-hand experience.

Example: a. first person – accounts, autobiographies, and diaries.

2. Secondary Data – refer to information which are taken from published or unpublished
data which were previously gathered by other individuals or agencies.

Example: a. Published – books, newspapers, magazines, biographies, business

reports, and the like.

Advantages of primary data over secondary data

1. Primary data frequently give detailed definitions of terms and accurate statistical
units used in the survey.
 2. Primary data lend more relevance to the researcher’s study because of his
direct participation in the projects.

Apply

Answer the following questions :

1. What type of statistics would you categorize your present study? Explain your
answer.

2. What is the difference between parametric and non-parametric test?

3. In your study, what level of measurement do you think you are going to use?

4. Explain the relation of sample to population.

5. Why is primary data better than secondary data?

Asses

Answer the following as indicated.

1. Classify the following statements as belonging to the area of descriptive statistics

or inferential statistics:

a] As a result of recent cutbacks by the oil – producing nations, we can expect

the price of gasoline to double in the next year.
b] At least 5% of all fires reported last year in a certain city were deliberately set
by arsonists.
c] Of all patients who have received this particular type of drug at a local clinic,
60% later developed significant side effect.
d] Assuming that less than 20% of the Phil. Coffee beans were destroyed by frost
in northern Luzon, we should expect an increase of no more than 30 pesos for
a kilo gram of coffee by the end of the year.
 e] As a result of a recent poll, most Filipinos are in favor of the project Build,
build, build.

2. Define suitable populations from which the following samples are selected.

Example: On 5 different occasions it took a lawyer 21, 26, 24, 22, and 21
minutes to drive from her home to her office. (Sample)

Answer : All possible time intervals for this lawyer to drive from her home to her
office. (Population)

a] Persons in 200 homes are called by telephone in a certain city and asked to
name any person that they favor for City administrator.

b] A coin is tossed 100 times and 34 tails are recorded.

c] Two hundred pairs of a new type of tennis shoe are tested on the professional
tour and, on the average, lasted 4 months.

3. Give the different types of measurements as indicated.

a] Measures of Central Tendency

b] Measures of Positions

c] Measures of Variability

Reflect

In the course of the lesson in the use of this learning material, kindly answer the
following questions :

1.What important concepts have you gained in the lesson?

2.What are the difficulties have you encountered in the process of understanding the
lesson?
3. How will you apply the lesson learned in your current experimental research
proposal revisit?