INDEX PROPERTIES

Easily determined properties useful in the quantitative description of rocks :-

1. POROSITY
2. DENSITY
3. ACOUSTIC VELOCITY
4. PERMEABILITY
5. STRENGTH ((Point Load/Schmidt Hammer/
Geological Hammer)
6. DURABILITY (Slake Durability/Swelling/Wet-Dry)

Index properties determined in the laboratory relate most closely to

the behaviour of INTACT ROCK
ROCK. They are of lesser importance and
require caution when used in the prediction of ROCK MASS behaviour
 Rock
R k
Mass

ROCK MASS
INTACT ROCK AND
DISCONTINUITIES

Laboratory
S i
Specimen

Block of Joints
Intact Rock
Material
 POROSITY VV
n
VT

Porosityy shows some useful

f empirical
p correlations :-

NEGATIVE : Unconfined Compressive Strength

Deformation modulus
Density
particularly in unweathered fresh rock types.

For similar rock types porosity also shows correlations

with :-

NEGATIVE : Geological age

Depth of burial
 TYPICAL
POROSITY
VALUES

Porosity decreases
with depth
p
Porosity increases
due to weathering
POROSITY v DEPTH AND UCS

h, MPa
250 UCS reduction
0 Increasing

mpressivee Strength
overburden 200
ace (km)

150
Depth below surfa

100

Uniiaxial Com
50
D

2
0.05 0.1 0.3 0 10 20 30
Porosity, %
Log Porosity
DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT
Rock density is often a function of porosity since most rocks
have relatively similar average grain densities.

POSITIVE : Geological age

Burial depth
Compressive
p strength
g
Deformation modulus

NEGATIVE : Porosity
P it
Weathering
and 
Why do we need to know the unit weight in rock/
engineering ?
DENSITIES OF MINERALS

MINERALS DENSITY gm/cm3

Halite 2.1-2.6
Gypsum 2.3-2.5
Serpentine 23 26
2.3-2.6
Orthoclase 2.5-2.6
Quartz 2.65
Plagioclase
g 2.6-2.8
Chlorite/Illite 2.6-3.0
Calcite 2.7
Muscovite 2.7-3.0
Biotite
i i 28 31
2.8-3.1
Dolomite 2.8-3.1
Anhydrite 2.9-3.0
Pyroxene 3 2-33.66
3.2
Olivine 3.2-3.6
Barite 4.3-4.6
Magnetite 4.4-5.2
Pyrite 4.9-5.2
Galena 7.4-7.6
TYPICAL DENSITIES AND UNIT WEIGHTS OF ROCK TYPES
ROCKS Density g/cm3 Unit Weight kN/m3
Granite 2.65 26
Diorite 2.85 27.9
Gabbro 3.0 29.4
Gypsum 2.3 22.5
Rock Salt 2.1 20.6
Coal 0.7-2.0
Dense Limestone 2.7 26.9
Marble 2.75 27
Sh l f(depth)
Shale f(d h) 2 2 2 62
2.25-2.62 22 1 2
22.1-25.7
Rhyolite 2.37 23.2
B lt
Basalt 2 77
2.77 27 1
27.1
Amphibolite 2.99 29.3
 ACOUSTIC VELOCITY
• Acoustic
A ti velocity
l it ini rockk cores is
i easily
il determined
d t i d by
b measuring
i the
th
travel time of vibrational waves introduced by piezoelectric crystals.
• Compression (P) and shear (S) waves can be measured but the more
standard index tests use only PP-wave
wave velocity
• The transmitted wave velocity depends on rock elastic properties and
density. Fractures cause marked changes in elastic properties and
transmission velocities are sensitive to fracturing.
Oscilloscope

Receiver Transmitter

Transducers S-wave
P-wave

Geophones
LABORATORY ACOUSTIC VELOCITY TESTING

Transmitter

Pulse Power
S i
Specimen
Generator Amplifier Preamplifier

Receiver

Oscilloscope
ACOUSTIC VELOCITY

Transducers
T d can bbe made
d ffor use under:
d
• Uniaxial conditions or
• Triaxial conditions
MINERALS Vp(m/s) ROCKS Vp (m/s)
Olivine 8400 Gabbro 6800-7200
Pyrite 8000 Basalt 6500-7200
Dolomite 7500 Dolomite 6500-7000
Epidote 7450 Limestone 5500-6500
Magnetite 7400 Sandstone 5000-6000
TYPICAL
Pyroxene 7200 Granite 5500-6000
Amphibole 7200
ACOUSTIC
Calcite 6600
VELOCITY
Plagioclase 6250 VALUES
Quartz 6050
Muscovite 5800
Orthoclase 5800
 ROCK QUALITY
CLASSIFICATION IN
RELATION TO
EXCAVATION
6
EH Blast to fracture
2
Frracture Spacing (m)

VH
0.6
H
02
0.2 Blast to loosen
M
0.06
L Rip
0.02 Dig
VL
VL L M H VH EH
0 03
0.03 01
0.1 00.33 1 3 10 30
Point Load Strength
MN/m2
Dig or Blast ???
Seismic Velocity in meters/sec X 1000
0 1 2 3 4
GLACIAL TILL
IGNEOUS
Granite
Basalt
Trap rock
SEDIMENTARY
Sh l
Shale
Sandstone
Siltstone
Claystone
Conglomerate
g
Breccia
Caliche
Limestone
METAMORPHIC
Schist
Slate
MINERAL & ORES
Coal
Iron ore

D10 RIPPABLE MARGINAL NON-RIPPABLE

 PERMEABILITY
• Permeability conveys information about the interconnection of
pore space and fissures within a rock.

• Changes in permeability with stress can be used to assess the

influence of pores and fissures

• Flat microfissures or cracks are much more susceptible to

closure under normal pressure than spherical pores.

• Discontinuities have a major influence on permeability which is

thus extremely Scale Dependent.
Spherical pores
Microfissures or cracks
SWELLING PRESSURE AND STRAIN

The Swelling pressure index is a measure of the pressure necessary to

constrain at constant volume, an undisturbed rock specimen immersed
i water. The
in Th apparatus used d iis similar
i il to a soil
il consolidometer.
lid
F
Swelling Pressure Isp  F = Max axial swelling Force
Index Isp
Index, A A = Cross sectional area of
specimen.

The Swelling strain index is a measure of the axial swelling strain

developed when a radially confined undisturbed rock specimen is
immersed in water.
d
Swelling Strain = Iss   100% d = Max swelling
displacement L
Index, Iss L = Initial height of specimen
Confined Swell Test
Standpipe

Rigid Plate
Porous p
plate
Ring
Sample
Porous plate
Rigid Plate

Standard swelling pressure test

Specimen
p diameter: 60 to 100 mm
Specimen length: 20 to 40 mm
Max. axial load: 50 kN
Testing temperature: 20°C (= 68°F), constant
This test is used for the determination of the swell-caused
stress/strain dependency in axial orientation (usually
perpendicular to the bedding). The specimen is fitted in a stiff
metal ring in order to prevent radial strain.
Rock Strength
Rock Strength Designation and field criteria for
estimating intact rock strength (ISRM)

Striking with geological hammer

C
Crumbles
bl B
Breaks
k easily
il
Requires several Can only
Indenting with geological pick hard blows to be
Peeling with knife break pp
chipped
Easy Difficult

Medium
E Weak
E. V Weak
V. Weak V. Strong E. Strong
strong
t

2 6 20 60 200 MPa

Soft rock Hard rock

Rock Strength
• POINT
O LOAD
O TEST
S ((ISRM
S and
a d ASTM
S 5731-05
5 3 05 Sta
Standards)
da ds)
An index test for rock strength.

• The rock is hydraulically loaded between spherically truncated,

hardened, conical steel platens and fails by the development of
tensile cracks parallel to the axis of loading.

P
Is  2
De
P = Load at failure
De = Equivalent core diameter
= D for diametral test

• Is is normally reported for D = 50mm

called Is50
• The uniaxial compressive
p strength,
g ,
Cu, is approximately 23 x Is50
• Multiplier 17.5 – 24.5 as f(core diameter)
 Point load tester

Hardened conical
platens

DIAMETRAL TEST
POINT LOAD SPECIMENS can be tested as :-

Diametral test :- loaded across the diameter of the core

L
L>0.5D
L 0.5D
D
D2=De2

Axial test :- loaded along the core axis 0.3W<D<W

De2=4A/
D
Where A = WD
W
L>0.5D
De2=4A/ W1
I
Irregular
l llump:- should
h ld be
b spheroidal.
h id l Where A = WD L
W= (W1+W2)/2 W2
The ISRM suggested method includes D
a size correction procedure to determine Is50 from
diametral, axial and irregular lump tests.
 POINT LOAD TEST ANALYSIS
I 50= F.
Is F P
Is50=18x1000 De2
50 2500 1.6

F size correection facttor

P50 = 18kN
10 1.0
N)
P (kN

6
0.6
2
0.2

100 200 500 1000 2500 40 80 100 140

De2 (mm2) De (equivalent ) core

diameter (mm)

Graphical Procedure Size Correction Factor

Point Load Test

18 x 10 3
Is50  N/mm2 = MPa
2500

ection factor
1.6
50

P50 = 18kN 1.0

size corre
10 P
P (kN)

0.6 Is50 F 2
6 De

Fs
2 0.2

40 80 100 140
100 200 500 1000 2500 De (equivalent ) core
De2 (mm2) diameter (mm)

Graphical Procedure Size Correction Factor

POINT LOAD TEST INTERPRETATION

250

S, MPa
UCS
VALID TESTS Co = 23Is(50)
50

0 6 10 14
Is(50)
INVALID TESTS
Point Load Test

Point Load Index

Material
(
(MPa)
)

Tertiary Sandstone & Claystone 0.05 – 1.0

Coal 0.2 – 2.0

Limestone 0.25 – 8.0

Mudstone, Shale 0.2 – 8.0

V l
Volcanic
i Flow
Fl R k
Rocks 3 0 – 15.0
3.0 15 0

Dolomite 6.0 – 11.0

RANGE OF UCS VALUES FOR INTACT ROCK
UCS = L/A
L

L
 Field estimation of Unconfined Compressive Strength

Uniaxial Point
Schmidt
Compressive Load
Term Hardness Field Estimate of Strength Examples
Strength Index
(Type L - hammer)
(MPa) (MPa)

R5 Extremely Rock material only chipped fresh basalt, chert, diabase,

>250 >10 50-60
Strong under repeated hammer blows gneiss, granite, quatzite

Amphibolite,
p bo te, sa
sandstone,
dsto e,
Requires
R i many blows
bl off a
R4 basalt, gabbro, gneiss,
100-250 4-10 40-50 geological hammer to break
Very Strong granodiorite, limestone,
intact rock specimens
marble rhyolite, tuff
Hand held specimens broken
R3 Limestone, marble, phyllite,
50-100 2-4 30-40 by a single blow of a geological
Strong sandstone schist
sandstone, schist, shale
hammer

R2 Firm blow with geological pick

Claystone, coal, concrete,
Medium 25-50 1-2 15-30 indents rock to 5mm, knife just
schist. shale, siltstone
Strong scrapes surface

R1 Knife cuts material but too hard

5-25 ** <15 chalk, rocksalt, potash
Weak to shape into triaxial specimens

Material crumbles under firm

R0 highly weathered or altered
1-5 ** blows of geological pick, can be
Very Weak rock
scraped
p with knife

Extremely
0.25-1 ** Indented by thumbnail clay gouge
Weak
 REBOUND TESTS
SCHMIDT HAMMER (ATM D 5873-05)
Originally used for non destructive testing of concrete. Four types
of hammer available with varying impact energy. The rebound of
the hammer mass after impact on the rock surface can be read
directly from the instrument casing (Schmidt hardness number.)

Type L hammer
T h i recommended
is d dbby ISRM owingi tto it
its llow impact
i t
energy.
The Schmidt hardness number has been correlated with the
uniaxial compressive strength of rock types
Not suitable for very soft or very hard rock
A large amount of scatter is often obtained in the field; problems
include:
• influence of discontinuities:
• Weathering
• Alteration
• Jointing
• Calibration
THE SCHMIDT HAMMER and
ACCESSORIES
 SLAKE DURABILITY
ASTM D 4644-04)
Changes in rock properties due to processes of chemical and
mechanical breakdown (eg. exfoliation, hydration, solution,
oxidation, abrasion etc.) can be very important in engineering
applications. A good index test of rock degradability is the Slake
Durability Index.
Apparatus :-
 140mm diameter drum with
100mm long 2mm mesh walls.
 trough to contain drum + water
 motor drive (20rpm)
SLAKE DURABILITY APPARATUS

D
Drum lid 100mm
Mesh Cylinder

Drum base
Trough
g
 SLAKE DURABILITY
Method
1. Sample consisting of 10 spheroidal lumps each approx 50g
is placed in the drum and weighed.
2. Drum is placed in trough filled with water at 20oC to a
level jjust below drum axis and rotated at 20rpm
p for 10
minutes.
3. Drum is removed and material retained dried at 105oC
4. Cycle is repeated and the dried material retained after 2
cycles weighed.

SLAKE DURABILITY = Weight retained 2 cycles

INDEX I iti l weight
Initial i ht
Slake Durability Classification

Cycle 1 Cycle 2.
DURABILITY
((% retained)) ((% retained))

Very High > 99 > 98

High 98 - 99 95 - 98

Medium-High 95 - 98 85 - 95

Medium 85 - 95 60 - 85

Low 60 - 85 30 - 60

Very Low < 60 < 30

 HARDNESS
CONE INDENTORS
Several tests are available for measuring the hardness of rocks, most
adapted from metallurgy and called Indentation tests
The hardness values obtained from the indentation tests have been
correlated with unconfined compressive strength, Co.

ABRASIVENESS
CERCHAR ABRASIVENESS TEST

A sharp hardened steel stylus is passed across the rock surface for
a distance of 10mm under a load of 7kgf .. the unit of abrasiveness
is related to the dimension of the scratch..measured using optical
techniques.