Electronics Repair and Troubleshooting

ECE 401 / Class ECE 4-A

Lesson/Topic : 3g-1
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A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or

switch electronic signals and electrical power. Transistors are
one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of
semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection
to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the
controlling (input) power, a transistor basically can amplify a signal.
Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.
In the analog world of continuously varying signals, a transistor
is a device used to amplify its electrical input.
❖ When it works as an amplifier, it takes in a tiny electric current at one end (an
input current) and produces a much bigger electric current (an output current) at
the other. In other words, it's a kind of current booster. That comes in really useful
in things like hearing aids, one of the first things people used transistors for. A
hearing aid has a tiny microphone in it that picks up sounds from the world around
you and turns them into fluctuating electric currents. These are fed into a transistor
that boosts them and powers a tiny loudspeaker, so you hear a much louder
version of the sounds around you.

In the digital world, a transistor is a binary switch and the

fundamental building block of computer circuitry. Like a light switch
on the wall, the transistor either prevents or allows current to flow
through. A single modern CPU can have hundreds of millions or even
billions of transistors.

❖ Transistors can work as switches. A tiny electric current flowing through one part
of a transistor can make a much bigger current flow through another part of it. In
other words, the small current switches on the larger one. This is essentially how
all computer chips work. For example, a memory chip contains hundreds of
millions or even billions of transistors, each of which can be switched on or off
individually. Since each transistor can be in two distinct states, it can store two
different numbers, zero and one. With billions of transistors, a chip can store
billions of zeros and ones, and almost as many ordinary numbers and letters (or
characters, as we call them).

Types of Transistors
There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized
in its application. The main classification is as follows:
Bipolar Junction Transistor
A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has
two PN junctions for its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal
transistor. It has got two types of configurations NPN and PNP. Usually
NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience. The following
image shows how a practical BJT looks like.

The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor
is made by placing a p-type material between two n-type materials. The
PNP transistor is made by placing an n-type material between two p-type
materials. BJT is a current controlled device.

Field Effect Transistor

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is
a voltage controlled device unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The
main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input impedance, which
is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power
consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices.
The following image shows how a practical FET looks like:

The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using

either p-type or n-type material as main substrate. Hence the current
conduction of a FET is done by either electrons or holes.
Comparison between JFET and BJT :
FET Terminals
Though FET is a three terminal device, they are not the same as BJT
terminals. The three terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain.
The Source terminal in FET is analogous to the Emitter in BJT,
while Gate is analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.
The symbols of a FET for both NPN and PNP types are as shown below:

Types of FET
There are two main types of FETS. They are JFET and MOSFET.

The JFET is abbreviated as Junction Field Effect Transistor.

JFET is just like a normal FET. The types of JFET are n-channel FET and P-
channel FET. A p-type material is added to the n-type substrate in n-
channel FET, whereas an n-type material is added to the p-type substrate
in p-channel FET.
FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input
impedance and slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the
MOSFET which is an advanced FET is invented.

MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor . This is also
called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor. The FET is
operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of operation. The
following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like:

Classification of MOSFETs :
Depending upon the type of materials used in the construction, and the
type of operation, the MOSFETs are classified as in the following figure.

The N-channel MOSFETs are simply called as NMOS. The symbols

for N-channel MOSFET are as given below.
The P-channel MOSFETs are simply called as PMOS. The symbols for
P-channel MOSFET are as given below:

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Testing/Checking/Troubleshooting
Transistors
How to Know if a Transistor is Defective :
Transistor is an active electronic part. An active electronic part is something
can perform amplifications or signal processing. Transistors are basic
elements on power amplifiers, audio amplifiers, switching converters, power
supplies and so on. A transistor term is somewhat generic. It could be a
BJT, MOSFET of JFET. But for common people, it is commonly referring to
a BJT. So, in this testing we will concentrate on how to know if a transistor
defective that refers to a BJT.

Below is a simple illustration on how the NPN and PNP differ from each
other:
How to Know if an NPN Transistor is Defective -

If the transistor is known to be an NPN type, below are the troubleshooting

steps on how to know if a transistor defective.

Steps:

1. Get a DMM and set it to diode mode

2. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to the base or the “P” or the base
of the above figure for the NPN type. Connect the negative probe to the “N”
or the emitter. A good transistor will read a voltage around 0.7V. A bad
transistor will read otherwise. Otherwise means a value that is far away the
0.7V level. A good transistor usually reads around 0.3V-0.7V for germanium
and silicon variants.

3. Transfer the negative probe of the DMM to the other “N” or the collector
pin. The judgement must be the same as item 2 above.

4. Try reversing the probe connections of item 2 and 3, the reading now must
be 0V. This means the transistor junction is not conducting as it is in reverse
bias state. If the reading is otherwise, then the transistor is faulty.
5. A faulty transistor may have zero resistance when measuring across
collector-emitter.

How to Know if an PNP Transistor is Defective –

If the transistor is known to be an PNP type, below are the troubleshooting

steps on how to know if a transistor defective.

Steps:

1. Get a DMM and set it to diode mode

2. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to the base or the “P” or the emitter
of the above figure for the PNP type. Connect the negative probe to the “N”
or the base. A good transistor will read a voltage around 0.7V. A bad
transistor will read otherwise. Otherwise means a value that is far away the
0.7V level. A good transistor usually reads around 0.3V-0.7V for germanium
and silicon variants.

3. Transfer the positive probe of the DMM to the other “P” or the collector
pin. The judgement must be the same as item 2 above.

4. Try reversing the probe connections of item 2 and 3, the reading now must
be 0V. This means the transistor junction is not conducting as it is reversed
biased. If the reading is otherwise, then the transistor is faulty.

5. A faulty transistor may have zero resistance when measuring across

collector-emitter.

If the Transistor Type is not Known, How to Start the Diagnosis:

Nowadays, it is easy to get any electronic component datasheet once the

part number or the body marking is available. However, in the absence of
these, it will be difficult. The possible remedy is to have understanding on
the circuit diagram if it is available. NPN and PNP type has different biasing
configuration. The NPN type always has positive supply to its base section
while ground on the emitter and positive supply again to the collector. On
the other hand, the PNP type has ground on the base section and positive
source on the emitter section.
How about there is no circuit diagram available. A trial and error will do.
Follow below steps :

Steps to identify an NPN transistor:

1. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to any pin or leg of the
transistor. Connect also the negative probe to any leg or pin of the
transistor but not to the pin/leg that has the positive probe. Ensure
the DMM setting is in the diode mode. Observe the DMM reading.

2. If the DMM reading is within 0.3V-0.7V, this means one of the diodes
on the transistor junctions is able to forward bias.

3. Do not remove the positive probe on its location while remove

the negative probe to the leg/pin that has no probe connection. If
the DMM reading is still around 0.3V-0.7V, then the transistor is an
NPN type.

4. If above tests result to otherwise, then consider steps below:

Steps to identify an PNP transistor:

1. Connect the positive probe of the DMM to any pin or leg of the
transistor. Connect also the negative probe to any leg or pin of the
transistor but not to the pin/leg that has the positive probe. Ensure
the DMM setting is in the diode mode. Observe the DMM reading.

2. If the DMM reading is within 0.3V-0.7V, this means one of the diodes
on the transistor junctions is able to forward bias.

3. Do not remove the negative probe on its location while remove

the positive probe to the leg/pin that has no probe connection. If
the DMM reading is still around 0.3V-0.7V, then the transistor is a
PNP type.

If the above trials result to otherwise, the transistor can be faulty. It is

worth replacing it. The Above testing are basic only. Experience will tell
you more on How to Know if a Transistor is Defective.
Transistor Failure Mode :

Common transistor failure modes are shorted base-emitter

junction, shorted base-collector junction, shorted collector
emitter, open collector-emitter, open base-emitter junction or
open base-collector junction.
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Testing a Transistor with a Multimeter:

Ask any field or bench technician what their most-used piece of test
equipment is and they will probably say a DMM (Digital MultiMeter). These
versatile devices can be used to test and diagnose a wide range of circuits
and components. In a pinch, a DMM can even substitute for expensive,
specialized test equipment. One particularly usefull skill is knowing how to
test a transistor using a digital multimeter.

Basic Transistor Pinouts

Fortunately, using a DMM to get a basic pass/fail reading from a suspected

faulty NPN or PNP bipolar transistor is a simple and quick task. Some
multimeters have a built-in transistor testing function, if yours does, you
can skip this blog post – simply insert your transistor into the socket on
the multimeter and set the meter to the correct mode. You will probably
get information such as the gain(hFE) that could be checked against the
datasheet as well as a pass/fail reading. If your meter does not have a
transistor testing function, fear not – transistors can easily be checked
with the “Diode” testing setting. (Some meters have the diode test
function coupled with the continuity test – this is OK).

Testing the Transistor :

Remove the transistor from the circuit for accurate test results.

Step 1: (Base to Emitter)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the BASE (B) of the
transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the EMITTER (E) of the
transistor. For an good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage
drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor, you
should see “OL” (Over Limit).

Step 2: (Base to Collector)

Keep the postitive lead on the BASE (B) and place the negative lead to
the COLLECTOR (C).

For an good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor, you should see "OL"
(Over Limit).

Step 3: (Emitter to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the EMITTER (E) of
the transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the
transistor.

For an good NPN transistor, you should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are
testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V.

Step 4: (Collector to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the COLLECTOR (C)
of the transistor. Hook the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the
transistor.

For an good NPN transistor, you should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are
testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between
0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 5: (Collector to Emitter)

Hook the positive meter lead to the COLLECTOR (C) and the negative
meter lead to the EMITTER (E) – A good NPN or PNP transistor will read
"OL" (Over Limit) on the meter. Swap the leads (Positive to Emitter and
Negative to Collector) – Once again, a good NPN or PNP transistor should
read “OL”.

If your bipolar transistor measures contrary to these steps, consider it to

be bad.

You may also be able to use the voltage drop to determine which lead is
the emitter on an unmarked transistor, as the emitter-base junction
typically has a slightly higher voltage drop than the collector-base
junction.

Remember: This test only verifies that the transistor is not shorted or open, it
does not guarantee that the transistor is operating within its designed
parameters. It should only be used to help decide if you need "replace" or "move
on to the next component". This test works on bipolar transistors only – (you
need to use a different method for testing FETs).

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