IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

PAPER • OPEN ACCESS

Waterflooding Management: Challenges and Solutions During the

Injection Process to Obtain Effectively and Environmentally Based Oil
Recovery in Oil and Gas Industry
To cite this article: Dyah Rini et al 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 690 012037

View the article online for updates and enhancements.

This content was downloaded from IP address 184.174.59.101 on 10/03/2021 at 01:06

2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

Waterflooding Management: Challenges and Solutions

During the Injection Process to Obtain Effectively and
Environmentally Based Oil Recovery in Oil and Gas Industry

Dyah Rini, Latuan*, Ferdinandus Klea, and I Gede O. S. Prajanji

Department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Pembangunan Nasional “UPN”
Veteran, Faculty of Mineral and Technology, SWK 104 St., Depok, Sleman,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
*Email:[email protected]

Abstract. Water is an important element for every creature in the earth. Almost 70% of earth
surface is covered by water. Since 1974, not only contribute to life, water also can be used in oil
and gas industry, to improve the oil recovery through waterflooding. Waterflood now became
one of oil enhancement methods that often applied in oil field because it’s proved effective can
enhance the oil recovery with minimum impacts to ecology and environment. However, the use
of water in oil and gas industry requires comprehensive understanding about the technical
problem and environmental impact during waterflooding process. Hence, in this study a review
is carried out on several problems that occur in the waterflooding injection process and provides
solutions so as to be able to manage projects effectively and efficiently also considering the
environmental aspects.

1. Introduction
In general, the oil and gas field development project have an orientation to obtain the maximum benefit
with the existing reservoir conditions. In order to obtain the maximum profit, many problems can happen.
Therefore, it is necessary to do management in carrying out an oil and gas field development project to
get a significant profit that can be observed from the higher oil acquisition. No exception is also in the
process of Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR).
Currently, waterflooding became one of the common techniques in EOR, as well as pressure
maintenance for the reservoir. Waterflooding is an important method in the oil field development in
order to increase the economic value of the field. The successful waterflooding project can be done by
a comprehensive management strategy to make sure the reservoir pressure stayed above the fluid's level,
which leads to maximizing oil recovery also to gain more profitable income.
In the waterflooding injection process, several problems can happen to make the economy of oil field
development keep decreasing. Most of it caused by technical issues such as early breakthrough, leak of
cement in a casing, or maybe while setting the injection constraints [1]. However, at this time in addition
to technical issues, it is also necessary to conduct a study of the impact on the environment such as pay
attention to the level of safety and environmental impact or can be called "zero waste management.".
Hence, this study will discuss solutions to several problems in the waterflooding process as an effort to
maximize the economy of an oil field development.

2. Theory and Definitions

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

2.1. Definition and Review of Waterflooding

Improvement oil recovery is the methods used to improve oil production by injecting something into the
reservoir. The injected fluid or chemical or thermal could act as displacement fluid and could cause
physical, chemical, compositional and thermal changes in the reservoir rock and fluids. By so, the oil in
the reservoir can flow easier. When the injected fluid act as displacement fluid, displacement process
that could happen is miscible displacement or immiscible displacement.
Immiscible displacement is done to produce remaining oil in the reservoir that still remain after
primary recovery by inject the fluids into reservoir. When the injection fluid is water, then the
displacement process is called waterflooding. In Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary [2], waterflooding is a
method of secondary oil recovery where water is injected into the reservoir formation to displace the
residual oil. According to Colombera, L et al [3] and Medici, G. et al [4], the geological properties of
reservoirs are very heterogeneous, and hence permeability significantly spatially vary; could cause some
potential problems associated with waterflood techniques. The potential problems include inefficient
recovery (due to variable permeability) and early water breakthrough that may cause production and
surface processing problems. In Table 1, Kristanto, Dedy et al [5] has summarized the description,
limitation, and challenges in waterflooding process to help us understanding the work principal of
waterflooding easily.

Table 1. Summary of waterflooding [5].

Most widely used post-primary recovery method
Description
Water injected in patterns or along periphery of reservoir
Mechanisms That Improve
Water-drive mechanism
Recovery Efficiency
High oil viscosities
Higher (more adverse) mobility ratios
Limitations
Reservoir heterogeneity such as stratification, permeability contrast, and
fracturing will reduce sweep efficiency
Poor compatibility between injected water and reservoir (it may cause
formation damage)
Challenges
Subsurface fluid control to divert injected water and shut off undesirable
produced fluids

2.2. Displacement Concept of Waterflooding

Displacement concept of waterflooding was presented by Wilhite, 1983 [6]. Currently, there are two
known of oil displacement concept, piston like displacement and leak piston like displacement. Piston
like displacement consider that before the front point, only displacement fluid (water) flows; while after
the front point, only displaced fluid (oil) flows. In other words, all of oil zone will be displaced by water.
This is an ideal condition where you won’t find in any real case.

Figure 1. Leak piston like displacement process [6].

2
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

In the other hand, leak piston like displacement considering before the front point, both displacement
fluid (water) and displaced fluid (oil) flows; while after the front point, only displaced fluid (oil) flows.
In this mechanism, transition zone will be occurred in form of saturation distribution. The transition
zone will move to production well. When the transition zone reach production well, the phenomena
called breakthrough. The both dicpalcement concept are ilustrated in Figure 1.

2.3. Factors Affect the Waterflood Process

Waterflooding management represents a routine of underperforming injection identification and
executing remedial actions to press the interval among technical potential and field actual performance.
An analytical estimation and actual performance are observed to ensure the highest increment upon
optimization of the injection process. In planning waterflooding, it is necessary to pay attention to
appropriate reservoir characteristics so that the waterflooding project can be implemented, among others
(Tarek, Ahmed. 1946) [7] as shown in Table 2:

Table 2. Factors that affect the waterflooding process [5].

Influencing Factors on Injection Effect on Injection Process
Reservoir Geometry This parameter will affect the location of the well
Oil viscosity is an important parameter of fluid properties that influences
Reservoir Fluid Characteristic
the mobility ratio of waterflooding
This parameter affects both technically and economically. The deeper a
Reservoir Depth
reservoir, the higher the injection pressure
Reservoir Heterogeneity Reservoir heterogeneity & continuity is an important parameter in the
& Reservoir Continuity location planning and injection well pattern - production.
Large oil saturation will result in large oil recovery which lead the
Fluid's Saturation
greater the oil saturation at the start of waterflooding
Lithology and The physical properties of rocks that influence the success of
Rock Characteristic waterflooding include porosity, permeability, and reservoir net thickness
Driving mechanism is related recovery factor and sweep efficiency of
Reservoir Drive Mechanism
waterflooding injection

3. Methodology
This paper is submitted with reference to the theme of this ISWEE 2020 Session, 'Challenges on water,
ecology, and environment,' this paper discussed the challenges that happen during the waterflooding
injection not just from technical but also from ecology and environmental point of view. This study
focuses more on explaining some of the challenges that can occur during the injection process at each
stage of operational systems. Method used in this study can be define as follows: First, the challenges
are stated, then the background on each of the waterfloods is given, after it we describe how the different
waterflood systems approached the challenges, and which is the outcome of these different approaches.

4. Result and Discussion

4.1. Technical Problem of Waterflooding & Solution

Bibars [8] and Hussein [9] has explained challenges in every stage of waterflooding such as unpredicted
high-water production followed by a significant reduction of oil production, sand fill, scale deposition,
lateral water intrusion, high operating cost, and new technologies are the challenge in waterflooding
stages. The study carried out by Dadang Rukmana [10] has summarized lesson learnt for a successful
waterflooding implementation in Indonesian oil field. The solution is by optimizing the planning and
the monitoring phase of waterflooding. Technical problems and the solutions were summarized in Table
3 and Table 4. There are two key parameters of successful waterflooding in monitoring phase of
waterflooding. They are Voidage Replacement Ratio (VRR) and gross up of production wells. The
suggested VRR is 1:1, where the injected water volume is equal to liquid production of production wells.

3
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

Gross up of liquid production can improve the oil recovery. The question is, when will we do gross up.
Dadang Rukmana [10] suggested to do gross up in these conditions:
• Current water cut is at the declivous phase of fractional flow curve
• Moveable oil saturation > 5%
• Reservoir pressure still high (> Pb)
• GOR is low

Table 3. (a) Summary of technical problem and solutions in planning phase of waterflooding [5,6,10].
Technical
Caused by Remarks Solution(s)
Problem
Zone with fracture or contrast
Reservoir Choose area with low
permeability will reduce
Heterogeneity heterogeneity reservoir
waterflooding efficiency
High Permeability High permeability zone will Choose area with low
Early
Zone allow water to flow faster permeability
Breakthrough
Poor cement bond cause near Chan Diagnostic Analysis
(High Water
wellbore channeling, which shows no channeling
Production) Poor Cement Bonding
allows water from aquifer
CBL Read < 10 mV
flows into production well
Unfavourable Oil with high viscosity will
Oil viscosity < 20 cp
Mobility Ratio cause fingering
In third phase, displacement
Waterflooding was process no longer occurs and Waterflooding Must be Done
Done in the 3rd Phase oil recovery of the phase is in the 1st - 2nd Phase
low
Late Peak If the injection done when the
Production reservoir pressure is less than
Pressure Reservoir < the bubble point pressure, the Injection at Reservoir
Pb gas will be produced first and Pressure > Pb
then the water displaced the
remaining moveable oil
Solid content, oil content, and
Incompatible Water microbial content are the Water Compatibility Test
Injection main factor that cause pore (Table 4.)
Pore Plugging
plugging
Low Permeability Low permeability zone can k > 100 mD with population >
Zone cause pore plugging 50%

Table 3. (b).
Technical Problem Caused by Remarks Solution(s)
For Pilot Project: ΔRF
Low Remaining Waterflooding will success
Moveable > 10%
Moveable Oil in if the remaining moveable
For Full Field Project: ΔRF
Pattern Area oil in pattern area is high
Moveable > 20%
If the injection done when
Low Incremental Oil the reservoir pressure is
(Poor Displacement less than the bubble point
Pressure Injection at Reservoir Pressure >
dan Volumetric pressure, the gas will be
Reservoir < Pb Pb
Efficiency) produced first and then the
water displaced the
remaining moveable oil
Waterflooding In third phase,
Waterflooding Must be Done in
was Done in the displacement process no
the 1st - 2nd Phase
3rd Phase longer occurs and oil

4
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

recovery of the phase is

low
Poor connectivity means
Poor Pattern Choose area with good reservoir
no breakthrough and no oil
Connectivity connectivity
recovery
Strong Water Strong Water Drive can
Weak Water Drive/Depletion
Drive cause injected water dilute
Drive/Gas Cap Drive
Mechanism to the aquifer
Poor cement bond cause Chan Diagnostic Analysis shows
Poor Cement near wellbore channeling, no channeling
Bonding which allows the injected
CBL Read < 10 mV
water flow into aquifer

Table 4. Water compatibility requirements for waterflooding [9,10].

Parameter Limitation
Hard Grain Concentration < 1 ppm
Iron Concentration < 0.1 ppm
Oxygen 0 – 0.01 ppm (0 ppm is more recommended)
Oil content < 1 ppm
< 1 ppm (recommended)
Solid Content
< 5 ppm (allowable)
Alkalinity < 2,000 ppm
Silicates 1/3 times Alkalinity
RPI (Relative Plugging Index) <3
Microbial Content < 103 cell/mL
pH 7 - 12
Turbidity < 10 NTU
Scaling Index 0
Corrosion Rates < 2 mpy

4.2. Environment Aspect of Waterflood

4.2.1. Environment aspect

The waterflood process involve the injection of water into the well. Water used from injection wells
commonly from organic and inorganic materials that formed naturally in reservoirs. This is an advantage
to maximize oil production and limit any invasion of barrier material into the pay zone. Water produced
from a reservoir to be used for the injection will generally be in the form of recycling for use in
subsequent injections, this is aimed at reducing costs incurred by the operator. Therefore, Geraci M et.al
[11], Corden C et al [12], Love, T et al [13], and Bennion D.B. et al [14] has explained that the
environment should be considered because the water used to inject is not always compatible with the
ecological and environmental levels of the surrounding area.
From an environmental perspective, waterflood still has a minimal impact on the environment. This
happens because the fact is that the waterflood process has done a pretty good process considering this
technique is an old technique and of course various developments have been made in its operation to
maximize injection performance with minimal risk. Based on the research carried out in “The
Environmental Risks and Oversight of Enhanced Oil Recovery in the United States”, the primary
environmental impacts of waterflooding (beyond corrosion and leakage risks that are present in all EOR
techniques) are related to the large amounts of produced water used and generated by the process, which
requires treatment and management. This quantity of water presents increased opportunities for
contamination, especially at the surface [15].

5
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

Meanwhile, Dadang Rukmana [10], in his book written regarding the classification of injection water
quality based on the API spec which can be seen in the Table 4. The quality of injection water is an
important component that can affect the success of the injection operation, but it is also an important
consideration related to the environmental impact around the well.

4.2.2. Challenges and Development of Waterflood Technology

Although waterflooding now is one of the methods to maximize the production rate, but due to the
limitations and drawbacks of waterflood in some cases, there should be an advanced technique to
overcome the limitations. Below (Table 5) would be a brief summarize for several advanced
technologies in waterflooding injection, as follows:

Table 5. Advanced technologies in waterflooding injection [8,9,16].

Development Technology
Remarks
in Waterflooding
This injection process is by injecting water through a gas cap along
Gas Cap Water injection with a gas injection well to build a wall of water which will
separate the gas cap from the oil column

On this study, it's proven that by control the injection rates, it can
Heavy Oil Waterflooding make waterflooding injection be as viable non-thermal EOR, even
it can be applied in fields with high oil viscosity

Using of coiled pipeline to minimize the cost, easy installation, and

Coiled Pipeline
promising pipe capabilities to inject water into produced well
Satellite waterflooding is unique methods which it can inject water
Satellite Waterflood into small reservoirs to minimize the risk in the marginal field nor
be used as a pilot project prior to full scales in the field
Advanced, or smart waterflooding is a term denoting directed
Smart Waterflooding/
alteration of the ionic composition of the injected brine in order to
Low Salinity WF (LSWF)
achieve a better oil recovery, in particular, the low salinity flooding
WAG injection is a method that combines the effect of the
advantages of water and gas flooding. Both microscopic oil
Water Alternating Gas (WAG) injection
displacement and sweep efficiency can be improved by WAG
implementation (Surguchev et al. 1992)

Besides, the challenges of waterflooding can also come from surface treatment, here are some
advanced techniques to solve the problems that are related to surface treatment, following examples as
shown in Table 6:

Table 6. Solutions regarding in waterflooding injection process [8,9].

Innovative Solution
Remarks
in Injection Planning
Transfer the water from the source water zone to the oil zone which has been
Injection Source
already depleted by modifying the completion of the existing water injection
and Vertical Transfer Well
into a vertical shape or can be called "vertical transfer well"
Using of the crosslinked polymers into the injection water to be more viable
Gel Conformance
workover toll for the enhancement of reservoir performance during injection
Injection water treatment technique to reduce the H2S contains to prevent
Reservoir souring
corrosion
Environment Protection An advanced method to reduce the oily waste water to achieve more
from Oily Waste Water environmental based enhanced oil recovery by waterflood

6
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

5. Conclusion
Waterflooding project must consider the three essential factors: engineering, experience, and economics.
These factors must go through a comprehensive engineering study and evaluation before the project is
undertaken. Waterflooding management represents a routine of underperforming injection identification
and executing remedial actions to close the gap between technical potential and actual performance. An
analytical estimation and actual performance are observed to ensure the highest increment upon
optimization of the injection process.
Successful waterflood management can efficiently lead to maximize the overall sweep efficiency
also gain more production by maintaining the reservoir pressure above the fluid's level, which allows
for more production rate levels. This paper suggests the application of a predictive means of waterflood
management as a possible means of evaluating and controlling the problems during injection looked
from the technical, economic, and environmental aspect

Acknowledgement
Through this paper, the authors would give an appreciation and thanks to all stakeholders from academic
instructor in university and others, which have supported this paper.

References
[1] Naugolnov et al 2018 Cost-Engineering Waterflooding Management Methods SPE-191580-
18RPTC-MS, Published by Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE)
[2] Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary 2020 Waterflood [accessed at August 6, 2020 at 10:00 p.m
[3] Colombera L et al 2019 The Geometry of Fluvial Channel Bodies: Empirical Characterization and
Implications for Object-based Models of The Subsurface AAPG Bulletin 103 (4) 905-929
[4] Medici G et al 2019 Sedimentary Flow Heterogeneities in The Triassic U Sherwood Sandstone
Group: Insight for Hydrocarbon Exploration Geological Journal 54 (3) 1361-78
[5] Kristanto Dedy et al 2020 Pengurasan Minyak Tahap Lanjut (Pohon Cahaya, Yogyakarta)
[6] Willhite G P 1986 Waterflooding, Vol. 3 (Richardson, Texas: Textbook Series, SPE)
[7] Ahmed T 2010 Reservoir Engineering Handbook, Fourth Edition (Gulf Professional Publishing)
[8] Bibars O A, Hanafy H H 2005 Waterflood Strategy – Challenges and Innovations”, SPE paper
88744, the International Petrole um Technology Conference (IPTC) (Doha, Qatar)
[9] Hussein H 2013 Egypt’s Waterflood Strategy Changes, Challenges, and Innovations Offshore
Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition on Raverna (Italy, 2013)
[10] Rukmana D et al 2020 Technical Guidelines Waterflood (Secondary Recovery) (IOGI SKK Migas,
Jakarta)
[11] Geraci M et al 2017 The Environmental Risks and Oversight of Enhanced Oil Recovery in the
United States (Clean Water Action/Clean Water Fund, USA)
[12] Corden C et al 2016 Study on the Assessment and Management of Environmental Impacts and Risks
from Exploration and Production of Hydrocarbons – Final Report (Amec Foster Wheeler
Environment & Infrastructur UK Ltd)
[13] Love T et al 1998 Problem Diagnosis, Treatment Design, and Implementation Process Improves
Waterflood Conformance SPE Paper 49201 (New Orleans, USA)
[14] Bennion D B et al 1996 Injection Water Quality- A Key Factor to Successful Waterflooding Volume
37 No. 6 (Hycal Energy Research Laboratories Ltd.)
[15] Muggeridge A et al 2012 Recovery Rates, Enhanced Oil Recovery and Technological Limits (Royal
Society Publishing) A372:20120320

7
2020 International Symposium on Water, Ecology and Environment IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 690 (2021) 012037 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/690/1/012037

[16] Appah D 2000 Field Application of a Method for Waterflooding Journal of Scientific & Industrial
Research 59