Christ the King College

GRADUATE SCHOOL
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

EDUCATION 206 – Principles and Theories of Educational Management

MODULE: #4

CHAPTER 4 – MAKING DECISIONS

1. Illustrate and Cite an example how decisions are made in an organizational setting.
- Decision making refers to making choices among alternative courses of action—which may also
include inaction. While it can be argued that management is decision making, half of the decisions made by
managers within organizations ultimately fail. Therefore, increasing effectiveness in decision making is an
important part of maximizing your effectiveness at work.
- Despite the far-reaching nature of the decisions in the previous example, not all decisions have
major consequences or even require a lot of thought. For example, before you come to class, you make
simple and habitual decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, and which route to take as you go to and
from home and school. You probably do not spend much time on these mundane decisions. These types of
straightforward decisions are termed programmed decisions, or decisions that occur frequently enough that
we develop an automated response to them. The automated response we use to make these decisions is
called the decision rule. For example, many restaurants face customer complaints as a routine part of doing
business. Because complaints are a recurring problem, responding to them may become a programmed
decision. The restaurant might enact a policy stating that every time they receive a valid customer
complaint, the customer should receive a free dessert, which represents a decision rule.

2. What are the barriers to effective decision making?

 Lack of knowledge about bias and decision-making in organisations
-Many in leadership roles are aware, albeit to varying degrees, that our beliefs and values affect our
decision-making ability. Therefore, the door to bias is open, and there are hundreds of different biases that
come into play which affect our decisions further, some of which are highlighted below. It is important for
leaders and their organisations to be aware of how such bias affects how we interpret information. Take a
moment to think of the last decision you made. Then consider the following biases and how each may have
affected your decision making.
 Poor culture of challenging decision making
-To improve decision-making, organizations need to develop a culture where people feel safe raising
concerns and acting on errors. They must also be transparent, which means sharing information and taking a
diagnostic approach to identify patterns of what is going wrong and how to improve, such as a survey. An
open and transparent culture encourages individual learning and development, and also allows groups to be
dynamic and creative. Forums and committees should be set up and led in a way that encourages the
contribution of individual's ideas and views that may counter confirmation bias and groupthink. This leads
to my final point of diversity of thought.
 Diversity of thought
- Here are some facts from a piece of Forbes research in 2017 on business decisions making.
Teams outperform individual decision-makers 66% of the time
All-male teams make better business decisions than individuals 58% of the time
Gender diverse teams outperform individuals 73% of the time
Finally, gender diverse teams that include a wide range of ages and different geographic
locations make better business decisions 87% of the time.
- The point here is that decisive leadership involves diversified input from your team. The more
diverse your decision making group is, the more effective the decision.
 Your new focus for decision making
- To summarise, the three things you can do to improve your decisive leadership is to up skill
around your own biases, encourage and open and transparent culture to challenge decisions in a positive
 way, and most of all, to increase the diversity of thought, particularly on key business decisions.

3. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of making decision:

a.) individually - Individuals have a tendency to think and question before performing. This is fruitful in
analysis and forecasting of individual’s behaviour. Individual decision making has certain pros and cons,
few of which are mentioned below:
Pros of Individual Decision Making
 An individual generally makes prompt decisions. While a group is dominated by various people,
making decision-making very time consuming. Moreover assembling group members consumes lot of
time.
 Individuals do not escape responsibilities. They are accountable for their acts and performance. While in
a group it is not easy to hold any one person accountable for a wrong decision.
 Individual decision making saves time, money and energy as individuals make prompt and logical
decisions generally. While group decision making involves lot of time, money and energy.
 Individual decisions are more focused and rational as compared to group.
Cons of Individual Decision Making
 A group has potential of collecting more and full information compared to an individual while making
decisions.
 An individual while making any decision uses his own intuition and views. While a group has many
members, so many views and many approaches and hence better decision making.
 A group discovers hidden talent and core competency of employees of an organization.
 An individual will not take into consideration every members interest. While a group will take into
account interest of all members of an organization.

b.) group - “Two heads are better than one.” “The more the merrier.”
Advantages of Group Decision Making:
1. Diversity in opinions: Well, as a group has a lot of members and they as individuals come from
different backgrounds so ultimately they have unique and different ideas and opinions regarding the
matter at the hand. All the ideas may be as unique and better in comparison to individual decision
making. With the help of the number of ideas, you can create a large number of alternatives and at the
end finally can come to a successful conclusion.
2. Participation and interest of the individuals: When a person dedicated and interested it promotes
more innovative ideas and plans which make decisions promising. When interested people share their
ideas the group discussion more actively participates and effective. The active members may or may not
be the expert in that particular topic but their opinion still matters because of the participation and
dedication shown.
3. Positive and understanding members: The members in the group must have an understanding of
nature because all members have to accept the decision no matter what the quality may be as the
decision affects in the favor of the group as a whole. Acceptance of the suggestion and opinions bring
motivation and eagerness to the participants within the group, thus generates a quality decision.
4. The collective contribution of ideas: The group discussion helps in removing the barrier of monopoly
in the decision-making process. At times if a decision happens by a single individual it is unreliable.
Hence with the help of having a collective idea choose the factor of unreliability removed. A decision
by a single person can be partial and mainly works in his favor so collective decision making is
important because it can favor all the people in the organization.
5. Team building: Active participation from all the individuals of the group helps in building the morale
of the team and builds a healthy and coordinative relationship among the members of the team of the
particular group. As this happens the members develop certain skills of the decision-making process
which benefits the group members and the group as a whole.
6. Democratic decision making: The group decision-making process is more of collective participation
so it is, in turn, democratic in comparison to the individual decision making which is more autocratic.
When the decision is democratic, it is more easily perceivable and acceptable and in tune with society,
we live in. Thus it is always preferable that the discussion shared with more than the two individuals.
7. Abundant information: When a group is sharing their ideas and opinions it passes more information
 and some ideas compare to the individual decision-makers who will have limited ideas confined to his
limited knowledge only. So group decision making or group discussion is far more of an advantage and
beneficial in making a clear and accurate or definite decision that will affect the result of the plan.
8. Expert opinions: The information from the expert is to the point and the deliverance of the ideas
provides by them is more quality assurance instead of general opinions as the expert might have some
background knowledge or experience regarding the matter discussed presently. For this, an expert might
already involve in the group or he calls from outside to advise the decision that is to make.
9. Voting System: Group discussion is a process where a large number of ideas are put forth in front of
the group and a decision needs to make which will come in favor of both the individual and the firm.
For this verdict to be decided, voting is used to come to a common outcome acceptable by all the
members. One member is given one vote, and the opinion which receives the most votes is chosen as it
is in favor of the functioning and working of the firm leading to its development.
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making:
1. Consumption of Time: The Group discussion making techniques often consume and take more time to
come to a conclusion which is accepted by each individual in the group as every individual in the group
has their own unique and innovative ideas which result in having too many options in consideration.
The bigger the size of the group, the larger is the time consumed by them. Time consumption always
arises when it comes to group discussion.
2. Different ideas and opinions: In the group discussion, all the participants involved have their ideas
which are their favorites, in turn, protecting their interest. This brings disparities among the members in
the group which is not very healthy leading to personal conflicts among them. This in turn obstacles in
the decision-making process thus reducing the efficiency as well as quality in deciding as a whole by the
group.
3. Being silent in disagreement: At times when the decision process in groups is being carried out, some
members agree in favor of a certain decision just for agreeing or following the norms agreement. An
individual may agree to the point by not standing up a firm of his opinion which may contradict the
opposite persons’ opinion. This discourages the person to make quality ideas and opinions and standing
up firm to his decision.
4. Social Pressures: When an individual of the group remains silent at the time of the decision-making
process, one of the reasons may be the social pressures in that particular environment. Thus this leads to
the failure of being a good member. The social pressure of the group can affect the individual’s mindset
as they may be very strong which can affect and change certain traits and qualities of the individual, in
turn, changing his behavior entirely which affects the decision.
5. Priorities on certain ideas: Some ideas are presented within the group. At times the members of the
group may only focus on a certain number of ideas, one or two alternatives only and they may not focus
or come up with other ideas that may benefit their group and the individuals that it represents. Thus it
causes all the members of the group to limit their choices and stuck to only a few ideas.
6. Against the goals of the organization: The group decision-making process carries out in the firm in
terms to accomplish the goals and objectives of the organization. But at times the decisions that exercise
and carry out at the time of group discussion not always carried out in terms to accomplish the goals and
objectives of the firm. When the goals of the individuals do not agree with the goals of the group as a
whole this situation arises which will lead to disrupting the work behavior of the organization and not
reach the goals and objectives of the firm quickly.
7. Uncertainty in the risk-bearing factor: When the decisions are made by the group, the factor of risk-
bearing will always arise. So at times, the group may opt for proceeding towards taking less risk or
towards taking more risk for the group as a whole. When a firm opts for taking a greater risk it may
yield in getting a higher and greater reward after the objective has been met. But to achieve success in
the firm, some kind of risk needs to be undertaken by the group.
8. Avoiding certain important decisions: When the decision-making process hold in the group some
decisions give more or are high in priority and some decisions are of low priority in the eyes of the
members of the group. So sometimes certain high priority tasks replaced with low priority tasks. This
method of doing so is known as procrastination, the members of the group avoid such tasks which are
high in priority as they do not study them or find alternate solutions to replace them. Don’t discuss them
but instead replace them with tasks of less importance at that moment.
 9. Rushing into decision making: At certain times, there might be a rush that a decision needs to be
carried out by the group at that instant as it is a hurry. So at times when the group comes to announcing
a decision at this moment, the decision rushed into making not thinking about the future consequences
that may arise for the members of the group and the firm. The consequences which may be unfavorable
not give enough importance by the members of the group while the decision-making process carries out.
10. Responsibility denied by the leader: In every group, a leader appointed by the members of the group
who is responsible enough to see whether everything is happenings in an orderly manner. Before
carrying out a decision the leader appoints certain committees to provide help. When there is not enough
time to carry out a decision unanimously and there is a hurry to implement a decision then the
responsibility of future happenings after the decision has been put into effect is given to the committee
by the team leader leading to an irresponsible attitude and behavior.
11. Overuse of Authority: The group discussion concept considers the working of many individuals as a
whole in harmony and unity to reach the goals and objectives of the Organization. But at times to get
their opinion influence by others, certain Members of the group overuse their authority and dominate
the group and their Individuals. In doing so some of the members start maintaining a distance from the
group which leads to being less involved in the group activities and decision-making process thus
leading to losing the concept of a group.
12. Highly Expensive: The concept of group discussion is two or more people carry out and formulate
decisions in favor of the firm. So this concept can be expensive for money, time, man-hours and energy.
To this, it also considers that if the group as a whole gets a large contribution then it knows that the
individual contribution of each member is less.
13. Forming of Groups: In a large group as a whole, at times a certain smaller number of groups also
form with a few members as they think they are better and different from others. This concept is known
as ‘groupism’ which itself is a very negative comment. So with this, a large number of informal or
smaller groups form not considering the one large group as a whole which leads to negative comments
and resentment towards other people inside as well as outside the group harming the firm. Group
discussion is effective and preferred when there is a big matter at hand where views and opinions from a
different individual can equally contribute to a result of a successful decision.

4. Under what conditions can the following types of decisions be applicable:

a.) Programmed decision- Programmed decisions are those that are repeated over time and for which an
existing set of rules can be developed to guide the process. These decisions might simple, or they could be
fairly complex, but the criteria that go into making the decision are all known or can at least be estimated
with a reasonable degree of accuracy. For example, deciding how many raw materials to order should be a
programmed decision based on anticipated production, existing stock, and anticipated length of time for the
delivery of the final product. As another example, consider a retail store manager developing the weekly
work schedule for part-time employees. The manager must consider how busy the store is likely to be,
taking into account seasonal fluctuations in business. Then, she must consider the availability of the
workers by taking into account requests for vacation and for other obligations that employees might have
(such as school). Establishing the schedule might be complex, but it is still a programmed decision: it is
made on a regular basis based on well-understood criteria, so structure can be applied to the process. For
programmed decisions, managers often develop heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to help reach a decision. For
example, the retail store manager may not know how busy the store will be the week of a big sale, but
might routinely increase staff by 30% every time there is a big sale (because this has been fairly effective in
the past). Heuristics are efficient—they save time for the decision maker by generating an adequate solution
quickly. Heuristics don’t necessarily yield the optimal solution—deeper cognitive processing may be
required for that. However, they generally yield a good solution. Heuristics are often used for programmed
decisions, because experience in making the decision over and over helps the decision maker know what to
expect and how to react. Programmed decision-making can also be taught fairly easily to another person.
The rules and criteria, and how they relate to outcomes, can be clearly laid out so that a good decision can
be reached by the new decision maker. Programmed decisions are also sometimes referred to as routine or
low-involvement decisions because they don’t require in-depth mental processing to reach a decision.

b.) Non-programmed decision- In contrast, nonprogrammed decisions are novel, unstructured decisions that
 are generally based on criteria that are not well-defined. With nonprogrammed decisions, information is
more likely to be ambiguous or incomplete, and the decision maker may need to exercise some thoughtful
judgment and creative thinking to reach a good solution. These are also sometimes referred to as nonroutine
decisions or as high-involvement decisions because they require greater involvement and thought on the
part of the decision maker. For example, consider a manager trying to decide whether or not to adopt a new
technology. There will always be unknowns in situations of this nature. Will the new technology really be
better than the existing technology? Will it become widely accepted over time, or will some other
technology become the standard? The best the manager can do in this situation is to gather as much relevant
information as possible and make an educated guess as to whether the new technology will be worthwhile.
Clearly, nonprogrammed decisions present the greater challenge.

5. From a school setting, cite an example for each of the following techniques on how to make better
decisions. Select three (3) only
5.1 Be Creative - Creativity is a valuable skill, and there are common strategies teachers can use to help
students develop it.  Set up learning activities that allow students to explore their creativity in
relevant, interesting, and worthwhile ways. Classroom example: A kindergarten class creates a new
illustrated book each week that celebrates a different member of the class or an adult at the school. Each
book is full of pages drawn by each student. They have the full liberty of depicting what the person likes
and how they perceive him or her.
5.2 Increase Your Knowledge – Increase knowledge helps you take new information. You will see the
situation in a broader sense, thus helping to formulate an innovative approach and the decision will be
reasonable.
5.3 Use Your Intuition
5.4 Don’t Overstress the Finality of Your Decision
5.5 Make Sure the Timing is Right – If it’s too soon, no one understands. If it’s too late, everyone’s
forgotten. In making decision, especially considered vital to the orientation it must be situation-oriented so
it will sink in, given its justifiable and time-related circumstances.

6. Discuss Figure 4.2 in page 104 by recalling an experience of a school-based problem (administrative) which
you had in your school. Solve or do an analysis of that problem by following the seven steps presented in
the figure.

7. Below is a case of a school administration nature. Answer the given questions.

Case Digest: - IS THERE A NURSE IN THE HOUSE? –
The population of Summerset is growing at a very rapid pace, and new housing developments are continuously being
built to target moderate-to-high income families. The community has become a close partner with the school district
and participates in annual summit meetings where specific goals are established for the school district. Furthermore,
community members have actively supported individual schools with funding initiatives and volunteer programs.

Challenger School District is located in the heart of this community and serves approximately 50,000 students.
Although 70% of the school district's population is Hispanic, Discovery High School is situated in the urban section
of Summerset and reflects an ethnically balanced population. The school provides educational services to a
population of 35% Hispanic, 30% Caucasian, 20% Filipino, 10% African-American, and 5% Asian students. With an
enrollment of 1,900 students, the school provides programs to students in grades nine through twelve. Additionally, it
provides support to students with special needs including those who qualify for programs such as Gifted and
Talented, Limited English Proficient and Special Education.

Discovery High School has a staff of 120 teachers, three assistant principals, five counselors, two part-time campus
security stag an itinerant psychologist and the usual classified support staff. The school is well recognized in the
community because of the faculty's commitment toward interdisciplinary teaching. Students have the opportunity to
emphasize their studies in specific areas of interests such as fine arts, multi-media, technology, and engineering.

School activities and events are widely featured in the two local newspapers as well as being highlighted on the
county's television stations. School Board members visit the site frequently and at least three of them are currently
running for City Council. The School Board members have been previously divided by many issues including hiring
personnel, transferring employees, managing racial conflicts and funding programs. The superintendent is in his
second year and has worked previously as the associate superintendent for the same district for a period of four years.
Special interest groups have had strong impact in the selection of School Board members and superintendents. Some
of these groups include: (1) the Latino Coalition, (2) Parent Advocacy Group (4) 504/Disability Act Committee, and
(3) the Good Old Boys Monday Night Group.

For this case, assume that you are one of the assistant principals at Discovery High School.

THE PROBLEM The school principal and both of your colleagues, who are also assistant principals, have left the
school for four days to attend a state conference. As he will be absent, the principal has asked you to help with a
parent complaint issued by Mrs. Carlton. She has two sons enrolled at your school who have cerebral palsy and have
been attending Discovery High School for the last two years. They are both excellent students enrolled in honors
classes and mainstreamed into other regular education classes. Due to their health needs, both of Mrs. Carlton's sons
have nurses assigned to them 24 hours a day. During school hours, registered nurses are provided and paid for by the
school district.

Mrs. Carlton has issued several verbal complaints to the principal and to the Special Education Program Specialist
about one of the nurses, Mrs. Adams, who she says has problems relating to one of her sons, John. She has
complained for example, that Mrs. Adams is constantly late in the morning. She has been assigned to accompany
John on the school bus. On several occasions, the bus has left with John but without Mrs. Adams because she hadn't
arrived on time. Mrs. Carlton is concerned because even though the other nurse is on the bus, there have been times
when both boys needed to have special medical attention concurrently. In the past, some of the situations have been
so severe that they have been described as medical emergencies.

A few months ago, Mrs. Carlton issued a written complaint requesting the removal of the nurse, Mrs. Adams. The
parents, Mrs. Adams and the principal met to discuss their differences, and an agreement was reached to transfer Mrs.
Adams to a different assignment in the district. In the meantime, Mrs. Carlton decided to keep John at home until the
school district could find a new nurse for John. The district informed Mrs. Carlton that at least an eight week period
of time would be required to allow for fingerprinting and other protocols to take place for another nurse to take Mrs.
Adam's place.

As the assistant principal, you locate a teacher who is willing to go to John's home to work with him in the
afternoons. You suggest to the Special Education Specialist that she contact a temporary job agency that has nurses
for placement who have already gone through the fmgerprinting process. She reports back to you that she has located
three nurses from the agency who could take the job. She also informs you the district's Human Resources
Department director has agreed to hire one of the three nurses. Mrs. Carlton is informed of this situation and she is
delighted that her son will be able to start school shortly.

On Wednesday of the same week, the Director of Classified Personnel contacts you by phone and informs you that he
has thought about the situation and now refuses to accept for employment purposes, a nurse from the agency. When
you request that he call the parent with his change of heart, he refuses and makes it clear that it is your job to contact
the parents. You do so, and of course Mrs. Carlton is very upset. She proceeds to tell you that she intends to attend the
School Board meeting on Thursday along with her two sons, a special education advocate, and a local TV news
channel reporter.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1. What steps would you take immediately?
- Given the situation, I will tell my immediate superior the eventualities. Probably I will try to get in touch with
Mrs. Carlton and explain to her the circumstances. Proper communication must establish between two parties.
2. What do you foresee will happen in the board meeting?
- During the board meeting, Mrs. Carlton will raise her concern and as I, being at the frontline perhaps will be
asked about the situation.
3. When it comes down to placing the blame on someone, whom will it be?
- Within the organization, I believe there is a chain of command and decision must have a blessing by the
immediate superior and orders must backed with memorandum signed by him. In this case, this goes down to the
principal as the head of the school. But, it will be a shared burden given the fact the name of the school and the
district will be on the line.
4. What would you have done differently?
- The intent is for the betterment of the student. With the proper coordination and perhaps I might contract the
parents regarding the plan so that they will understand and they are involved in the process. I will asked the
 director of classified personnel the reason for the enlightenment regarding the scenario.
5. What is the best solution for John's well being?
- For John’s well-being, continue what his doing. Study, enroll in Honor’s Classes and mainstreamed to other
regular classes. Treat him as a normal person but with a caution don’t pity him for him to be strong because
sometimes if you show it, he may feel pathetic may affect him.
6. Discuss the pros and cons of mainstreaming students like John and his brother. What specific legal information
would you seek?
- Mainstreaming John and his brother will have a positive impact because they will feel normal people and the
feeling of pride that they can do it. They can stand it will help them to explore life, not only academically but to
their peers and to the normal environment. However, given their situation, every action must take caution. They
have their limits, and perhaps some activities in class need adjustments.
7. What could be the basis for the decision of the Director of Classified Personnel?
- Perhaps the director of classified personnel thought for the fact that hiring process comes immediately aside
from fingerprinting, other protocols of the school must be done and the fact that it comes from a temporary job
agency. This matter need a thorough discussion.
8. Whom is he looking after?
- He is safeguarding the schools and the students.
9. How would you safeguard your position?
- I will do my job but hard work and passion to it when unfortunate happens, be responsible and believe in
yourself, trust the process.
10. Would your reputation be affected by this case?
- In my mind, in my thoughts I did my job and my intent is for the welfare of the students. Just, maybe a flaw on
the eye of the parents.

Submission: June 30, 2021

Prepare for Midterm Exam on same date -June 30, 2021