INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND Anthropology 

POLITICS
American Anthropological Association simply defines
Anthropology as the study of what makes us human. It
is the systematic study of the biological, cultural, and
Culture and Society  social aspects of man. It is derived from the two Greek
Culture is generally understood as a general concept that words, Anthropos, which means “Man” and Logos,
pertains to beliefs and practices, customs, and traditions, which means “Study.” Anthropology is sub-divided into
as well as all other institutions and achievements of four main fields namely Archeology, Biological
people belonging to a group. Culture defines and gives Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, and Linguistic
meaning to how society functions. In this lesson, you Anthropology. Archeology mainly focuses on studying
will be introduced to the concept of culture and society. human culture by analyzing objects produced by
To learn more about this concept and its relationship humans. Archeologists study remains of plants, animals,
with society, kindly watch the educational video and soil from early people who lived to understand their
published in Canvas.  way of life. They provide an explanation of the
differences and similarities in human society across
Social Science and its difference to Natural Science space and time. Biological Anthropology, on the other
and other disciplines  hand, examines how culture and biology work together
to shape human lives. It aims to study how humans
The sociologist William Dilthey famously argued the evolved from other animals as well as their adaptation to
distinction between natural science different environments.
or Naturwissenschaften and social science
or Geisteswissenchaften. Natural science, according Cultural or Socio-cultural Anthropology focuses
to Lidoux (2002), is a “discipline that deals [s] only with on understanding how people in different places live,
natural events (i.e. independent and dependent variables understand, and give meaning to the world around
in nature) using scientific methods. According them. It covers studying rules made by communities,
to Büchel (1992), the birth of natural science is marked ways of interactions, behaviors, and all other aspects of
by changing world views introduced by Renaissance culture. Lastly, Linguistic Anthropology studies the
thinkers who questioned earlier explanations about the many ways of people to communicate. It puts emphasis
world and turned to more systematic methods of on the importance of language and
investigation. Early leaders of this Scientific communication in shaping identity, creating meanings,
Revolution included Copernicus and Galileo who were and changes in society.  
concerned with problems from disciplines including
astronomy and physics, among others.   Sociology 

On the other hand, the disciplines of social sciences are Sociology is defined by Anthony Giddens as “the study
viewed as those that deal with “human society, societal of human social life, groups, and society.” In this
groups, individuals in their relationships with others or academic discipline, it provides a deeper assessment of
institutions of societies and material goods as an individual or group behavior, as well as social
expression of human cohabitation.” Social science is an phenomena. In sociology, sociologists examine the
umbrella terminology that pertains to any discipline of dynamics of different parts of societies such as
science that studies human behavior in its social and institutions, communities, populations, and gender,
cultural aspects (Nisbet, n.d.) As late as the 19th century, racial, and age groups (Form & Faris, n.d.). Some of the
through the sociological research of Emile Durkheim sub-fields in Sociology are Political Sociology, Urban
and Auguste Comte marked the influence of social Sociology, and Sociology of Gender. Political
science as a perennial field of inquiry. The identification Sociology provides sociological analysis on power
of branches in social sciences varies from one author to relations as well as various institutions in society such as
another. However, the most prominent academic the government, civil society, family among
disciplines in the social sciences which will be utilized to others. Urban Sociology is a sociological study of cities
examine culture, society, and politics are the following: or metropolitan areas—the life and interaction of people
(1) Anthropology; (2) Sociology; and (3) —to understand the structures, processes, changes, and
Political Science. To learn more aboout the difference problems that would help in effective urban planning
between Social Science, Natural Science, and other and policymaking. Sociology of Gender, on the other
disciplines, kindly watch the learning material uploaded hand, examines how society perceives masculinity and
in Canvas.  femininity and how it influences gender roles, identity,
social dynamics, and practices. 
 Political Science  
Social stratification 
Political Sciences is the systematic study of politics, stratification  Interest groups 
which Andrew Heywood describes as “the activity Race and
through which people make, preserve, and amend the Sex, gender, and ethnicity  Elections 
general rules under which they live.” It focuses on the culture 
Social Legislatives,
fundamental values of equality, freedom, and
Associations and institutions  executives,
justice. Traditionally, it is a study of government affairs
interest groups  judiciaries 
and its organs but according to Michael Roskin (n.d.) the (families,
contemporary discipline of Political Science deals with Religion  religion, Political economy 
the broader field of study that includes societal, cultural, education,
and psychological factors that affect political relations in The arts  government)  International
all level from state to personal level. Some of the fields relations 
in Political Sciences include International Cultural change  Social change 
Relations, Public Policy, and Comparative Politics.
International Relations is the study of relations among
States, international institutions, and certain subnational Source: Ember,
entities i.e. political parties, civil society, and Ember & Macionis (2010, Roskin et. al
government agencies (Pfaltzgraff & McClelland, Peregrine (2002, p. vii)  (2014) 
n.d.). Public policy explores the relationship between pp. iii.iv) 
political processes and policy outcomes. Lastly,
Comparative Politics is a discipline in Political Science  Several key thinkers have shaped the development of
that involved cross-national and area studies approach as social science as a field: 
well as a comparative method to explore and analyze
politics within and between countries. It studies political 1. Georg Simmel– a German sociologist who
institutions, behaviors, power relations, among others.  characterized the modern period as the
“tragedy of culture.” Key concepts:
dialectical method in sociology. 
2. Max Weber- the pioneer of Interpretive
Sociology. Key concepts: subjective
understanding, direct observational
understanding, explanatory understanding.  
3. Emile Durkheim– the pioneer of
Functionalism in Sociology. Key concepts:
social facts, social solidarity, division of
labor, social integration. 
4. Karl Marx– considered as the Father of
Scientific Socialism. Key concepts:
capitalism, petit bourgeoisie, the proletariat,
Marxism. 
Let us now look at the correlations of these three 5. Franz Boas– Father of American
disciplines (Nuncio, et. al, 2016):  Anthropology. Key concepts: a scientific
method for human cultures and societies. 
6. Auguste Comte– often regarded as the
Anthropology  Sociology  Political Science  Father of Sociology who coined the term
“sociology.” Key concepts: social statics
Genetics and Culture, society  Ideologies  and social dynamics.
evolution 
Socialization  States and (UNIT II Culture and Society)
Cultural constitutions 
Variations  Groups & LESSON 1
organizations  Regimes and
Concept of culture  political culture  BECOMING A MEMBER OF A SOCIETY
Social
Communication inequality  Political Personality and character are molded, shaped, and
and language  communication  reshaped by the society where we live. These societies
Gender differ in nature. There are societies that are democratic,
while others are authoritarian. Being situated in one of she is immersed (Ariola, 2016). It is in this process
these societies, learning and acquiring skills, values, and where the individual learns a culture through experience
culture of the place is an inevitable process. One starts to and observation. While socialization refers to the general
perceive himself in relation to others. This is the process process of acquiring culture, anthropologists use the
of self-realization and self-concept development.  term enculturation for the process of being socialized to
a particular culture. 
The Social Process
Thus, the process of socialization and enculturation are
important elements of the formation of one’s identity.
According to Dr. Mariano Ariola (2012), the social
Now that we have learned the significance of
process is a long and complicated way of being inducted
socialization and enculturation, let us take a look at their
into a group whereby the individual interacts and learns
role in the process of one’s identity formation. 
the physical, intellectual and social skills, values, and
culture of the society where he is a member. It begins at Identity Formation 
birth and continues throughout life.  
According to the great political philosopher John Locke,
In this process, an individual relates himself to people. human beings are born into this world in the state
These people can either be his parents, friends, of “tabula rasa” or an empty slate. One is a blank
neighbors, teachers, political or religious leaders of his canvass. Human infants are born without any culture,
community, etc. An individual is influenced by the identity, or self-awareness. How can self-awareness
people around him through listening, observing, and come about when one doesn’t even have a consciousness
imitating. Some behaviors and values of the people of it? Our identity is a product of development. Let
around him are accepted and internalized to form a part us take a look at the stages of this development: 
of his personality and character, while some of these are
left out and rejected.   1. Imitation Stage– As a new member of
Socialization and Enculturation  society, the child is powerless. His thoughts,
feelings, actions, and activities depend upon
Every individual goes through the process of learning the teaching and examples by the members
the necessary social roles and skills before he becomes a of the family. Likewise, the child takes on
member of society. The process of learning these skills and copy the habits and activities of the
and social roles is called socialization.   parents and siblings by subconscious
conformity without understanding the
In their book, Understanding Culture, Society, and meaning and significance of the action.
Politics, Lanuza and Raymundo (2016) notes 2. Play Stage– The child plays different roles
that socialization is traditionally seen as a one-way and assumes like a father, mother,
process in which society molds an individual to conform physician, teacher, student, etc. The child’s
to established social norms and rules. The process of development of self-concept is conceived by
socialization, therefore, has an extensive role in the other people. 
society. For instance, “if all competent members of 3. Game Stage– The child acts as a member of
society are successfully socialized to respect traffic a team. This is the stage where he develops
rules, then there will be no road accidents. If all boys or a self-concept consistent with the
girls are successfully socialized to become either straight expectations of all others—the generalized
male or female, then there will be no sexual deviations. others. (Ariola, 2012).  
So, the deterministic argument goes.”   
In a similar opinion, Ariola (2016) agrees that successful In general, an identity designates a commonly
socialization can result in uniformity within a society. If recognized set of persons. The terms physician, school
all children receive the same socialization, it is likely teacher, janitor, professional athlete, and criminal all
that they will share the same beliefs and expectations. refer to recognized sets of persons. Each constitutes a
Government and social institutions have often used the social position. Each social position is said to exhibit a
process of socialization to elicit and create an ordered characteristic role. People who share roles are also likely
society. It can be a powerful tool for controlling people.   to share a common identity. 

Aside from the process of socialization, one also  Roles and Status 
develops self-identity through enculturation.  When an individual starts to develop, he becomes
Enculturation is the process by which an individual acquainted with his own understanding of himself. This
adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which he or stage helps one to build his individual distinct
personality, which is regarded as an entity by which a
person is recognized or known. Personality helps other of "civil inattention"—when we politely ignore others
people recognize who we are, and in turn, it also helps us around us in public settings. 
to create a distinct picture of who others are for us. This
process clearly helps define an individual to others and Those who constantly violate folkways – such as, by
themselves.  talking loudly in quiet places, wearing different socks on
each foot – may appear odd. We may avoid these people,
When one has a clear idea of the group where he but we do not consider them wicked or immoral. 
belongs, his role and status in such a group become
clearly distinct. For instance, one is aware that he 2. Mores – on the other hand, have great moral
belongs to a certain family so he becomes aware that he significance attached to them. This relation exists
is either a son or a daughter to his parents or sibling to because the violation of such rules endangers
his younger brother or sister. Status and social roles are society.  
important components of a social structure. For example, dishonesty, fraud, and murder all greatly
“Status refers particularly to a position in the social threaten society. 
structure or any social position where a person fits
within the society” (Ariola, 2016). For example, being a Societies have established punishments for violating
student, teacher, principal, supervisor, president, and mores in order to protect the social well-being. These
social worker. Status can either be achieved or serious mores are formalized as laws – written rules of
ascribed. An achieved status is open to any individual conducted enacted or enforced by the
through his effort, talent, income, or by marriage. An government. Most laws enforce mores essential to
ascribed status is acquired at birth or assigned or social stability, such as those against arson, murder,
involuntarily assumed later without effort. rape, and theft. However, laws may also enforce less
Moreover, role refers to patterns of expected behavior severe folkways, such as not parking in spaces for
attached to a particular status. A soldier, for example, is drivers with disabilities.  
expected of various roles to protect the country where he
serves.   Values are shared beliefs about what is good or bad,
right or wrong, desirable or undesirable (Serapio, 2016).
 Norms, Laws, and Values  The type of values held by a group help to determine the
character of its people and the kind of culture they
According to Cruz, Laguna, and Raymundo create. A society that values war and displays of physical
(2001), Filipino parents instill norms and values in their strength above all else will be very different from one
children according to the expectations of society. They that places emphasis on cooperation and sharing. 
do this by direct supervision and control of their
children’s activities and associations.  
DEVIANCY AND CONFORMITY
All groups create norms to enforce their cultural values.
“Norms are shared rules of conduct that tell people how As we have stated earlier in the previous item,
to act in specific situations” (Serapio, 2016). It is socialization is not a one-way process in which the
important to keep in mind that norms are expectations of potential members of society are indoctrinated to follow
behavior, not actual governing certain behaviors does the rules and norms of society. In this process, a person
not necessarily mean that the actions of all individuals also exercises his human capacity to decide for himself
will be in line with those norms.   whether to accept the beliefs and sets of cultural beliefs
whereby he is being socialized. There are times when a
According to Serapio (2016), there are two types of person develops a “resistance” to the process of
Norms:  socialization. Here one develops a rebellious attitude
towards norms and rules.  
1. Folkways – are norms that describe socially
acceptable behavior but do not have great moral According to Lanuza (2016), when daily resistance of
significance attached to them. In essence, they outline people against a social norm or regulation breaks into a
the common customs of everyday life.   moral panic, it turns into a form of
deviance. Deviance is often characterized as a violation
A common example of a folkway is the practice, in of widely held rules and norms of a group that calls for
many societies, of waiting in line. This practice brings censure, punishment or condemnation of the violator.  
order to the process of buying things or receiving However, deviance is also a relative concept and may be
services, allowing us to more easily perform the tasks of subject to change from time to time. It is characterized
our daily lives. Other examples of folkways include the by the following: 
concept of appropriate dress, the practice of raising one's
hand to take turns speaking in a group, and the practice
1. It is understood within its social context.   is important in order that the operation of the group
remains.  
A woman’s nude picture displayed in social media may
be a form of deviance and characterized as pornography, LESSON 2
but when displayed in an art exhibit it is not.   HOW SOCIETY IS ORGANIZED
2. Deviance may change over time.   Each man lives and interacts with others for survival and
Gambling is not deviance when no law prohibits it. But through the influence of these people, he acquires his
when a law prohibits it, doing it is deviance.   identity and develops his personality. Man is always a
member of a social group. According to Ariola (2016), a
3. Deviance depends upon the status and role of a group can be defined as: 
person 
1. Composed of two or more persons interacting with
A Christian Filipino man who marries twice is deviance each other with an established set of norms. 
but a Filipino Muslim who does it provided he can 2. A specified number of individuals whereby one is
support the other is not deviance.  distinct from the others with respect to values,
4. Deviance depends on the audience norms  attitudes, knowledge but have a common purpose as a
whole. 
A minor who is drinking alcohol is a deviant but not in 3. A set of individuals with some similar characteristics
the case of an adult doing the same.  and minimum awareness of others. 

There are sociological theories about why deviance With these definitions, we realize that in order for a
occurs in society. Some noteworthy theories are those group to continue to exist, it is necessary that the group
that follow:  is comprised of members. Members can either be two or
three people with a sense of proximity, the similarity of
 Strain Theory – In this theory created by Robert
traits, the common sense of identity, values, and norms
Merton, unequal access to the attainment of
and most importantly have the interaction and
financial success and other environmental
communication necessary for members. 
resources causes deviance among members. 
 Control Theory – According to Travis Hirschi, In the same way, we have known that a society is a
lack of intimate social ties among people causes group involved in persistent social interaction, or a large
deviance to occur in society. If social ties that social grouping having the same geographical or social
call for conformity are weak then social territory, typically subject to the same political authority
deviance have a greater chance to occur.  and dominant cultural expectation.  
 Conflict Theory – According to Richard
Quinney, the proponent of this theory, some Let us explore the essential elements of the social
laws protect the capitalist. Because of this, there group: 
is a conflict between the ruling class and the
subordinate class in society.  1. A group must have relative
 Power Theory – According to Thio, the permanence. For a group to be recognized,
proponent of this theory, powerful people, it should have a fixed duration of existence.
especially those occupying high positions, have The duration of a group usually depends
greater opportunities for deviance. This explains upon the closeness of relationships among
the fact of corruption among people with high the members of the group as well as its
positions.  purpose. 
 Social Learning Theory – according to this 2. A group must have a relative purpose of
theory, the individual’s deviant behavior is the existence. Groups exist because their
result of reward or punishment, direct members have a purpose that each member
conditioning, imitation, or modeling the recognizes as their own. The group has a
behavior of others.   purpose and individual members bind
themselves to this purpose in a manner that
In contrary to deviance, a person also chooses to directs their action. 
conform to set or rules and actions that society has laid 3. A group must have a method of
out. Here, one learns how to accept one’s group’s course recruiting members into it. Individuals
of action to reach a consensus. According who comprise the group where
to Ariola (2016), conformity occurs when the members they belong are the reason why groups exist.
choose the course of action that the majority favors. This
 That is why it is important for a group to group as the nursery of human nature
secure the basis and means of accepting because it is where the child is first
individuals as new members. Each socialized, acquires and experiences love,
individual must conform to the goals and affection, tolerance, kindness, loyalty,
values of the group.  fairness, and a sense of justice. 
4. Members in a group must be identified 2. Secondary Group – This group is
according to their position. Members in a characterized by impersonal, business-like
group have ranks or positions in that group. interaction, contractual, formal, and casual
They are identified by the position that they relationships. Here members tend to focus
play or possess.   on the development of skills to attain a
5. Members must have a role in a group. An goal. Examples of this group would be
individual plays a social role when he employment, vendor-to-client relationship,
belongs to a group. The performance of his etc. 
social role affects the dynamics of the
group.  Other groups and Networks
6. A group must have a norm or behavior to
be followed. The actions of members in a 1. Reference Groups 
group are controlled by the established
A reference group is a social group that serves as a point
norms of the group. These norms are
of reference in making evaluations and decisions.
binding on all members for the group to
According to Serapio (2016), a reference group
attain its goals. 
becomes the individual’s frame of reference and source
7. A group must have common interests or
for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions,
values. What binds the group is the common
cognition, and ideas of self. It also becomes the basis of
interest that each member possesses.
reference in making comparisons and contrasts and in
Without these individuals will split the
evaluating one’s appearance and performance. Examples
group’s sense of belongingness that may
of reference groups are Family, workmates, classmates,
later result in the group’s death. 
sports team, and dance group.
8. Social relations must exist among
members of the group. It is not enough for 2. In-group 
the group to have a common interest. In
order for groups to survive communication An In-group is a group to which an individual belongs
and interaction is necessary through contact and where he/she can feel a sense of identity. If a person
and mutual reciprocity  is a part of the in-group then they are collectively part of
an inner circle of friends. An inner circle may contain
According to Salcedo (2002), the existence of a group is sub-groups within the inner circle including the apex
important because they are the transmitter of culture. (best friends), core (very close friends) outer rim, etc.
Groups relay the intangible and intangible aspects of
3. Out-group 
human life through the act of handing down practices,
values, and norms. The group is also a means of social Out-group is a group to which an individual does not
control. It is here that the socialization of the individual belong and to which he/she can feel hostility or a sense
happens while he/she grows up in his own social of competitiveness.
context. Moreso, the group is also a source of ideas. And
it also trains the individual in communication.   4. Social Networks
Now we come to the question of how groups are  It means the interconnection, ties, and linkages between
classified. Groups may be classified into two major people, groups, and various larger social institutions to
groups:  which they belong. In a highly technological world, one
of the best examples of networks is found in social
1. The primary group – The concept of the media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
primary group is an intimate, personal and With the help of these sites, an individual easily trace
face to face relationship. It includes the and build his own network of people which can be easily
family, neighborhood, and playgroups. The contacted and be mapped. Through these, an individual
concept of the primary group was can easily locate his family or relatives, close friends,
introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist acquaintances, and ‘followers.’ Networks or networking
from the Chicago School of is very important for an individual as it connects
Sociology. Cooley describes the primary individuals and various groups within the society for
easy communication and understanding. 
Some examples of types of groups include the diversity. A noted Spanish-American biologist Francisco
following:  Jose Ayala said that the theory of evolution in biology
suggests that “the various types of plants, animals, and
 Peer Group – a group with members of other living things on earth have their origins in other
approximately the same age, social status, and pre-existing types and distinguishable differences are
interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in due to modifications in successive generations.”
terms of power when they interact with their peers.  Furthermore, Ayala notes, “biological evolution is a
 Clique – a group of people that have many of the process of descent with modifications. Lineages of
same interests & commonly found in high school/ organisms change through generations; diversity arises
college; most of the time they have a name & rules because the lineages that descend from common
for themselves.  ancestors diverge through time.” In general, it means
 Club – a group, which usually requires one to apply that biological evolution continues to influence the
to become a member. Such clubs may be dedicated development of human interaction.  
to particular activities: for example, sporting clubs. 
 Household – all individuals who live in the same CULTURAL EVOLUTION 
home.  
 Community – a group of people with a It refers to the role of culture in social evolution through
commonality or sometimes a complex net of people’s capacity for language, tool-making, and
overlapping commonalities, often – but not always – technological innovation. In the 1970s, Anthropologists
in proximity with one another with some degree of have introduced the concept of biocultural evolution. It
continuity over time.  refers to the mutual interactive evolution of biology and
 Squad – usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 culture. It focuses on the idea that biology makes culture
people, who work as a team to accomplish their possible and that developing culture further influences
goals.  the direction of biological evolution.  
 Dyad – a social group with two members. Social
BIO-CULTURE 
interaction in the dyad is typically more intense than
in larger groups because neither member shares the is defined as the relationship between human biology
other’s attention with anyone else  and culture. As humans undergo biological evolution,
 Triad – a social group with three members. A triad culture is also changing. According to Charles Darwin
is more stable than a dyad because one member can (1859) in his theory of evolution, present human lineage
act as a mediator should the relationship between the can be traced from ape-like ancestry. This concept gives
other two become strained.   focuses on the notion that “biology makes culture
possible and that developing culture further influences
(UNIT III – Human and Social Evolution) the direction of biological evolution.”  
LESSON 1 Human behavior is not just the product of culture, and it
is not just the product of biology, either. Human
HUMAN BIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION   behavior and human culture emerge from a complex
The publication of ‘On the Origin of Species’ in 1859 by interaction between genetic dispositions and
Charles Darwin has revolutionized the scientific environmental circumstances. 
community on how it views human biological HOMINID EVOLUTION (HUMAN EVOLUTION) 
development. His idea of evolution challenged the
predominant belief at that period that creatures were Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by
created uniquely with unchanging biological aspects. which people originated from apelike ancestors.
Since the introduction of the concept of human Scientific evidence shows that the physical and
behavioral traits shared by all people originated from
evolution, scientists have used this to explain the
apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of
changes in species, people, community, civilization, and
approximately six million years. Together with the
culture as humans adapt and undergo the process of biological evolution was the development of cultural
change related to the environment or context where they technologies that help early civilizations to become
live in.   successful in acquiring resources and surviving
predators. Below are the significant points of biocultural
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION  evolution. 
It is the process where organisms undergo various  Toolmaking 
genetic and physical changes that results in biological
Early chimpanzee communities were known for using fire for these purposes was 780-400,000 years ago when
stones and woods in hunting animals and gathering some Homo erectus were evolving into Homo heidelbergensis.
food. Usually, chimpanzee tools are small, slender tree The earliest evidence of fire associated with humans was
branches that they use in getting termites and ants for found in Kenya 1.5 million years ago.  
food.  
Early Modern Human Culture 
The first clear stone tool was made and used by early
Australopithecus garthi in East Africa about 2.5 million Around 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens in Africa and
years ago. Though the earliest sites for these tools are Southwestern Asia made tools similar to those
from the Gona River Region of Ethiopia, simple tools of Neanderthals and other late archaic humans. However,
the same kind were discovered by Mary and Louis 90,000-75,000 years ago, humans began making
Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and is associated extremely new kinds of artifacts enough to consider
with Homo habilis. These tools were them into different Paleolithic age— the Upper
named Oldowan tools after the name of the location.  Paleolithic. This is the period of technical sophistication
during the Old Stone Age. Most developments were
Aside from stone tools, paleoanthropologists believe that known in Europe but relative developments were also
Homo habilis was able to produce tools out of woods present in West Central Africa like the harpoon-like
and other easy perishable materials that have not bone projective points used at least 75,000 years ago.
survived. Raymond Dart in the 1940s said that Stones prepared for flaking by heat-treating were also
australopithecines and early humans have used body used 70,000 years ago. The most sophisticated tool-
parts of animals as clubs and daggers. He introduced an making tradition during this period is the Magdalenian
early tool-making named osteodontokertic, based on the tradition of Western Europe from 17,000 until the end of
use of bones (osteo), teeth (donto), and horns (keratic). the last ice age 10,000 years ago.  
Dart’s idea was rejected by systemic
paleoanthropologists today on the grounds that there is Upper Paleolithic traditions were cultural adaptations to
no sufficient evidence to support his claim that early diverse environments. In temperate regions, specialized
civilization was able to have systematic shaping ability big game hunting was the common subsistence strategy.
and that it is unlikely for early humans to be an As the ice began to melt near the end of the last ice age,
aggressive hunter since primarily they were vegetarians small game and plant food exploitation became
and they only eat meat out of the leftovers of kills increasingly important. During the final glacial melt
abandoned by lions, leopards, and other predators.   5,000 years ago, large mammals became extinct in the
northern hemisphere. It was also the period where
The early Homo erectus have developed what can be fishing spears, hooks, and nets increasingly became
described as advanced oldowan tool-making techniques. common.  
By 1.8 million years ago, homo Erectus skills have
increased that they were able to make tools with sharper The Cro-Magnon people during this period increased
and straighter edges but insufficient to be considered as their food supply by developing coordinate group
new tool making tradition. The new tool-making hunting techniques for the killings of large animals. New
tradition is referred to as Acheulian named after specialized hunting weapons were also developed one is
Saint Acheul in Southwest France discovered in the the spear-thrower (atlatl) developed around 17,000-
19th century. Hand axes are considered as perhaps the 15,000 years ago. This was a wooden or bone rod with a
most important of Acheulian tools. The Acheulian hook on one and that fit into a socket at the base of
tradition of tool making began in East and West Africa spear. Toggle-head harpoons were invented during this
1.5 million years ago. It spread to Israel, Southwest Asia, period also while the bow and arrow were invented by
and to Europe.   12,000 years ago or earlier.  

Occupation of New Environmental Zones  Upper Paleolithic Stone Tool Making Technology 

Homo erectus is considered as the first species to expand Blade flake was the basis for many Upper Paleolithic
their range to temperate climatic zones (relatively cold stone tool forms. It is a thin, roughly parallel-sided flake,
winters) from tropical and subtropical environments. twice as long as it is wide; made out of brittle-breaking
One of the important changes may have been increased rock materials such as flint, chert, and obsidian. The
meat consumption. The most difficult challenge for early cross-section is usually either triangular or trapezoidal.
humans who lived in temperature areas was the scarcity Blade flakes were preforms for the manufacture of
of plant food and because of this, meat has been the most different tools such as knives, hide scrapers, spear tips,
important source of calories. Another significant drill, awls, and burin. Tools made out of blade flakes are
development was the ability to use fire for cooking and far more efficient compared to other tools made by
heating. The first convincing evidence of regular use of earlier humans.  
Significance of cultural evolution  has forged a sense of culture among the
members of the society.  
Throughout the time, there is clear evidence of 3. Cultural evolution- It refers to the role of
development in tool making and subsistence from culture in social evolution through people’s
chimpanzee communities to Homo erectus and Homo capacity for language, tool-making, and
sapiens. The discovery of stone tools technological innovation. In the 1970s,
from Oldowan tradition to Acheulian tradition and the Anthropologists have introduced the concept
further development of tool making traditions during the of biocultural evolution. It refers to the
Upper Paleolithic period are manifestations of cultural mutual interactive evolution of biology and
development alongside biological evolution. Culture can culture. It focuses on the idea that biology
affect the direction of human evolution by producing makes culture possible and that developing
non-biological solutions to environmental challenges. culture further influences the direction of
The development of these tools and new methods of biological evolution.  
subsistence was not a coincidence or accidental rather a
technological solution for the growing difficulty of The Evolution of Social and Political Institutions
acquiring food (specifically meat) and of survival in (Socio-political Evolution) 
general.  
Social scientists consider human beings as social beings.
LESSON 2 It is natural for human beings to be inclined to live
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETIES  together and to learn from continuous interaction with
one another. There are various theories or views on how
Three types of societal evolution early social and political institutions have developed.
The anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan came up with a
1. Biological evolution- It is the process where view that divided the history into three stages of
organisms undergo various genetic and development: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. 
physical changes that results in biological
diversity. A noted Spanish-American Savagery  Barbarism  Civilization 
biologist Francisco Jose Ayala said that the
theory of evolution in biology suggests that
“the various types of plants, animals, and It is the middle
other living things on earth have their stage where people
It is the highest
origins in other pre-existing types and It is the lowest have learned to
stage where
distinguishable differences are due to stage of settle in specific
modifications in successive generations.” areas and have people have
development
learned writing
Furthermore, Ayala notes, “biological where people are acquired
and where
evolution is a process of descent with in a nomadic and agricultural
technology
modifications. Lineages of organisms hunter-gatherer techniques and
change through generations; diversity arises domestication of further
lifestyle.
because the lineages that descend from animals.  advances. 
common ancestors diverge through time.” In
general, it means that biological evolution  
continues to influence the development of
human interaction.  
2. Technological evolution- As early human
beings have learned to settle in specific
areas, particularly in areas near the river,
and acquired knowledge in producing their
own food through agriculture, various tools,
and equipment for everyday tasks such as
crop planting, animal husbandry and trade
were discovered and produced. As people Feudal
Tribal Primitive
lived together with these advancements to system/estat Capitalism 
Form  communal 
form a society, shared beliefs, ideas, values, e property 
practices, knowledge, and material
properties were accumulated over time that
Has no social Is a product Land With the
classes but of the union ownership development
 From hunting-gathering to agricultural then industrial
of societies, social organizations have developed and were
commerce, influenced by the changes in human conditions.  
feudal
society Band-level societies or “bands”- It refers to the earliest
begun societies composed of small and nomadic family groups.
accumulatin They are believed to be highly egalitarian and
established became the nonhierarchical since distinctions and roles are divided
g capital
based basis of based on age and gender. Leadership was based on
which led to
on kinship. T of several social class qualities such as strength, intelligence, and
a society
he division of tribes either between the trustworthiness. The leader exercises influence over
structured
labor was in by agreement landlord and band members but not the power to enforce rules.
around profit
an or conquest. I the peasant. Decisions made were often centered on the movement to
and
elementary n this stage, Private another territory, distribution of food, and settlement of
commodities
stage with the private property interpersonal conflicts. Disputes are rare because they
. The
hunting property determines are living far from one another. Because of these, band-
transformati
assigned to began to the wealth level society was not considered as a political
on of labor
men and develop and and the organization. 
into an
domestic slavery power of an
abstract
works flourished.   individual Tribe- This was a more formal social organization
quantity that
assigned to over the composed of several bands or groups connected through
can be
women.   other.  a clan structure. The leader or known as headman of a
bought in the
market tribe has more formal power among its members. The
opened the leader took advantage of the kinship ties with other
exploitation members to exercise power and authority. The headman
of the performed duties such as overseeing the planting and
proletariat.   harvesting of crops, resolving conflicts and organizing
feasts or celebrations. The emergence of this more
organized organization came during the period of
Herbert Spencer applied Charles Darwin’s theory of agriculture and settlement. The establishment of
evolution to social evolution. For Spencer, every permanent settlements and the invention of tools resulted
member of society engages in competition for survival in more social interaction and assignment of tasks
where superior dominate the inferior. This idea among members. These changes in human society
which was seen as a justification for imperialism was required a new social and political institution resulting in
heavily criticized and gave way for the birth of a non- social inequality, lineage, and kinship ties. 
evolutionary perspective in cultural anthropology known
as cultural relativism. Cultural Relativism proposes that Chiefdom- Consisted of tribes united under one leader
societies cannot be classified according to definite or known as chief. In this social organization, there was
absolute stages of development and that no society can more complicated social interaction between members of
claim to be more advanced than other societies. Each tribes as well as a large territory to govern transforming
society must be analyzed according to its own context the role of the leader into more complex responsibilities
and the influence of external factors on its development. with greater power and authority.  
Furthermore, cultural relativism advocates the notion
Industrial Revolution 
that an individual’s attitude, belief, and ideas are based
on the culture of his or her society. Franz Boas, a leading Industrial Revolution, as characterized in Britannica
proponent of this idea, argued that human behavior is not encyclopedia, is the process of change from an agrarian
rooted in biology but rather socially constructed.   and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry
and machine manufacturing. It started in the
Sociologists mainly subscribe to two different ideas on
18th century in Britain then spread to other parts of
the origins of social and political institutions. First, those
Western Europe were changes that happened in the
who subscribe to the idea that evolution occurs based on
technological, socioeconomic, and cultural aspects of
stages of development such as Morgan, Engels and
society. Technological changes include: (1) the use of
Marx; and Second, those who subscribe to the idea that
the iron and steel as basic materials; (2) use of coal, the
one stage does not automatically proceed to another
steam engine, electricity, petroleum and the internal-
stage like Franz Boas.  
combustion engine as new energy sources; (3) the
Development of Social organizations  invention of machines such as spinning jenny and power
loom for industrial production; (4) the introduction of
factory system work organization which entailed the Thomas Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, is an English
increased division of labor and specialization of philosopher who lived during the most crucial period of
function; (5) Developments in transportation and early England’s history: the era of the English Civil war.
communication including steam locomotive, the Hobbes argued that man by nature is self-interested.
automobile, the airplane, radio and telegraph; Every action that individuals do is motivated solely for
and (6) The increased application of science to industry.  the betterment of ourselves and to satisfy, as many as we
can, personal desires. According to Hobbes, individuals
It brought massive changes to the socioeconomic status are willing to submit themselves to political authority
of the people as economic changes resulted in the because given that they are naturally self-interested, they
decline of land as a source of wealth as industrial will submit to a sovereign authority so they can live in a
production increase paying labor with the corresponding civil society where security is guaranteed, which is
wages. Social changes include the growth of cities, the conducive to their own interests. This was explained by
development of working-class movements, and the Hobbes using the concept of State of Nature. The state of
development of new patterns of power and authority. Nature is basically characterized as a situation where
Workers acquired new skills and their working men are more or less equal, there are limited resources,
environment have changed. From working with hand and no power present to force everyone to cooperate.
tools, they have shifted to become machine operators, Given this, the State of Nature would be unbearably
and factory/ industrial disciplines were introduced.   brutal, everyone is in fear of losing his life, and long
LESSON 3 term satisfaction of everyone’s needs and desire is
impossible. Because of this, individuals should enter a
THEORIES ON SOCIETY AND STATE social contract that will give them life opposite of what
they might have in the State of Nature. To escape the
Society as a Natural Institution  State of nature, they must be willing to form a society
where they will surrender the rights they had against one
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that society and its another in the State of Nature. They must be under
institutions are natural products of human common laws and an enforcement mechanism—
interactions. Aristotle once said that man by nature is a recognition of person or group of persons to have any
political animal and interaction is important as it fulfills authority to enforce the contract— must be established.  
certain basic needs. The more complex the needs of an
individual, the more complex interaction it requires. For 2. John Locke (1632-1704) 
Aristotle, polis or city-state is the highest form of human
interaction that fulfills man’s self-sufficiency, its highest Locke, an English philosopher, is the author of the Two
need. In explaining the natural order of things in society, Treatises on Government. The first treaty is about
Aristotle used the relationship between master and slave. refuting the idea that political authority was derived
Slaves are expected to perform their duties for their from religious authority while the second treaty contains
masters while freemen are expected to do their duties to Locke’s view of the aims and justification for civil
the state. Aristotle further argued that it is only by living government. Contrary to Hobbes, Locke’s view of State
in a society can a man fulfill his ultimate purpose.  of Nature is it is a state with no civil authority to punish
people for transgressions against laws but not a state
Society as a product of Social Contract  without morality. For Locke, political society comes into
being when individual men come together and agree to
Another view on the origin and nature of societies and surrender their executive power to punish those who
states is that it is made out of an agreement between the transgress the law of nature and give it to the
members of the society in relation to their government to execute this power. With this, they then
interactions. Social contract as a theory is the view that become subjects to the decision of the majority. With the
a person’s moral and/or political obligations are creation of political society, men then gain things which
dependent upon the agreement among them to form a they do not have in the State of Nature: laws, judges to
society in which they live. Social contract arguments adjudicate the laws, and executive power to enforce the
typically hypothesize that individuals have consented, laws. These are necessary in protecting their life, liberty,
either openly or tacitly, to surrender some of their and property.  
freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or
magistrate, in exchange for protection of their remaining 3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) 
rights. Within the theory of social contract, there are
different ideas explaining the nature and substance of it. Rousseau is a French philosopher who lived during the
Three philosophers have significant contributions to this Enlightenment period. Rousseau has two different social
theory.  contract theories: Discourse on the Origin and
Foundations of Inequality Among Men and the Second
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Discourse. For Rousseau, the State of Nature was a
peaceful and quixotic time. People’s needs were easily Durkheim characterized traditional society as bounded
satisfied by nature. As the human population increased, by mechanical solidarity, the integration of members of
the means to satisfy one’s needs had to change. People a society based on common values, beliefs, and kinship
started to live in communities and the division of labor relationships. Whereas, modern societies are
was introduced. The discoveries and inventions made characterized by organic solidarity, a social integration
life easier creating leisure times. Such leisure times led based on the need of individuals for one another’s
people to compare one another resulting in the services. This type of solidarity emphasizes the division
development of public values. Furthermore, the of labor where individuals function differently but
invention of private property radically changed human interdependently.  
evolution from a simple life into a life defined by greed,
competition, vanity, inequality, and vices. To correct Another distinction between traditional and modern
this, men must come together and form a collectivity that society is based on the function of law. In traditional
is more than an individual’s interests and wills. This society, laws were punitive or retributive while in
coverts people to people which is the real foundation of modern society, laws can either be restitutive or
society. Rousseau believed that men are endowed with restorative. Retributive justice means proportionate
freedom and equality by nature, but it has been corrupted punishment to the crime. Retributive justice is different
by our contingent social history. This can be overcome from revenge since it is only directed to wrongdoings,
by invoking our free will and reconstituting ourselves not personal and it follows a process and procedural
politically alongside democratic principles that are standards. On the other hand, restorative justice
beneficial individually and collectively.   personalizes the crime by letting the victims and
offenders mediate a restitution agreement to the
Modernization Theories  satisfaction of each, as well as the community.
As discussed in the previous lesson, social evolution can
be viewed as a progression of societies from a primitive
stage to a developed stage. One of the leading
perspectives explaining this is the historical-materialist
perspective introduced by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels. Marx and Engels point out that society evolved
alongside the development of the means of production
and its ownership. In all stages of development, people
are involved in a class struggle over the control of the
means of production. The need for control of the means
of production led to the establishment of state as the
state is viewed as an instrument of the ruling class to
maintain its control. Society is seen as in a continuous
state of conflict as classes compete for the control of the
means of production.  
In the early 20th century, the sociologist Max
Weber observed
the rationalization and bureaucratization in industrial
societies. According to Weber, bureaucratic coordination
of activities is the distinctive mark of the modern era as
it is organized in rational principles. Offices are ranked
in a hierarchical order and their operations are
characterized by impersonal rules. Appointments are
based on standards and qualifications and not in
traditional charismatic and kinship-based promotion.
This system has become the dominant structure of
modern forms of organization. This system distinguished
modern society to traditional society. The term
bureaucracy came from a French
word bureau meaning “office” and Greek
word Kratos meaning “hierarchy.”  
Another sociologist named Emile Durkheim made
delineations between tradition and modern society.
(UNIT IV – Social Institutions) 1. A father with one or more unmarried
children or  
LESSON 1
THE FAMILY, MARRIAGE, AND KINSHIP  1. A mother with one or more unmarried
children. 
In the midst of political turmoil, radical changes in
societal norms and values, growing inequalities, Each of the following must consist of persons living in
widespread technological advancement and drastic the same household.  
environmental changes, one must look back on the
fundamentals of societies— its nature, origin and Among these definitions, common themes are present:  
institutions— to comprehensively understand its
situation and problem, and to discover how it can be Biological Functional Residential
solved.   component  component  component 
Familiarity with social institutions is a must as
it reflects the norms, beliefs, values as well as cultural Presence of Taking care of the Should be living
fabrics of a society. As defined, social institution is a parents (married child, economic in the same
complex and integrated set of social norms systematized or not) and a child  support  household 
for the purpose of preserving social order. These
institutions are imbedded in human nature and are
essential in the development of human civilization.  
Understanding social institution means understanding a
Several Kinds of Families 
society’s history and struggle.  
Nuclear Family- families that are composed of parents
Marriage equality for LGBTQ, the threat of ISIS and
and children 
Islamic fundamentalism, growing poverty and hunger,
migration and displacement are just some of the current Extended Family- composed of a nuclear family and
problems face by the people all throughout the world. other relatives such as grandparents, cousins, and
These are some of the issues that can be explained as we nephews. 
dig deeper in understanding various social institutions
encompassing such issues.   Reconstituted family- composed of spouses and their
children from a previous marriage. 
Family is considered as a very important social
institution as it nurtures the most vital element of society  
— the people. It is crucial for the continued survival of
humanity and for the preservation of basic societal The family is considered as the basic unit of society. As
values. a unit, it performs several functions necessary for the
continuation and development of the society. It is
FAMILY primarily a concern for:  

“There is no single correct definition of what family is” (1) Biological reproduction  
(Fine, 1993). Experts on the family studies agree that the
definition of family varies on an individual’s personal (2) Basic agent for developing socialization of children 
outlook, values, culture, and sexual orientation. Family, (3) Introduction of basic societal functions such as
as defined in Dictionary of Social and Cultural division of labor and observation of respect for hierarchy
Anthropology, is “A group of people who have a in authority 
common residence and/or relationship, and who share
economic and reproductive ties” (Morris, 2012)  (4) The nurturing of children to become responsible
adults 
The United Nations defines family as any of the
following:   
Kinship 
1. A married couple without children, 
Kinship is defined as relations among individuals linked
by blood or marriage ties. It is important in maintaining
1. A married couple with one or more
solidarity and bond among family and clan members.
unmarried children, 
This is significant especially in countries, like the
Philippines, where the close family association can be
observed. Kinship based on decent is categorized into
three: Unilineal rules, Ambilineal (Cognatic) rules, and
Double decent. Descent refers to the system by which TYPES OF MARRIAGE 
members of a society trace kinship over generations. 
Decent rules  1. Monogamy- It is the union of two individuals or the
1. Unilineal rules- The affiliation of an individual to one state of being married to one person only at a given time.
sex only. It can be affiliation to either males (patrilineal
descent) or females (matrilineal descent). Most societies Social Sexual Genetic Marital Serial
are patrilineal but there is a society that practices monogam monogam monogam monogam monogam
matrilineal descent. Examples are the Nyakyusa of y  y  y  y  y 
Tanzania and the Nayar of Kerala, India.

A series of
2. Ambilineal rules- The affiliation of an individual to Two relationshi
either father’s side or mother’s side. An individual can persons Two ps where
choose which side he/she wants to be affiliated with. An live persons one
example of a society that has an ambilineal rule is the together, that person has
Samoans of the South Pacific. Two
have sex remain only one
3. Double decent rules- It refers to the society where persons Marriage
with each sexually partner at
patrilineal and matrilineal descent are both recognized. that have between
other, and exclusive a time and
For some purposes, individual affiliates with the an two
cooperatin to one then move
patrilineal side and for other purposes to the matrilineal offspring individual
g with another to another
kinsmen. An example of this is the Afikpo of Imo, with one s. 
each other and have after
Nigeria.   another. 
in no outside breaking
acquiring sexual up with
basic partners.  the
MARRIAGE resources.  previous
partner. 

Many anthropologists generally assume that the 2. Polygamy- it is the practice of multiple marriages

institution of marriage is a universal feature in human with two classifications: Polygyny and Polyandry.  
societies which is primarily linked
to parenthood (Tiimer and Orbuch, 2001). This
Polygyny  Polyandry 
institution of marriage has different implications in
different cultures across different countries, in
which anthropologists like It refers to a man having It involves a woman having
Malinowski and Radcliffe propose a definition of multiple wives or sexual multiple husbands.  
marriage in the Principle of Legitimacy or legal partners at a time. It is
authority in marriage.  The understanding of the nature different from having a According to Gillin and Gillin
of marriage is vital in understanding culture (Bell, 1997)  sexual partner outside (1950), it is practiced among
the marriage which is the Marquesan Islanders of
The concept of marriage varies according to different a concubine. There are Polynesia, The Bahama of
cultures, but in general, it is defined as an institution in societies and religions Africa, and tribes of Samoa.
which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and that historically allow In India, among tribes
sexual, are acknowledged. It is a socially or ritually polygyny such as of Tiyan, Toda,
recognized union or legal contract between two Mormonism and Islam.  Kota, Khasa, and Ladakhi
consenting individuals that establishes rights and Bota it is still prevalent. 
obligations between them, between them and their
children, and between them and their in-laws.   There are two different
classifications of
polyandry (as classified
by Gillin and Gillin):  
Anthropological studies of marriage have brought
out complex marriage systems that identify the 1. Fraternal polyandry 
different types of marriage. 
 Isogamy in relationships can mean being in a committed
It occurs when a group of relationship with the same sex.  
brothers marries one
woman. An example of this
is fraternal polyandry known
to be practiced among groups  SAME-SEX MARRIAGE 
in Tibet and Nepal.   Traditionally, marriage is a union between two
2. Non-Fraternal polyandry  individuals with the opposite sex. With the changes in
society and with the recognition of LGBTQ (Lesbian,
In this type, the husbands Gay, Bisexual, Transexual and Queer) individuals, the
need not have any close institution of marriage is being challenged in most
relationship prior to the societies— particularly in the west—  to be inclusive and
marriage. The wife goes to to allow same-sex marriage with equal recognition as
spend some time with each with traditional marriage by the state. There is still great
husband. So long as a woman prejudice against the LGBTQ sector and hate crimes
lives with one of her are prevalent but more societies are becoming open to
husbands, the others have no recognizing same-sex marriage especially developed
claim over her. It is prevalent countries in the Western region of the world. Some of
among the Todas in India.  the countries that recognize same-sex marriage are the
USA, Canada, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, South
  Africa, Spain, and recently Taiwan which is the first
Asian state to recognize the same-sex civil union.  
 
 
  DIVORCE 
 There are different rules that condition marital It is a legal process in which a court legally ends a
choices:  marriage. It leaves two individuals after the process with
CULTURAL REFERENCES RULES OF a status of “single.” And can marry someone again. It
MARRIAGE  does not declare a marriage null or void but rather states
that the marriage was unsuccessful for a variety of valid
1. Endogamy- it is a marriage of an individual to reasons determined by the court. A study by the National
someone who belongs to the same religion, age, race, Marriage Project of Rutgers University found out that
social class. It is defined as a marriage within a defined only 63% of American children grew up with both of
social group. In practice, an individual necessarily needs their biological parents. 
to reject marrying someone who does not fit in with
his/her social group.  
2. Exogamy- it is marriage outside a particular social or ANNULMENT 
cultural group. It allows marriage to happen between two It is a judicial declaration that there was never a
individuals even if they are different in terms of religion, marriage between a man and a woman. It is a
language, race, and social class.   cancellation of marriage as if it never happened. The
3. Hypergamy- It is marrying someone who belongs to grounds for annulment include the following: 
a higher caste than that one was born into. It deals with
women marrying someone who belongs to a higher 1. Absence of parental consent during
class, with higher education, financial status, and/or the marriage; 
social status. It is prevalent in societies that put 2. Mental illness; 
importance on social class, finances, and social status.  3. Fraud; 
4. Lack of consent; and 
4. Hypogamy- It deals with a man marrying a woman of 5. Certain disease 
higher class or status. It is prevalent in societies where
women have equal access to opportunities with men.  
5. Isogamy- Biologically, it refers to a condition where
LEGAL SEPARATION 
sex cells, or gametes, are identical to each other.
It is a degree granted by the court allowing the husband 1. Scarcity – resources are scarce (limited)
and wife rightfully to live separately from each then it follows that the goods and services
other, but they are not allowed by the law to acquire new we produce must also be limited. Scarcity
marriage to another partner. restricts options and demands choices.
2. Human wants – are insatiable/unlimited
and innumerable. They are infinite and
LESSON 2 limited only to people’s imagination. Then it
follows that we must satisfy unlimited
THE ECONOMY  human wants for limited resources. 

Societies have developed throughout history because of

the unending contradictions brought by the problem of CORE PHILOSOPHY OF ECONOMICS: “There is
scarce resources to address the unlimited human no such thing as free lunch” 
wants. According to an American Economist Campbell meaning in a world where resources are scarce, things
McConnell, Economics as a discipline is concern about we think are free are not really free because someone has
solving the ‘economizing problem’ that is: the to pay for them. 
unlimited human wants while resources are scarce or
limited. Thus, society must also make choices under
conditions of scarcity. It's a social science that deals
with the efficient allocation of scarce resources for The ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE. How
the satisfaction of human wants and needs. Due to Economists make Economic decision: 
scarcity, people ascertain to compete for resources
hence, economic institutions were established to manage 1. Choice and Opportunity Costs – Scarcity
the proper allocation of resources to address such restricts options and demands choices.
problems. This lesson will cover the discussion on Because we “can’t have it all,” we must
Economic institutions present in our society.  decide what we will have and what we must
forgo. At the core of economics is the idea
that “there is no free lunch.” You may be
treated to lunch, making it “free” to you, but
ECONOMICS 
someone bears a cost. Economists call such
As defined, is a social science that deals with the sacrifices opportunity costs: To obtain
efficient allocation of scarce resources for the more of one thing, society forgoes the
satisfaction of human wants and needs.  opportunity of getting the next best thing.
That sacrifice is the opportunity cost of the
Based on the definition, we can get four choice. 
(4) significant concepts:  2. Purposeful Rational behavior –
Economics assumes that human behavior
1. Economics as Science - Economics is reflects “rational self-interest.” Individuals
considered as a Science because it is a look for and pursue opportunities to increase
systematic body of knowledge. Thus, in their utility: pleasure, happiness, or
understanding and solving economic issues satisfaction as they maximize it. By
or problems we must be guided with a weighing the costs and benefits, their
scientific approach and methods in decisions are “purposeful” or “rational,” not
gathering, presentation, and analysis of “random” or “chaotic.” “Purposeful
data.  behavior” does not assume that people and
2. Economics as a Social Science institutions are immune from faulty logic
- Economics is considered as a Social and therefore are perfect decision-makers.  
Science because we are dealing with human 3. Marginalism: Comparing Cost and
behavior particularly on how individuals Benefit – The economic perspective focuses
and society make choices and decision largely on marginal analysis—comparisons
making.  of marginal benefits and marginal costs. To
economists, “marginal” means “extra,”
ECONOMIZING PROBLEM:  “additional,” or “a change in.” In making
choices rationally, the decision-maker must
compare those two amounts.
ECONOMY  tools, equipment, buildings, and
machinery, to produce goods and
The economy is an institution responsible for addressing services. Money (financial capital) falls
the problem regarding limited resources. In doing such, under the capital, which is simply a means
it needs to answer basic economic questions (which for purchasing capital goods. 
corresponds to different economic problems) of:  4. Entrepreneurship- the ability to combine
1. Consumption - What should (goods and services) be other factors of production (land, labor, and
produced?  capital). The human talent that combines the
other resources to produce a product, make
      -Societies have to decide the best combination of strategic decisions, and bear risks. It also
goods and services to meet their needs.  includes the skills in maintaining the
efficient production of goods and services.  
2. Production - How and how many of these products
(goods and services) are going to be produced?  There are two main contrasting points of view in
answering the questions above. According to liberal
      - Societies also have to decide the best combination
economists, who espouse capitalism, the allocation of
of factors to create the desired output of goods and
resources should be determined by the market. The laws
services. 
and processes in the market should freely determine the
3. Distribution - For whom should these products (goods number of goods and services as well as its value in the
and services) be produced?  market. Consumers and producers are free to participate
in the market. It means that the market can function
      - All societies need to decide who will get the output freely (laissez-faire) and there is no need for state
from the country’s economic activity, and how much intervention. This type of economy (Free-market
they will get.  economy) puts emphasis on the idea of free
competition which will limit the greed of self-interested
4. Growth over time - How will the system individuals. 
accommodate change? 
For Socialists, those who advocate for a Centralized
     - Market systems are dynamic consumer preferences, economy (State influenced economy), they believe that
technology, and supplies of resources all change. the bourgeoisie— social class composed of those
Consumption, production, and distribution of benefits involved in financial sector like bankers, industrialists
(income) happen over time. Their evolution and and owners of corporations who largely control the
history tell about progress and living standards.  means of production— has the control over the free
On how society answers these questions and market economy and the only class benefiting from it.
problems depend on the factors of production and the They comprise the minority of the society hence, wealth
level of technology available. The factors of is concentrated to the few. They believe that the market
production refer to the economic resources needed in and the state must be under the control of the proletariat
order to produce goods and services. These factors or (the laborer/working class) since they comprise the
economic resources are classified by Economists into majority of the society. For Karl Marx and Friedrich
four general categories: land, labor, capital, and Engels, fathers of scientific socialism, the free-market
entrepreneurial ability/ entrepreneurship.  economy alienates the proletariats since they do not have
the capital, unlike the bourgeoisie, to compete in the
Four (4) factors of production:  market. Private property— which is concentrated in the
bourgeoisie— must be abolished and the economy must
1. Land- to the economist land includes all- be under the supervision of the state to promote equal
natural resources (“gifts of nature”) used in distribution of scarce resources in accordance with one’s
the production process. It refers to natural need and not to one’s social class.  
resources such as soil, water, wind,
minerals, plants, and animals.  After the Great Depression in the 1930s, an English
2. Labor- It refers to the human economist named John Maynard Keynes argued that
capital/resources. It consists of the physical while the economy should be left free (governed by the
and mental abilities that people contribute to invisible hand), there are instances where government
the production of goods and services.  intervention is important to prevent market
3. Capital (Capital goods)- It refers to all failures. Market failure is a situation where resources
materials (human-made resources) used in are inefficiently allocated by the market.  
the process of production such as
Types of Market failures  institutions dealing with the government, commercial
banks, and central banks of other countries (Wilson,
1. Monopoly power- the market may fail to 2015). Commercial banks (ex. Bank of the Philippine
control the existence of monopoly and Islands, Banco de Oro, China bank, Eastwest Bank,
cartels which affect the law of supply and Security Bank, Union Bank, etc.,) are privately run and
demand.  profit-driven banking institutions. A corporation is a
2. Missing markets- Markets may fail to meet group of people who owns resources authorized by the
the needs and wants of the people such as state to conduct business. Corporations are large-scale
public goods, such as defense, streetlights, systems that facilitate the distribution and production of
public works, and highways.  goods and services. 
3. De-merit goods- Markets may fail to
regulate the manufacturing of goods and 2. Cooperatives and Trade Unions- Cooperatives are
services which are dangerous or have less firms owned and operated by a group of users for their
merit.  own benefit. Each member contributes equity capital,
4. Incomplete markets- Markets may fail to and shares in the control of the firm on the basis of one-
produce merit goods, such as education and member, one-vote principle— not in proportion to his or
healthcare.  her equity contribution (business dictionary). Trade
5. Negative externalities- Markets may fail to union and/or Labor union is an organization made up of
regulate the consumers and producers that workers with the primary goal of protecting and
may have actions that are harmful to third- advancing the interest of its members in the workplace.
parties. Third-parties are individuals, Some of the concerns of trade unions are the following: 
organizations, or communities directly or
indirectly benefiting or suffering from the 1. Negotiate agreements on pay and
actions of consumers and producers.  working conditions; 
6. Information asymmetry- Markets may not 2. Accompany members in disciplinary and
provide adequate information because, grievance meetings; 
during the transaction, it may be for the 3. Provide members with legal and financial
interest of one party not to disclose full advice; and 
information to the other party or to the 4. Facilitate collective bargaining for the
public.   members with the employer. 
7. Inequality- The market may fail to control
the size of income gaps. Market transactions 3. Transnational advocacy groups – Advocacy refers
reward consumers and producers with to the activity done by an individual or group of
income and profits but it is highly individuals aiming to influence the political, economic,
vulnerable to the monopoly or control of the and social systems. It includes a wide range of activities
few.   from media campaigns and research publications to
8. Unstable markets/Recession- government dialogue and mass protests. Lobbying is a form of
spending is seen as a pump-priming advocacy where individuals directly participate in
mechanism to help the economy reach its legislative sessions to address the social issue/s they are
optimal level.  carrying.  
4. Development Aid Agencies- Aid agencies are
  organizations committed to providing aid. Aid agencies
can be government-led such as USAID, Australian Aid
(AusAID), and Europe Aid; Multilateral donors like
United Nations Development Program; and as private
organizations like Action Aid, Oxfam, Christian Aid,
NON-STATE ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS  and World Vision. Aid can be divided into two
1. Bank and Corporations- Bank is an institution that categories: humanitarian aid and development aid.
deals in money and its substitutes— checkbooks, credit Humanitarian aid includes relief efforts in times of
cards, debit cards, etc., — and provides other money- calamities. Development aid includes grants or foreign
related services. It acts as a financial intermediary in aids for the purpose of long-term development such as
economic systems concern with the flow of money in the housing grants, infrastructure grants, and other similar
system (Wilson, 2015). The two major types of banks programs. 
are the central banks and commercial banks. Central 5. International Organizations- Based on the
banks (ex. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) are public International Law Commission, it is an organization
established by a treaty or other instrument governed by the other side, many critics point out the negative effects
international law. Generally, international organizations of Trade Liberalization to poor countries.  
such as the United Nations have stated as members, but
often other entities can also apply for membership if the “The WTO’s greatest power lies in its dispute settlement
organization will allow it.   body and its cross-retaliation provisions, both of which
enable it to force nations to comply with WTO rules.
 ECONOMY AND GLOBALIZATION  The increasing number of controversial rulings in which
the WTO dispute settlement body has upheld corporate
Globalization, in an economic standpoint, is the “process interests over those of people and the environment has
of progressive growth of economic activities which increased public opposition to the WTO… Globalization
transcends any kind of geographical border. is reducing the power of governments to provide what
Globalization can be seen as the increasing movement of their populations require all over the world. TNCs and
goods and services as well as human resources through international capital have become the de facto new world
trades and investments among nations. Trade government. Their increasing control over the global
liberalization policy and international trade are perceived economy is underpinned by their free trade orthodoxy”
as important ingredients of globalization” (Thai, Rahm, (Hines, 200). 
and Coggburn 2007, p. 2). 
Who runs the world? 
The fundamental goal of economic internationalization
or globalization is free trade which started after World Another fruit of Economic globalization is the
War II. Economic globalization is facilitated by common emergence of Transnational Corporations and
markets between nation-states through free trade Multinational Corporations.  These corporations have
agreements by a supranational organization like the influence over national government policies (especially
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB), economic policies) because of their ability to invest and
World Trade Organization (WTO), North American Free reinvest capital, relocate factories, and influence other
Trade Agreement, Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), similar companies in either investing or rejecting a
European Union, Association of Southeast Asian country.  
Nations (APEC), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC), the Common Market of the South
Multinational
(MERCOSUR), and other bilateral trade agreements.  Transnational corporations 
corporations 
However, the World Trade Organization (WTO) —
established on January 1, 1995, under the Marrakech  National
 Does not identify
Agreement replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs companies
itself with one
and Trades (GATT) — is the only global international with foreign
national home.  
organization dealing with the rules of trade between subsidiaries. 
 Spread out
nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and  Example:
operations in
services, exporters, and importers conduct their business Coca-Cola
many countries
(WTO website).  Company
through
(US),
outsourcing and
WTO promotes free trade and fair trade. Moreover, Accenture
offshore
WTO is also concern about committing its members to a (US), Mars
investment.  
variety of noble objectives: improved standards of chocolates
 Example:
living, full employment, expanded production of trade (US),
General Electric
and services, sustainable development, and an enhanced Telefonica
(US), Royal
share of developing countries in world trade. (Spain),
Dutch Shell
Furthermore, the agreement commits its members to McDonald’s
(Netherlands/UK)
make these objectives attainable by having reciprocal (US),
, Exxon Mobil
and mutually advantageous arrangements (substantial Google
(US), Toyota
reduction of tariffs and barriers to trade) and to the (US),
(Japan), Total
elimination of discriminatory treatment in international Microsoft
(France). 
trade relations (Narllikar, 2005).  (US). 
Liberal Economists consider trade liberalization as
favorable to democracy. Liberalization accelerates TNCs are a significant driving force of the globalized
growth and increases competitiveness. Growth following economy. They enable the expansion of trade and
economic liberalization may permit redistribution investment flows and establish economic linkages
required in democracy (Pelaez and Pelaez, 2008). But on between developed and developing states. TNCs are
important producers and transporters of goods and chocolate manufacturers agreed to end the
services. More than being an economic unit, TNCs also use of abusive child labor on cocoa farms
function as strong cultural and political forces. Some but until now it failed to do so. In Italy in
scholars have argued that TNCs are beneficial for 2005, the government seized more than two
developing countries because of the transfer of million liters of infant formula produced by
technology, information, and diffusion of knowledge. Nestle due to contamination with isopropyl
They also bring sufficient capital to developing countries thioxanthone chemical.  
to stimulate economic growth through direct foreign  Wal-Mart, the biggest retail corporation in
investments. These investments create jobs and other the world with around 1.5 million employers
solid investments like infrastructures for the host worldwide, has a long track record of
country.  violating worker’s rights. In September
2005, the International Labor Rights Fund
TNCs are still subject to the regulation of every national sued Wal-Mart on behalf of Wal-Mart
government. But their nature (transnationality) can give supplier sweatshop workers in China,
them superior power over national governments. The Indonesia, Bangladesh, Nicaragua, and
potential amount of capital that they can invest in a Swaziland. The workers involved were
country or region is very crucial to the economic well- denied of their basic labor rights like the
being of a country or region. To ensure that economic minimum wage. They were also forced to
stability, and political stability to some extent, will be work overtime without additional
sustained, States have to compete globally for TNC compensation and without a mandated
investments. TNCs benefit out of that competition.   healthcare package.  
John Madelley, one of the critics of TNCs, talked about
the effects of TNC operations on poor countries. He said Developing countries are more vulnerable to TNC's
“TNCs have successfully persuaded people in operation compared to developed countries. It is because
developing countries to adopt products such as Coca- of the high environmental standards and more
Cola, Seven-up, Pepsi, Kentucky Fried Chicken, beef established institutions in developed countries while
burgers, cigarettes and so on as part of their way of life. developing countries suffer from low legal standards,
Such goods cost a sizeable proportion of the poor’s inefficient and ineffective law enforcement, and safety
earnings, with the result that traditional and usually more regulations. Because of these, TNCs can easily get away
nutritious foods cannot be afforded, and health suffers. from their violations.  
By consuming inappropriate products, the poor have less Corporate Social Responsibility 
money to buy basic necessities.” 
Because of the growing pressure from anti-globalization
Aside from the fact that TNCs are being blamed for movements, environmental groups, and even
poverty in developing countries, they are also being governments, many TNCs, even local corporations, are
blamed for severe environmental problems due to now implementing or exercising Corporate Social
excessive mining, destructive logging, and other Responsibility. As defined, CSR “refers to any activity
environment-insensitive activities.   that promotes the welfare of any stakeholder of a
Some of these are the following:  business corporation. Sometimes, CSR refers to
philanthropic programs targeting communities or
 Texaco— which transferred the operation to employees. Other times it refers to commitments to
Chevron after being brought out in 2001— promote the welfare of suppliers. It also refers to a
unleashed a toxic ‘Rainforest Chernobyl’ in variety of activities designed to enhance environmental
Ecuador by leaving over 600  unlined oil stewardship. More generally, it refers to a vague
pits in pristine northern Amazon rainforest intention to better society (corporate citizenship)”
and dumping 18 billion gallons of toxic (Ludescher and Mahsud, 2010). 
production water into rivers used by the Examples of CSRs are the following: 
residents for bathing and washing.  
1. Every year, employees of the General
 Nestle, considered as one of the largest Electric Company volunteer for over 1
buyers of cocoa from the Ivory Coast, has million hours. The GE Foundation has
issues concerning child labor and supported, for years, senior citizens,
contaminated products. Nestle is aware of children with autism and various literacy
the child labor taking place on farms in programs  
which it buys cocoa and together with other
 2. Dell supports over 4,615 charities Furthermore, The United Nations Universal Declaration
worldwide. Dell’s Youth Connect program on Human Rights Article states: 
provides technology and educational
facilities in 11 countries. Dell also has its 1. Everyone has the right to education.
Social Innovation Challenge which provides Education shall be free, at least in the
funding and training to college students. elementary and fundamental stages.
Dell’s CSR also extends to disaster relief Elementary education shall be compulsory.
operations in which it provides holistic Technical and professional education shall
community assistance around the world.  be made generally available and higher
3. SM Prime Holdings has various civic education shall be equally accessible to
assistance programs as part of its Corporate all on the basis of merit. 
Social Responsibility. SM Cares, the one 2. Education shall be directed to the full
responsible for its CSR, has programs development of the human personality and
focused on the environment and people and to the strengthening of respect for human
communities. Some of its programs are: (1) rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
An awareness program under its Green promote understanding, tolerance, and
Retail Agenda conducted for mall tenants, friendship among all nations, racial or
business partners, and stakeholders; (2) Top religious groups, and shall further the
Leaders forum, a program encouraging activities of the United Nations for the
business leaders to promote, invest and plan maintenance peace.  
on disaster risk reduction; (3) Greenhouse
Gas Emissions management; (4) Children Thus, every government must provide basic education
and Youth Development through and must ensure that its citizens have access to quality
scholarship grants; (5) elderly and Persons education. In the Philippines, various institutions were
with Disability care; and lastly, Women and established to supervise the education of its people: 
Breastfeeding Mothers program. 
Department of Education- the government agency
tasked to provide quality basic education (kindergarten
to senior high school) that is equitably accessible to all
LESSON 3 and lay the foundation for life-long learning and services
for the common good. The current Secretary of DepEd is
EDUCATION AND HEALTH INSTITUTIONS Prof. Emeritus Leonor Matolis- Briones. 
Commission on Higher Education- Created under RA
Education is a powerful agent in honing the minds of the 7722 or the Higher Education Act of 1994, CHED— an
people. It shapes one’s consciousness and understanding agency under the Office of the President— has the duty
to supervise the tertiary and graduate education in the
about the society he/she lives in. Educational institutions
country. The current Chairperson of CHED is Dr. J.
ensure that every individual is functionally-literate.
Prospero de Vera III. 
Health institutions, on the other hand, provide access to
health services to ensure that individuals will have a Technical and Skills Development Authority- Created
complete physical, mental and social well-being, and under RA 7796 or the Technical Education and Skills
free from diseases and other treats to holistic Development Act of 1994, TESDA is an agency which
development. This lesson will discuss the functions, supervises the technical-vocational and middle-level
current trends, and issues in education as well as the education in the country and is also tasked to formulate
functions of health institutions, current trends, and issues the comprehensive development plan for middle-level
manpower based on the National Technical and Skills
in contemporary society.  
Development Plan. The current Director-General of
TESDA (with cabinet secretary rank) is Secretary Isidro
S. Lapeña. 
EDUCATION 
 
Education is the right of every individual and only of the
few. UNESCO states that education is a fundamental TYPES OF EDUCATION 
human right and essential for the exercise of all other
Formal Education 
human rights (The right to education, 2015).
It is an educational system with organized academic and inequality, both by controlling access to education
non-academic programs (subjects and requirements), (Ballantine, 1987) and by training docile, discipline
hierarchical organizational structure (faculty members workers (Rothstein, 1987). 
and administrators), and with a chronological
arrangement of educational level (kindergarten to For Randall Collins, a neo-Weberian sociologist,
tertiary level). Students attend their classes regularly. education functions as a filter to perpetuate
They acquire knowledge, skills, and attitude inside an credentialism. Credentialism refers to the practice of
established institution like the school. The school is a relying on someone’s earned credentials when hiring or
formal education system.   assigning social status rather than on actual skills.
Collins said that hiring must be based on the actual skills
Non-formal/ Non-traditional Education  and not on the basis of educational attainment, though it
is necessary.  
It is often referred to as quasi-formal education. Students
under this type of education do not regularly come to According to American economist Samuel Bowles and
school, unlike informal education. There is also a system Herbert Gintis, the author of Schooling in Capitalist
of methods and procedures used by students and America, education is a tool for capitalism to equip the
instructors in conducting this kind of program the same workers with the necessary skills so they can be hired
with formal education. Students under this program and be exploited by the employers. The school teaches
often acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes outside the its students the values necessary to become a successful
formal schooling. An example of this is the Alternative worker rather than to become an empowered individual
Learning System (ALS).  free from ignorance. 
The Alternative Learning System (ALS) is the Maslow and Education 
Department of Education’s flagship program offering
non-formal education to out-of-school Filipino youth In Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-
and adults who have failed to complete basic education.  actualization is on top of the needs or development of an
individual. Self-actualization refers to one’s contentment
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TO SOCIETY  and self-empowerment. It can only happen if an
individual is free from ignorance. Education brings forth
There are various perspectives and ideas revolving when the following: 
functions of education are the topic. Some of the leading
ideas regarding the function of education in the society 1. The freedom to make informed choices 
are the following:  2. The joy of socializing with friends and
Functionalist Theory and Education  classmates and by learning together 
3. The experience to be moved by what you
The educational system, according to functional see, feel, touch, and think inside and outside
theory will ensure the social, political, and economic the classroom.  
stability of the society. The functionalist perspective is 4. The feeling of excitement and joy in
very positive about education’s role in a commercial preparing for your career before and after
society. Schools are seen as a “benevolent but powerful graduation 
force creating the social cohesion and unity.” that 5. The discovery of new knowledge and
commercial society requires. (Rothstein, 1987)  disseminating it through research and
publication 
Horace Mann, an American educational reformer, said 6. The possibility of becoming an intelligent
that education could cure social ills. It is a tool in giving consumer 
people the knowledge and technical skills to participate 7. The opportunity to be creative and
in national development. It is an institution that innovative  
determines one’s future status. Thus, it is believed that 8. The honor of sharing your wisdom to others
education must be based on meritocracy or merit as a mentor, a teacher, or even as a good
system.   friend. 
Conflict Theory and Education  
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION 
Conflict theory holds that education is one of the
primary ways that those in power maintain their power. Education and Economic Development 
Rather than stressing the formal and informal purposes Education is an important component of national
of education in society, conflict theories see education development. It provides knowledge and skills to
as a tool used by the ruling classes to perpetuate social citizens to improve the productivity of labor. Through
educational research, innovations and discoveries and prestigious institutions. According to the United
happen which are all important for continuous Nations Population Fund, two-thirds of illiterate adults
development and upgrading of technologies. Thus, it is a are women. 
priority for the government. In the Philippines, the
constitution specified that education should have the  
biggest budget allocation every fiscal year.  Women Education  
In 1996, Jacques Delor reported to the International KEY INFORMATION 
Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century,
UNESCO through his work entitled Learning, The 1. Girls with no education are 3 times as likely to marry
Treasure Within where he suggested that countries by 18 as those with secondary or higher education. 
should allocate at least 6% of its Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) to the education sector. The Philippine 2. Over 60% of women (20-24) with no education were
budget for education, though increasing every year, is married before 18 
below the international standard.  
3. With secondary schooling, girls are up to six times
  less likely to marry as children compared to girls who
have lit 
                                                                                    
Youth and Education  Source: www.girlsnotbrides.org 
Based on the 2017 Annual Poverty Indicators Survey In recognition of the existing bias, discrimination, and
(APIS), about nine percent of the estimated 39.2 million violence against women, the Congress passed the
Filipinos aged 6 to 24 years old were out-of-school Republic Act no. 9710 or an Act providing for the
children and youth (OSCY). OSCY refers to family Magna Carta of Women in 2008. One of its concerns is
members 6 to 14 years old who are not attending formal the stereotypes in education: 
school; and family members 15 to 24 years old who are
currently out of school, not gainfully employed, and Sec. 13. Equal Access and Elimination of Discrimination
have not finished college or post-secondary courses.   in Education, Scholarships, and Training.  

Of the 3.6 million OSCYs, 83.1%0 were 16 to 24 years 1. The state shall ensure that gender
old, 11.2% percent were 12 to 15 years old and 5.7% stereotypes and images in educational
were 6 to 11 years old. The proportion of OSCYs was materials and curricula are adequately and
higher among females (63.3%) than males (36.7%) appropriately revised. The gender-sensitive
(Table 1).  language shall be used at all times.
Capacity-building on gender and
Currently, the government has various programs to
development (GAD), peace and human
provide both informal and formal education and to
right, education for teachers, and all those
ensure that education will be accessible to all. One of
involved in the education sector shall be
these programs is the Alternative Learning System
pursued toward this end. Partnerships
commonly known as ALS. ALS is a learning system that
between and among players of the education
provides alternative education to those who cannot
sector, including the private sector,
access formal schooling. Currently, there are major
churches, and faith groups shall be
programs under ALS namely: Basic Literacy Program
encouraged.  
and Continuing Education Program. 
Women and Education  Education and Globalization 

The United Nations Declaration and the Philippine Internationalization of Education 

constitution guarantee education as everyone’s right. But
until now women have always been at a disadvantage Globalization of education refers to the worldwide
when it comes to access to education. Various forms of discussions, processes, and institutions affecting local
disadvantages on the side of women exist. It includes educational practices and policies (Spring, 2009).
gender stereotypes in schools, gender-insensitive Various international and regional organs, agreements,
pedagogy, sexual harassment, limited opportunities for and declarations affect a country’s national or local
promotion and professional development, and school systems. With the advent of technology, it seems
underrepresentation of women in senior academic and like the world shrank into a small village where
administrative positions or in higher status disciplines information can transport easily from one place to
another. The policies of the United Nations (UN), 2. Transformation of education institutions to a
Organization for Economic Co-operation and market institution; and 
Development (OECD), UNESCO, World Trade 3. The loss of academic norms in favor of
Organization (WTO) and the General Agreements on corporate rules. 
Tariffs and Trades (GATT) among others serve as
powerful forces in shaping and influencing the economic The increasing level of privatization and marketization
and education policy of every country that is part of it.   of educational institutions lead to education being
commodified and commercialized. The corporatization
Agreements at the international or regional level also of education, in part, has been the result of decreasing
play a significant role in the internationalization of national government support for universities and
education. Some of these agreements are the following:  students.  
1. Bologna Process- Named after the Another effect of globalization is embracing the
University of Bologna where it was corporate character of profit-driven ‘managerialism’ in
proposed, the Bologna declaration is a administering a school. ‘Managerialism’ according
commitment from the signatory states to to Kilkauer (2013) “rejects any plea of a fundamental
have some degree of uniformity to the difference between the operations of a hospital and the
higher education system while maintaining manufacturing and marketing of soft drinks. In both
their various approaches. It was signed by cases, it is claimed, the optimal policy is to design
29 Education Ministers from European organizations responding directly to consumer demand,
countries in line with the European and to operate such institutions using generic
Integration in 1999.  management techniques applicable to all corporations.”
2. Washington Accord- It is an international Many humanist and radical educators argue that
agreement between parties responsible for ‘managerialism’ brought by the application of neo-
the accreditation of engineering degree liberal policies to higher education compromise the
programs. It recognizes the equivalency of academic nature and character of a tertiary education
programs accredited by those bodies and institution. For Robert Nisbet, the traditional role of
recommends that graduates of the programs schools (colleges and universities) is for “the pursuit of
accredited by any of the signatory bodies be knowledge for its own sake. Knowledge and the
recognized by other bodies as having met processes of coming to know are good in themselves,
the academic standards needed for the and the university, above all institutions, is— or used to
practice of engineering.   be— devoted to them. To investigate, to find out, to
organize and contemplate knowledge, these are what
Effects of globalization in providing education services  universities are about” (Nisbet, 1971). With the
application of neo-liberal policies (managerialism), for
One of the effects of the continuous internationalization some scholars, universities become training grounds to
of education is the application of neo-liberal orientation produce skilled workers to be deployed in the market
in managing an educational institution. Neo-liberal which is far from its traditional role of being the pursuit
policies aim to abolish state subsidies for social services of knowledge for its own sake. The marketing of
like education and let the economy open for foreign education results in students becoming consumers who
investments and private institutions as source of basic will expect tangible products, such as a degree and easy
services. Just like how employment (Pratt and pole, 2000). Some scholars, in
multinational corporations function, the development of contrast, argue that the application of these policies to
transnational universities (i.e.______) and twinning educational institutions is necessary to make the delivery
programs between various national and international of service efficient and corruption-free. Both
schools make education a big business (Henry et. al, perspectives operate on different claims and
1999), (Pratt and Pole, 2000). Universities attract assumptions.  
students by marketing their offered programs through
various initiatives such as having satellite campuses Multiculturalism and Education 
abroad, international partners, international
accreditations, corporate partners, and the like.   One of the key education policies prevalent in our
education system is the idea of standardization. The
Some of the implications of applying neo-liberal standardization of educational examinations, quality
orientation to schools are the following:  measures, and curriculum, for some scholars, fails to
address the cultural differences among learners. This
1. The increasing level of pressure kind of policy is a reflection of the assimilationist
for privatization;  ideology that dominated western societies. In the
assimilationist paradigm, education is used by nation- available, and of good quality for everyone. They should
states to force individuals to surrender their ethnicity in be willing to accept patients and should provide
exchange for citizenship since nationhood is equated to medicines on an equitable basis, wherever and whenever
having a singular culture. Many educators, especially needed.  
indigenous educators, have challenged this approach to
education. For them, the assimilationist approach has The third goal of the 2030 Agenda or the Sustainable
been detrimental to the over-all scholastic performance Development Goals launched by the United Nations last
and achievements of the minorities. In some cases, the 2016 where the Philippines is one of the signatories puts
assimilationist approach tends to promote cultural emphasis on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-
discrimination since most likely it is the culture of the being for all of all ages. It calls for the improvement of
majority which will be the standard to follow maternal and child health; ending of major
undervaluing minority cultures. For the advocates of communicable diseases such as HIV; reducing non-
cultural diversity, multicultural education must be the communicable diseases such as cancer; achieving
approach to use. James Banks (2009), considered as the universal health coverage across all ages; and ensuring
father of American multicultural education said access to affordable, effective, and safe medicines and
“Multicultural education is an inclusive concept used to vaccines. 
describe a wide variety of school practices, programs TRENDS AND ISSUES IN HEALTH 
and materials designed to help children from diverse
groups to experience educational quality” (p. 182). Traditional Healing 
Furthermore, according to Banks, “A major goal of
multicultural education is to restructure schools so that Traditional healing is considered as the oldest form of
all students acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills structured medicine. It is the medicine where all other
needed to function in ethnically and racially diverse forms originate such as Chinese medicine, Graeco-
communities and nations, and in the world. Multicultural Arabic medicine, and modern western medicine. Unlike
education seeks to actualize educational quality for other traditional medicines, it has no philosophical base
students from diverse groups, and to facilitate their as its practice is founded on the pure knowledge of
participation as critical and reflective citizens in an healing accumulated though time upon the healer’s
inclusive national civic culture” (p. 12). Multicultural personal experiences, awareness and unity to the natural
education is not just merely inculcating the value of world, and understanding of different levels of
respect for cultural diversity among students but also consciousness within the human psyche. Often
about empowering minorities in society to solve racial times traditional healing is called ‘wisdom medicine’ or
and cultural prejudgments. In doing so, teachers must be ‘wizard medicine’ and healers are referred to as ‘wise
equipped with culture-responsive education. Curriculum, men’  
programs, and teaching methods should be streamlined
according to the cultural context of learners.  
 
Alternative Medicine 
HEALTH 
It refers to any practice that has healing effects of
According to the World Health
medicine but does not originate from evidence gathered
Organization, health refers to the complete physical,
using the scientific methods. It is composed of wide
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence
range practices, products, and various therapies that are
of diseases or infirmity. Health also means the complete
either biologically plausible but not well tested or totally
soundness of body and soul (Darilag et. al., 2009). 
contradicted by evidence and science, which are
Health and healthcare as basic human rights  harmful. Examples of this are homeopathy, naturopathy,
chiropractic and energy medicine, various forms of
The right to health means everyone should have the acupuncture, traditional Chinese medicine, ayurvedic
opportunity to access the highest attainable standard of medicine, and Christian faith healing.  
physical and mental health. It means that everyone
should have access to medical services, sanitation, Alternative medicines, diagnoses, and practices are not
adequate and nutritious food, decent housing, a clean part of medical school curriculums because it is not
environment, and safe and healthy working conditions. considered as medicine obtained out of scientific-based
The right to healthcare means that health care testing. The regulation and licensing of alternative
institutions such as hospitals, clinics, and rehabilitation medicines and alternative medicine providers vary from
centers; medicines, and supplements as well as medical country to country.  
personnel such as doctors and nurses must be accessible,
  LESSON 4
TEENAGE PREGNANCY  RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEM 
One of the common health concerns facing the youth To study culture is to study religion, as many (not
today especially women is the high number of teenage necessarily incorrectly) characterizes others through
pregnancies often resulting in a poor family their religion while proper judgments of a fellow human
establishment, destruction of education of teenagers being must take into consideration one’s culture, instead
involved, and continuity of poverty due to lack of of just religious orientations, given that many belief
education resulting in underemployment and worst is systems in the world apply their interpretation of
unemployment.  
spiritual sources in different ways. While culture is a
One in ten young Filipino women age 15 to 19 is to be a broader concept indeed, an understanding of religion is
mother or pregnant with first child: Eight percent are necessary given the role that world religions have played
already mothers and another two percent are pregnant. in shaping the history of humankind. This inseparability
Among young adults age 20 to 24 years old, 43 percent is also especially true as most of the global population
are already mothers while 4 percent are pregnant with are members of a certain religion or at least spiritual in
their first child. This was the result of the 2013 National nature, making our beliefs part of who we are in our
Demographic and Health Survey conducted by the core. 
Philippine Statistics Authority released last August
2014.  “Religion is the opium of the masses."  -Karl Marx 
According to the report, early pregnancy is more Religion is a very powerful institution that can connect
common among young adult women age 15 to 24 with and unify human beings. It is characterized as a system
less education than those with higher education. 44 of beliefs and practices embedded in one’s
percent of women with elementary education got consciousness which connects the physical world to the
pregnant compared to 21 percent of women with a beyond.  
college education.  
BELIEF SYSTEM 
In initiating their first sexual activity, one in five youth
age 18 to 24 years old had it before 18. The initiation of These are ideas we tell ourselves to define and support
sexual activity before age 18 is more common among our personal sense of ‘reality’. Everyone has his/her own
young adult women with less education and those in belief system that he/she utilizes to ‘make sense’ of the
poorer households. The survey further reveals that 15 world he/she is living in.  
percent of young adult women age 20 to 24 years old
There are two forms of belief system. A belief system
had their first marriage or live with their partner at the
can be evidence-based or faith-based.  
age of 18.  
  Faith-based belief
Evidence-based belief system 
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES  system 

Another health concern that poses a serious threat to the  Science is the  In
safety of the youth today is the alarming number of HIV foundation of evidence- contra
cases in the Philippines. While the number of cases in based belief system st,
developed countries continuously declining, the number under the idea that the faith-
of cases in Asia is continuously increasing especially in world can be explained based
the Philippines where the most significant increase was through observation, beliefs
recorded all over Southeast Asia.   experiment, and are
prediction or through mental
In July 2019, there were 1,111 newly confirmed HIV- the use of scientific constr
positive individuals reported to the HIV/AIDS & ART methods.  ucts
Registry of the Philippines (HARP). This was 29%  The key element of that
higher compared with the diagnosed cases (859) in the science is the lack
same period last year. Eighteen percent (199) had recognition that eviden
clinical manifestations of advanced HIV infection everyone possesses indi ce.  
(WHO clinical stage 3 or 4) at the time of diagnosis. vidual belief hence,  It can
capable of making bias be
in their interpretation of based
 on a
lack of RELIGION
the world. 
eviden
 Because of this, science
ce or Collins Oxford Britannica
attempts to eliminate
eviden Dictionary  Dictionary  Encyclopedia 
such bias by requiring
ce
strict definitions of
which
terms and concepts, and
may This refers to the
evidence must be
be relation of human
available for
impos beings to what they
independent
sible consider as holy,
verification by others.   A system of
to Refers to sacred, absolute,
faith and
gather.  belief and/or worship to spiritual, divine, or
  worthy of especial
system of superhuman
  belief in God controlling reverence.
or gods and Furthermore, it has to
power. This can
all activities also mean a do with the way people
  deal with concerns
related to such pursuit or
ANIMISM, POLYTHEISM, AND MONOTHEISM belief.   about their lives and
interest
their fate after death.
  followed with
Prayer, meditations,
great devotion. 
and rituals are among
Animism— comes from the Latin word ‘anima’ which the many practices
means ‘breathe, spirit, life’— is the view that non- being done in relation
human creatures— such as animals and plants— possess to one’s religious life. 
a spiritual essence. Animism (in the anthropology of
religion) is a term referring to the belief system of some
indigenous tribal people prior to the introduction of
organized religion. Animism as a concept has drawn
TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION 
contrasting opinions whether it is a broad religious belief
or a full-pledged independent religion. But the currently There are various types of religious organizations
acceptable characterization of animism was introduced existing in different societies. Commonly, Sociologists
by Sir Edward Tylor in the late 19th century.  Animism categorize or group these organizations based on their
is the belief that there is no separation between the size and influence (Emerson, Monahan, & Mirola,
spiritual and physical world, and that souls and spirits 2011). There are three main types of religious
exist, not only in humans but also in animals, plants, organizations: church, sect, and cult. The Church has
rocks, and all other entities of the environment and to two subtypes: ecclesia and denomination.  
any materials.  
Polytheism refers to the belief in multiple gods or
deities along with their own religions and rituals. In Church 
religions that practice polytheism, gods and goddesses
are representations of forces of nature and/or ancestral It is a large, bureaucratically organized religious
principles and virtues. Polytheists (the term which refers organization imbedded into the larger society. The
to the person practicing polytheism) can be a henotheist, church can be an ecclesia or a denomination. Ecclesia is
specialized in worshipping one particular a large bureaucratic religious organization formally
god/goddess among all gods and goddesses integrated into the state where most or all of a state’s
or kathenotheists, worshiping different gods and citizens are members. It means that ecclesia is the
goddesses at different times or problems.   national or state religion. Usually, people become
automatically part of the ecclesia when they are born.
Monotheism refers to the belief or worship of one god Examples of ecclesiae existing in the world are the
or oneness of God. Monotheism characterizes the following: Islam in Saudi Arabia (Sunni Islam) and in
traditions of Babism, the Baha I’ some other Middle Eastern states, Catholic Church in
Faith, Caodaiism, Cheondoism, Christianity, Islam, Spain, Lutheran Church in Sweden, and Anglican
Judaism, Rastafari, Shaivism, Shaktism, Sikhism, Church in England. Because ecclesia and the state are so
Zoroastrianism and many more.  closely integrated, some ecclesiastic societies like
Middle Eastern states have religious leaders who rule the
state or have much influence over it. Denomination, the Evangelical Protestant Christians 
same as ecclesia, is a large, bureaucratic religious
organization integrated into the society; but unlike Protestantism was introduced in the Philippines by
ecclesia, is not a formal part of the state. Membership to American Missionaries during the American occupation
a denomination is usually caused by the membership of in the early 19th century. Some protestant groups are
the parents. Membership to a denomination lasts until affiliated with the Philippine Council of Evangelical
death whether actively practicing or not unless they Churches. This organization, though similar to other
convert to another denomination.   Christian groups, emerged as a counter to Roman
Catholicism. The main beliefs include the spreading of
Sect  salvation through scriptural teachings, faith in the
finished work of the cross, which is the death and
It is a relatively small religious organization, not deeply resurrection of Jesus, and a personal conversion known
integrated into the larger society, and often contradicts as being “Born-Again.” 
with some societal norms and values influenced by the
larger religious organization. Commonly, sects are Iglesia ni Cristo (Philippine Church of Christ) 
breakaway of the larger denomination in an effort
to preserve what members deemed as original views of Unlike the previously mentioned religious organizations
the denomination. Their worship styles can be more which originated from other nations, Iglesia ni Cristo,
emotional compared to denominations where worship commonly known as INC, was established within the
services are commonly formal. Sect members actively country in the early 19th century. This sect believes in a
proselytize to recruit new members.   supreme God and in the power of its scriptures but
rejects the doctrine of Trinitarianism. They subscribe to
Cult  the doctrine of Unitarianism, which states that God is a
singular entity and not into three forms.  
It is a small religious organization that contradicts most
of the societal norms and values of the larger society. Buddhism 
Cults and sects are generally similar except in some key
areas. First, unlike sects, they did not break away from The time of introduction of this religion to the country is
larger denominations instead originate outside the unknown although archeological records point towards
common religious institutions. Second, they are secretive the 6th or 7th century due to sea trade between the
and do not actively proselytize. Third, they much rely on Empire of India and early occupants of Philippine
charismatic leaders who have extraordinary personal islands. The primary followers of this religion are
qualities.   Chinese, Filipino-Chinese, Japanese, and other groups
with Asian descent residing in the country. Their main
beliefs include suffering that is inherent in human
existence, the impermanence of everything in the world,
RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS IN THE and the absence of permanent soul. 
PHILIPPINES 
Indigenous Beliefs 
Roman Catholic Christianity 
Indigenous traditions are already present in the country
Roman Catholic has the largest religious members in the even before the arrival of colonial religions of Islam and
Philippines. Catholics believe in one God who has three Christianity. The most common among traditional
forms: God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; beliefs is the animism, the belief that even non-living
known as the Holy Trinity. There are three sacraments entities have spirits. Indigenous belief is often
considered by Catholics as holy. These are Water characterized by worship into various gods or known as
baptism, Confirmation, and Eucharist.  Polytheistic belief system. 
Islam 
Share of
It is considered as the second-largest religion in the Rank  Religious Belief  Filipino
country. It existed in the country even before the Population 
introduction of Christianity. Same with Christians,
Muslims also believe in one supreme God known to
them as Allah. There are five principles in the Islamic 1  Roman Catholic Christianity  80.6 % 
belief system that Muslims adhere to. These are (1)
Shahada, declaration of faith; (2) Salat, the prayer; (3)
Zakat, almsgiving or charity; (4) Ramadan, the ritual 2  Islam  5.6 % 
fast; and (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage.  
 Evangelical Protestant Christians
3  2.7 % 
(PCEC) 
(UNIT V- Social and Political Stratifications)
Iglesia ni Cristo (Philippine
4  2.5 %  LESSON 1
Church of Christ) 
THE CONCEPT AND THEORIES OF SOCIAL
Buddhism,Indigenous Beliefs, STRATIFICATION
5  8.6 % 
other Christians, and Atheists 

The larger the membership of the society is, the more it

is prone to chaos. This leads to a natural settlement of
self-organization or a self-appointed responsibility for
the “powers that be” to put everyone in their proper
places, so to speak. However this may seem like the very
definition of “harsh reality”, it roots from a necessity to
distribute the scarce resources (material or non-material)
the Earth has to offer. Politically, ensuring the functions
and roles of the members of the society is essential for
its self-sustainability but we all know how that can be -
and has been - abused throughout mankind. The order of
nature seems to dictate or determine that the simplest
way to organize society is through classes or levels,
which has had mixed results for each society.

Social Stratification 
Stratification refers to the division of large social groups
into smaller groups based on categories determined by
economics (Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016).
According to Ariola (2016), it is a hierarchy of
positions regarding economic production which
influences the social rewards to those in the positions.
Stratification in simple terms is the division of people,
by the hierarchy in positions, based on their access to
economic resources. The higher the access to economic
resources, the higher one’s social class. Social
stratification reflects inequality in society. Social class
also affects political relations; the higher one’s class, the
higher its level of political participation and influence.
The common bases of social stratification include
wealth, property, access to material and cultural goods,
access to political power, race, gender, and religion
(Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). The impact of
stratification based on different standards varies from
society to society. 

Systems of Stratification 
There are two systems of stratification, namely closed
and open systems.  
 1. Closed system- Closed systems have rigid existed. Even during the period of Plato and Kautilya,
boundaries between social groups emphasis on political, social, and economic inequalities
 limiting interaction among various existed. 
members who belong to different social
groups or hierarchy. This system is       4.      It is diverse in form 
considered resistant to change as it allows The forms of stratification differ from society to society.
minimal to no exchanges between social In India, stratification in a form of caste is found. Aryas’
groups. An example of a rigid closed system society was divided into four varnas: Brahmins,
is the Caste system. Caste promotes belief in Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. Ancient Greeks were
destined status by the spiritual higher being divided between Freemen and slaves while Romans were
than the promotion of freedom to decide on divided into patricians and plebians. New and old
one’s fate in life. People under caste should societies have different forms and levels of
accept their social standing and permanently stratification. 
remain in it under their death. They are
expected to perform tasks and observe social      5.     Social stratification is consequential 
order based on their social standing.  
Stratification affects the ‘life chances’ and ‘lifestyle’ of
1. Open system- under an open system. individuals. Depending on the society to which they
stratification is highly based on meritocracy belong and on the openness or closeness of the system,
or achievement, allowing flexible social stratification affects the chances of individuals to
roles, and more social engagements across survive, to have good health, to obtain opportunities and
people in other social groups and classes. A education, to secure employment, and chances of being
class system based on the ownership of fairly treated. A lifestyle that includes preference in
resources can also be considered as an open terms of music, dress, food, recreational activities, etc. is
system as it allows terms of social mobility, also affected by social stratification.  
hence the existence of exogamous
relationships and marriages. Exogamous
marriage is a marriage between
two individuals from different social
classes. 

Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification 

Characteristics of Social Stratification 
The existence and proliferation of various social
According to Ariola (2016), Social stratification can be
stratifications can be examined using different
characterized based on the following: 
theoretical perspectives. There are two main theories that
explain such namely functionalism, and conflict theory. 
1. Social stratification is universal 
1. Functionalism 
There is no society in the world that is free from
stratification. According to Sorokin, “all permanently
Functionalism maintains that society is a complex
organized groups are stratified.” 
system of interrelated and independent components and
each component influences or affects one another. Each
2.    Stratification is social component serves a purpose in order to maintain the
stability of society. Functionalists believe that social
Biological factors such as age, sex, intelligence as well stratification is based on the intrinsic value of social
as strength can be a factor on which status is activities or roles (Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016).
distinguished; but education, property, power, In the Davis-Moore thesis by Kingsley Davis and
experience, character, and personality among others are Wilbert Moore in 1945, it was pointed out that a social
more common bases of stratification.  role with greater functional purpose will result in greater
reward, and that stratification symbolizes the unequal
3.     It is ancient value of different works. This causes members to seek
high-value positions and to do well on their assigned
Stratification is a very old system. In almost all work. This means that stratification or inequality is
civilizations, segregations based on wealth and power
necessary as it motivates individuals to be efficient and as the movement of an individual within or between
productive in their work. social hierarchy in his/her lifetime.

2.   Conflict Theory  
LESSON 2
Conflict theory views stratification critically as it
perpetuates inequality. Many of the ideas under conflict SOCIAL INEQUALITIES: POVERTY, GENDER,
theory were drawn from the works of Karl Marx. He ETHNICITY, AND RACE, 
believed that relationships in society is based on the AND PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
factors of production, hence social stratification is
influenced by the economic forces. For Marx, society is
divided into two groups: the Bourgeoisie that controls Social inequality 
the modes of production, and the proletariats who
provide manual labor needed to produce goods. Marx Social inequality is the existence of unequal
believed that inequalities between the bourgeoisie and opportunities and rewards for the different social
proletariats cause workers to experience unfair positions or statuses within a group or society (Ariola,
treatment, exploitation, and alienation. this situation for 2016). It happens when resources are unevenly
Marx leads to class conflict. Conflict theory holds that distributed favoring individuals or groups of people.
inequality is harmful as it creates a fixed system of While merit is being claimed as the primary basis for
winners and losers.   resource distribution, various researches have shown that
distribution is widely affected by other socially defined
Social Mobility  conditions. Social inequality is linked to racial, ethnic,
Social mobility is the ability of individuals or groups to and gender inequalities among others. 
change their positions within a social stratification Poverty 
system (Atienza, Rico, Arugay et. al., 2016). Change can
either an individual move from lower to higher social In common words, poverty is a condition when there is
class or an individual loses his/her status and moves to a minimal, absence, or deprivation of access to natural and
much lower position. A major factor for this is the societal resources. Conditions of poverty or the
accumulation of wealth.   identification of poor people vary from society to
society. In support to this, it was stated by Joanna Mack
Upward mobility- is the term that refers to upward in her online article Absolute and Overall Poverty
movement in social class. Examples of this are a person (2016), that what is classed acute deprivation will vary
who accumulated sufficient wealth to alleviate from society to society and through time, and what is
him/herself from his/her previous status or class, considered as premature death depend on the average
someone who rose to fame or power like celebrities and life expectancy of every society. But in 1995, the United
politicians, and an individual who landed good Nations adopted two universal classifications of poverty:
employment or promotion.   Absolute poverty and Overall poverty. 
Downward mobility- it refers to the individual losing Absolute poverty 
his/her status and moves to a lower one. This can be
caused by financial challenges, loss of employment, According to the UN, absolute poverty is a condition
illness, and not finishing school among others.  characterized by severe deprivation of basic human
needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation
Intergenerational mobility- According to Coleen facilities, health, shelter, education, and information. It
Cleveland in her online discussion in study.com, depends not only on income but also on access to
intergenerational mobility refers to changes in the services. 
family’s social and economic position that takes place
from one generation to another. Here, mobility is Overall Poverty 
measured based on the level of association between
parents’ and children’s socioeconomic status; stronger Compared to absolute poverty, it takes various forms
association means more transmission of advantage and including the following: lack of income and productive
less mobility and vice versa (Fox, Torche, & Wardfogel, resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and
2016).   malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to
education and other basic services; increased morbidity
Intragenerational mobility- According to Collins and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate
dictionary, intragenerational mobility is simply defined housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination
and exclusion. it is also characterized by a lack of
participation in decision making and in civil, social, and an average family size of five members must
cultural life. it occurs in all countries: as mass poverty in have P15,000 monthly so as not to be considered poor.
many developing countries, pockets of poverty amid Those in Mindanao must have P10,000 while in Metro
wealth in developed countries,  loss of livelihoods as a Manila P20,000. 
result of economic recession, sudden poverty as a result
of disaster or conflict, the poverty of low-wage workers, Based on the recent government records, Philippine
and the utter destitution of people who fall outside Statistical Authority (PSA) reports that in 2018, the
family support systems, social institutions, and safety poverty incidence—the proportion of poor Filipinos
nets.  whose per capita income is not sufficient to meet their
basic needs—was estimated at 16.6 percent or 17.6
In 1998, the United Nations released a statement signed million Filipinos. According to PSA, the poverty
by the heads of all UN agencies defining poverty as a threshold is estimated at P10,727 for a family of
“denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of five. Meanwhile, 5.2 percent lives under subsistence or
human dignity. It means a lack of basic capacity to those whose income is not enough to buy even the basic
participate effectively in society. It means not having food needs.  
enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school
or clinic to go, not having the land on which to grow Sectoral Poverty 
one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having any Based on the data released by the Philippine Statistics
access to credit. it means insecurity, powerlessness, and Authority last June 2017, Farmers, Fishermen, and
exclusion of individuals, households, and communities. Children consistently posted the highest poverty
It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies incidence among basic sectors for 2015. Among the nine
living on marginal or fragile environments, without basic sectors identified in Republic Act 8425 or Social
access to clean water or sanitation.” According to the Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act, Farmers,
World Bank, global poverty is set at $1.90 as of 2015 Fishermen, and Children  belonging to poor families
based on 2011 prices. A person with less than $1.90 a have the highest poverty incidence in 34.3%,
day is considered poor (extreme poverty). Based on 34.0%, and 31.4% respectively in 2015. These are the
estimates, 734 million (10% of the world population) same sector with the highest poverty incidence in 2006,
lived in poverty; far from 1.9 billion in 1990. With the 2009, and 2012. Below is the table showing the poverty
current crisis brought by COVID-19 pandemic and oil incidence for the nine basic sectors from 2006 to 2015. 
price drop, World Bank foresees that an additional 40
million to 60 million people will fall into extreme Gender 
poverty due to loss of a job, loss of remittances, rising
prices of services and commodities, and disruption of Inequalities based on gender are also an issue around the
essential services such as education and healthcare world most especially in illiberal and non-democratic
which disproportionately affect the poor. Global extreme societies. Gender is defined as culturally-
poverty could rise by 0.3 to 0.9% in 2020. People living imposed characteristics that define masculinity and
under $3.20 dollars a day can increase by 40 million to femininity (Atienza et. al., 2016). It is different
140 million while those living under $5.50 dollars a from sex which refers to biological and anatomical
day can increase by 70 million to 180 million.   assignment distinguishing a male from female. While
sex is unchanging given that it is assigned biologically,
Poverty in the Philippines  gender- as a social construct- is fluid in the sense that it
can be understood in various perspectives and can be
Despite good economic performance in the past years,  changed depending on the norms, values, and traditions
self-rated poverty grew by 2 percent from 44% in 2016 of a particular society. One of the problems associated
to 46% in 2017. This is based on the survey conducted with gender is the gender role or tasks and conducts
by the Social Weather Stations (SWS) covering the expected to be performed by a person based on his or her
fourth quarter of 2017. In the last quarter of the 2019 sex. There are societies that are critical in observing
survey conducted by SWS, a higher 54% of families gender roles. An example of  this is women are expected
considered themselves poor. 13.1 million self-rated poor to stay at home and take care of the household while
in that quarter is the highest in five years since men are expected to work and provide the needs of the
September 2014 where 55% said they are family. Gender identity is also a critical concept in
poor. However, the annual average of self-rated poverty understanding gender inequality. It refers to how a
is slightly lower at 45% compared to 48% in 2018. Out person identifies him or herself as part of a particular
of 54% self-rated poor during the last quarter of 2019 gender.  
survey, 7% or 1.6 million families are ‘newly poor’ or
they are not poor 1-4 years ago while 40% or 9.7 million Based on the World Economic Forum Global Gender
always considered themselves poor. According to SWS, Gap Report 2020, it states that gender parity will not be
attained in the next 99.5 years.  The gender parity gap against all forms of discrimination. One of their demands
was measured on the following criteria: (1) Economic is the recognition of same-sex marriage. They are
Participation and Opportunity; (2) Educational significant improvements in the treatment of LGBT. One
Attainment; (3) Political Empowerment; and (4) Health of which is the continuous trend of States allowing
and Survival. Among Asian countries, the Philippines same-sex union. In the United States alone, the Federal
notched the highest rank with a score of 0.781 at Supreme Court made a landmark decision in 2015 by
16th place.  Out of 153 countries surveyed, the figure declaring states’ same-sex marriage bans as
below shows the top 10 countries with the closest gender unconstitutional automatically giving marriage equality
parity in the world:  to all 50 states. In May 2017, Taiwan became the first
Asian State to allow the same-sex union. Taiwan’s
Women  constitutional court declared the definition of marriage
There have been consistent developments in the as limited to man and woman unconstitutional paving a
treatment of women but the way is still long to reach way for same-sex marriage. Despite these developments,
gender equity. Women, in general, face discrimination in there are still bigger battles that need to be won to
terms of accessing healthcare, education, political achieve gender parity not only for women but including
representation, labor markets among others (United LGBT members. 
Nations Development Program, 2015). An example of
this is the treatment of women in North Africa who hold
less than one in five paid jobs in the non-agriculture Ethnicity and Race Issues 
sector. Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, and
Western Asia still face hurdles in entering primary Ethnicity and Race has a different meaning. As
and secondary school (United Nations report cited by defined by Atienza et. al. (2016), Ethnicity is the feeling
Nuncio et. al., 2016). Women’s political participation is of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population,
also very limited. Top government positions in some cultural group, or territorial area. It is complex as it has
societies are still dominated by men. The vulnerability of both racial and cultural overtones. it is a cultural identity
women in accessing services and participating in operating at a deeper emotional level. Race, on the other
political processes is an institutional problem given that hand, refers to a group of people who shares a common
most societies have a patriarchal system of social ancestry; has something to do with physical or genetic
organization. Patriarchy refers to the socially differences among mankind that distinguish one group of
sanctioned and systematic domination of males over people to another on the bases of skin or hair color,
females (Atienza et. al., 2016). In the Global Gender physique, and facial features to name a few. Racism as a
Gap Report released by the World Economic Forum for political term refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and
2017, the global gap to gender parity widens to 32% practices used to justify the superior treatment of one
from 31.7% in 2016. Though the global gender racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of
gap widens, the country with a severe gender gap had another racial or ethnic group (Atienza et. al., 2016). 
improved over the last 12 months  with countries Inequality based on ethnicity and race is prevalent
reducing gender gaps for more than half. Talent is one of especially in multicultural societies (Atienza et. al.,
the most essential factors for growth and 2016). With the massive global migration due to
competitiveness (World Economic Forum). To have a colonization, civil wars, and globalization, a lot of
vibrant economy, equal opportunity must be given multicultural societies have existed. The inevitable
regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Much has interaction between different racial and ethnic groups
been improved in the case of the Philippines. As stated results in conflicts and domination of one group over the
above, the Philippines is the highest-ranked Asian other due to differences in cultural backgrounds and
country in Global Gender Parity Report 2020 although practices; resulting in discrimination. An example is the
it slides out of the top 10 based on previous reports.  different treatments among
  native Americans, African Americans, and
white Americans. 
LGBT 
The Philippines is considered a multicultural State
In recent times, another classification of gender composed of numerous groups with different historical
inequality has become prominent. The members of and cultural backgrounds. Based on the study of the
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) United Nations Development Program (UNDP), there
community have been experiencing discrimination the are about 110 Ethnolinguistic groups in the country with
same with women and have become more active in 14-17 million Filipinos belonging to Indigenous groups.
demanding equal treatment. The LGBT communities The biggest IP is the Lumads (the name which means
have been demanding legal recognition and protection ‘born of the earth’) which comprises 61% of the
indigenous population. Some of the Lumad groups are
Bagobo, Tboli, Ata, Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Manaka, etc.
The majority or 61% of them are located in Mindanao
while 33% are in the Cordillera Region; others are in the
Visayas region. The Philippines has the “Indigenous
Peoples Act,” an act protecting the rights of IPs but
despite the presence of the law, numerous violations of
IP rights exist. IPs are struggling over their ancestral
domain, suffering from poverty, and countless human
rights violations. 

Persons with Disabilities (PWD) 

Another minority who experiences unfair treatment in
terms of access to basic social services, employment,
and other opportunities in the Persons With Disabilities
(PWD) sector. According to the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Persons with
Disabilities, Persons With Disabilities or PWD include
those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual
or sensory impairments which in interaction with various
barriers may hinder their full and effective participation
in society on an equal basis with others. According to the
World Health Organization (cited in the website of the
Department of Health), there are approximately 1 billion
people around the world that have some form of
disability; about 80% of which live in low-income
countries. Reports also show that PWDS have less
access to healthcare services, therefore, having unmet
needs (WHO cited by DOH). 
In the Philippines. about 1.57% of the population or 1.4
million Filipinos have disabilities. This is based on the
2010 Census of Population and Housing conducted by
the Philippine Statistics Authority. The common
problem of PWDs is access to healthcare services, PWD-
friendly pathways and platforms, PWD-friendly public
services such as transportation, and access to job
opportunities. Currently, the country has Republic Act
7277 or “An Act Providing for the Rehabilitation and
Self-Reliance of Disabled Persons and Their Integration
into the Mainstream of Society and for Other Purpose”
commonly known as the Magna Carta for Disabled
Persons. The law mandates the Department of Health to
have a National Health Program for PWD to ensure their
easy access to healthcare services.