Unit-III: Geophysical Methods of Mineral Exploration
Unit-III: Geophysical Methods of Mineral Exploration
Geophysical methods of
mineral exploration
Ground Methods
2. Ground/surface geophysical methods
1. Gravity method
2. Magnetic magnetic
3. Electrical method
4. Seismic Method
1. Gravity Method
§ In this method the natural field of earth’s gravitation is used.
§ Gravity Survey refers to the survey used to measures change of
rock density by looking at changes in gravity.
§ Like all matters, the earth generates gravity field that can be
measured by instrumentation called gravimeter. The obtained
data is used to predict nature of subsurface and structures.
§ Measurements of gravity provide information about densities
of the subsurface rocks.
§ The typical units of gravity field is milligals or gravity
§ Gravitation is defined as the force which attracts all bodies and
is directly dependent on the masses involved and inversely on
the distances.
The simple equation impressing this relationship is
F = G x m x M
r
2
F = force
m1 and M are masses of two objects
r, distance between two objects
G = gravitational constant = 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2 - always an
uppercase G, do not confuse with g, which is for gravity.
Physical Property
§ Density of the material is the controlling physical property
Instrument used for the survey
Gravimeter
Principle
§ The gravimeter, used in relative gravity measurement is a
mass loaded spring.
§ If the subsurface has a relatively heavier body, the gravity
pull is more there (+g) and the spring extends and
becomes longer.
§ If the subsurface has relatively a lighter body there the
gravity pull is less (-g) and the spring contracts and
become shorter.
§ Thus in particular region, if subsurface bodies (such as ore
deposits, coal seam and salt domes ) whose densities are
different from the surrounding rocks the gravity field
deviates from the normal value.
§ Positive gravity anomalies are associated with shallow high
density bodies.
Then the residual ‘g’ values can be directly interpreted to infer sub
surface geological causes. This process of applying various
correction is known as reduction of gravity data.
Applications of Gravity method
• Exploration of ore deposits
• In solving regional geological problem
• In exploration of oil and natural gas deposits
• In solving some engineering problems
• In case of engineering problems, mapping of dam
sites, earthquake problems, tracing buried river
channels gravity method are considerably useful.
2. Magnetic Methods
Controlling property
The main controlling physical property in magnetic method
is magnetic susceptibility.
Principle
§ The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the
magnetic bodies present in the earth’s surface contribute to
the magnetic field of the earth.
§ It is believed that the earth’s magnetic field originates from
the liquid outer core of the Earth containing high
concentration of iron.
§ If the rocks are magnetic (have high susceptibility) they
become magnetized, and their field adds to that of the earth.
Thus the total magnetic field is stronger over magnetic rocks.
§ Magnetic fields are measured in Nanoteslas (nT)
§ In general, when the magnetic field of the earth or one of its
components is measured on the surface, bodies possessing
magnetic moments different from those of the surrounding
rocks contribute to the deviations in the measured quantities.
§ From the magnetic anomalies, it is possible to locate
anomalous objects
§ Common causes of magnetic anomalies include dykes,
faults and lava flows.
iii. Schmidt magnetometer,
iv. Torsion magnetometer, and Used for measurement of
v. Fluxgate magnetometer different space components
Fig: A magnetic reading profile across a dyke
Application of magnetic investigations
§ For delineation of large structural forms favorable for the
accumulation of oil and gases.
§ For detection of and location of faults.
§ For locating strongly magnetic iron ores.
§ (Eg. Ilmenite, Pyrrhotite etc increases the earth’s field
locally)
§ By virtue of their inexpensive nature and easy operation,
magnetic method are widely used for detection of ore
deposits, geological structures
Ø Electrical methods are successful in dealing with a
variety of problems, like
• Ground water studies
• Subsurface structures
• Ore deposits, and many others
Important categories of electrical methods are classified in
to the following groups
1. Resistivity method
(electrical resistivity)
2. Self potential method or spontaneous polarization
(natural electrochemical activity)
3. Electromagnetic method (for example GPR)
(electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, dielectric
constant)
4. Induced polarization method
(induced electrochemical activity)
Using the electrical methods, one may measure potentials,
current, and electromagnetic fields that occur naturally or
are introduced artificially in the earth.
4. Seismic Methods
Controlling Properties
Elastic property differences in rocks is the controlling property.
Instrument
• Geophones an amplifier, galvanometer are the basic units
required for reflected or refracted wave registrations.
Principle
Ø Seismic method of study is based on the principle that
subsurface rock formations bear different elastic properties.
Ø Because of this, the velocities of propagation of seismic waves
through the subsurface layers of earth, suffer reflection or
critical reflection arrive at the surface of the earth where they
are detected by geophones.
Ø From the time taken by the waves to travel through the
subsurface formation and from the seismic wave velocities of
the media. It is possible to determine the depth of various
elastic boundaries.
Ø With the help of geophones fixed at suitable intervals on
the ground, the different seismic waves reaching the
surface are recorded.
Ø and from the time of their arrival, time –distance curves
are plotted. The direct waves are the first to reach the
geophones placed between point and the distance
beyond the point is called the critical distance.
Ø Depending upon whether reflected waves or refracted
waves are used in the investigation, there are two types
of methods, namely,
I. Seismic reflection method and
II. Seismic refraction method.
Ø Seismic reflection studies are effective for depths more
than 100m but are not suitable for shallow exploration
Ø prospecting for some economic minerals,
Ø geological mapping
Ø ground water studies and bed-rock studies at foundation
sites of civil engineering projects
Ø In ground water studies, this method helps in detecting
fractured zones which have the potential for ground
water occurrence.
Airborne Vs Ground Geophysical surveys
The methodology for airborne geophysical surveys is basically
similar to their ground counter part with the following differences.
a) The airborne instruments have to be more sensitive as the
signal will be weaker due to the increased distance from the
source.
b) The measurements by airborne methods are more complex
since it becomes necessary to eliminate errors from various
external influences (such as the electrical and magnetic
disturbances from the aircraft etc.).
c) Elaborate instrumentation is required in airborne methods for
position location and data recording.
d) The airborne methods are distinctly faster than ground
methods.