EX NO:1 TO RECOGNIZE VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF PC

INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEMS PROCESSING AND MEMORY UNITS

DATE:

Aim: To Recognize Various Components of PC- Input Output Systems Processing And
Memory Units

Theory:-
The basic components of a PC are
1. Input Unit 2. Output unit 3. Memory unit4. Control unit 5. Arithmetic logic unit
Input Unit:-
It is the unit through which data/instructions can be entered into thecomputers.
e.g. Keyboard , Mouse etc.
Output Unit:-
It is the unit by which we can get output from the entered input from thecomputer.
e.g. Monitors ,Printer, Speaker etc.
Memory Unit:-
It stores the information by providing facility to the CPU actively byproviding necessary data
to CPU.
Memory Units are of two types
1. Primary memory 2. Secondary memory.
Primary Memory: - It is also of two types: i) RAM ii)ROM
RAM: - It can be randomly accessed.
Memory is temporarily used because when the power goes off ,allthe data stored in it are
erased.So it is volatile in nature.It can be read andthe data can be written into it.
ROM:- It is also randomly accessed. It is only readmemory unit.It is nonvolatile in nature.
It can be read only but data’s can’t be written into it.
ALU:- It performs arithmetic operation like addition,subtraction etc andlogical operation like
AND,OR,NAND etc. It works in electronic speed butthe device attached to it works in low
speed.That’s why processor canhandle all the peripheral devices at a time. IT establishes well
coordination between other four functional units.
CU: - It is the unit which controls the flow of information through theprocessor and
coordinate the activities the activities of other unit which arewithin it.So it is the brain within
the brain as it controls what happens inside theprocessor.It generate timing signal and control
signal for well coordination.
Configurtion of a PC.

S.NO Name of Name of Capacity/frequency interface

Component Manufacturer
1 Processor
2 MotherBoard
3 RAM
4 HDD
5 FDD
6 DVD
7 TFT/CRT
8 Keyboard
9 Mouse
10 UPS
11 Cabinet
12 Speaker

Processor: - The microprocessor accepts inputs from the user in theform of data and
instruction. It process the information and instruction andthen send the processed information
to the output device.
Motherboard: - It is the main circuit of PC.It contains the interface forthe
microprocessor,BIOSMemory and storage device need to controlperipheral devices such as
monitor,keyboard,mouse etc.
RAM: - It stores data temporarily.So it is called volatile.
HDD: - IT is a secondary storage device for permanent data storagedevice i.e. placed in the
system.It is similar to human brain where all thepast to present events are stored.
DVD RAM: The Digital versatile disc stored digitally.
A DVD writer is a DVD player as well as a writer.
FDD: It is a n external storage device. It is magnetic round disc enclosedin a plastic jacket.
Today we have double size high quality to density disk with 1.44 MB ofsize.
Keyboard:- It is a primary input device of the PC similar to type writer.
Mouse:- It is used to point to the desired position in the computer. It isalso an input device.
UPS: - It is the device that produce supply to the PC.It provides all the time of power cut.So
we can save the current data andshut down properly.
Speaker: It is an output device through which CPU can produce soundfor the user.
TFT monitor:- It is an output device through which we can read data.
Cabinet: - outer covering of CPU.

Conclusion:-
Hence theReorganization of Various Components of PC- Input Output Systems Processing
And Memory Units has been done successfully.
EX NO:2 TO UNDERSTAND HOW DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF PC ARE
CONNECTED TO WORK PROPERLY ASSEMBLING OF SYSTEM
DATE: COMPONENTS

Aim: To understand different components of pc are connected work properly

Procedure

Step 1: Procuring Parts

1. Processor (CPU) 2. Computer Case
3. Optical Drive (DVD RW and SATA capable) 4. Memory (RAM)
5. Power Supply 6. SATA Cables
7. Motherboard (SATA Capable) 8. Processor Fan
9. Case Fan 10. Hard Drive (SATA Capable)

Step 2: Gather Tools and Supplies

Gathering the tools you will need for the project:
 Screwdriver Wire cutters and strippers
 Needle-nosed pliers Utility knife
 Small flashlight Adjustable wrench
Small container to hold screws Heat sink compound
 Grounding Strap
Step 3: Open the Case
Open the computer case by removing the side panels. Find the screws that hold the side
panels in place and remove them

Step 4: Prepare the Case for Assembly

 Three things need to be done before assembly begins:
 Remove any parts or packaging materials that may have been shipped inside the case .
 Remove the cover for the optical drive. we will be removing the cover on the highest
drive bay to mount our DVD drive
 These should be front panel connections for features such as the power switch, audio
jacks and USB ports.

Step 5: Install Motherboard.

To install the motherboard we need parts that should have been included with your purchased
components:
  I/O Bezel is a trim panel installed in the back of the case that surrounds the interface
ports on the motherboard. It should be included with the motherboard.
 Standoffs are installed in the case screw holes to create a riser that separates the case
and motherboard.
 Install standoffs in the case. The standoffs screw into the motherboard mounting holes
Check the screw hole locations on the motherboard for exact placement.
 Lower the motherboard into the case and align with the I/O bezel.
 Install the screws. It works best to leave the screws loose until all of them have been
started and the board is aligned with the bezel.

Step 6: Install Hard Drive

 The hard drive is the device that stores all of your data. It is 3.5" wide and needs to be
mounted so that you can gain access to the cable connections on the back
 Find a 3.5" drive bay to install the drive in.
  Slide the drive into place until the screw holes on the sides are lined up with the holes
in the case. And Install the screws.

Step 7: Install Optical Drive

 The optical drive is 5.25" wide and is installed in the drive bay that we removed the
cover from in a previous step. Cable access considerations apply to this drive also.
To install the drive:
 Slide the drive into the drive bay until the screw holes are lined up and the front of the
drive is flush with the front of the case
 Install the screws.

Step 8: Install the CPU

 The CPU is the brain of the computer. It is installed on the motherboard in the socket
To install the CPU:
 Find the corner marking that designates pin 1 of the CPU , On this AMD brand
processor, the corner is marked with an arrow. Consult the manufacturer's
documentation for specific information about your processor.
 Lift the small metal rod next to the socket
 Find the corresponding marking on the CPU socket and insert the CPU so that the
markings are lined up.
 Push the rod down to lock the processor in place
Step 09: Install RAM
 The RAM is the temporary memory location that the processor works from.
Permanently stored data is pulled from disks and stored in RAM while the processor
works with it.
 Set the RAM board in the socket. Check to see that the notch in the board is in the
correct location. If it is not, turn it around 180º.
 Press firmly on both ends of the board to set it into the socket.

Step 10: Install the CPU Fan

 The CPU fan is really a combination of a heat sink and fan together. The unit draws
heat away from the CPU.
To install the fan:
 Place thermal compound to the CPU following the instructions provided with the
compound.
 Set the fan assembly on the CPU with mounting tabs aligned.
 Pull the locking rod down on the fan assembly to lock into place.
 Connect the fan assembly's power connector to the motherboard. Consult the manual
to determine proper placement.
Step 11: Install Case Fan
 The case fan is usually installed on the back panel of the case.
To mount the fan:
 Align the mounting holes by holding the fan to the mounting pad on the inside of the
case. The fan needs to be mounted so that it blows air out of the case.
 Insert the screws from the outside of the case and tighten.

Step 12: Install Power Supply

Step 13: Connect Cables

  Every device that has been installed needs power. The power supply connectors are
shown. The motherboard has two power connections, and there are two connectors
specifically for SATA devices (drives). The other connectors will run fans and other
non-SATA devices.
 Data cables connect drives and front panel devices to the motherboard. Please consult
the motherboard documentation for the exact placement of connectors.
Step 14: Wrap-up

Result :Thus the different components of pc are connected to work properly assembling of
system components
EX NO:3 TO UNDERSTAND HOW DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF PC ARE
CONNECTED TO WORK PROPERLY DISASSEMBLING OF
DATE: SYSTEM COMPONENTS

AIM: To Understand How Different Components Of Pc Are Connected To Work Properly

Disassembling Of System Components

PROCEDURE:

Step 1: Unplugging

Unplug every cable that's plugged in to your computer. That includes the following
cables:Power,USB, Firewire, Mouse, Keyboard, Internet, Ethernet, Modem, AM\FM
Antenna, Cable TV

Step 2: Outer Shell/Casing

Unscrew the four screws on the back of the computer.Once the screws are removed, you can
remove the side panels.

Step 3: System Fan

unplug the fan from the motherboard. You can find the plug by following the wire from the
fan. It should be labeled"SYS_FAN1". Next, you will have to unscrew the fan from the
outside. You should now be able to lift the fan out of the PC.

Step 4: Power Supply

The power supply supplies power to every component in a computer, unplug every wire
coming from the power supply. The list below is everything that I had to disconnect:

 Motherboard (very large connector/plug)

 CD/DVD drive[s] power
 Internal hard drive power
 Portable hard drive slot power

Once everything is unplugged, unscrew the four screws holding the power supply in place, on
the back of the computer.

Step 5: CD/DVD Drive[s]

The CD/DVD drive is one of the easiest components to remove. First, unplug the ribbon from
the back of the drive.

Step 6: Hard Drive & Portable Hard Drive Slot

In order to remove the hard drive, you must remove the portable hard drive slot first.

First de-attach the connector at the back of the slot, and unplug the other end from the
motherboard. unplug the SATA cable from the motherboard and the hard drive. The portable
hard drive slot is secured the same way the CD/DVD drive is, with a tab. Pull on the tab, then
slide the slot out.To remove the hard drive from the side of the slot, unscrew the four screws
securing it in place.
Step 07: Expansion Cards

Expansion cards are like small upgrades to your computer.

Expansion cards give a computer new capabilities, once installed. Different examples
are:Bluetooth,WirelessInternet,Ethernet,TV

Step 08: Connectivity Centre Cables

The connectivity center is the area on the front of the computer where there is many input
sections, like usb, firewire, microphone, headphones, video, etc.. I won't remove the whole
connectivity center in this step, but I will unplug all the cables coming from it.
Step 09: RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM you have, the faster your computer runs. Most computers have 4 RAM slots, and two
RAM chips. To remove the RAM, push down on both tabs holding the RAM in place, which
are located at both ends of the RAM. Please see the pictures.

Step 10: Motherboard

The motherboard links every component in the computer together. The CPU, RAM, and
expansion cards are attached directly to it, and every other part of the computer is in one way
or another attached to it.The motherboard has seven screws holding it to the frame, which are
indicated by large white circles around them.

Step 11: Disassemble a

Computer has been
done
Result:Thus the different components of pc are connected to work properly Disassembling of
system components

ExNo:4 i) Program involving Arithmetic Instructions on 8 bit data- Addition

AIM: To implement assembly language program for addition of two 08-bit numbers.

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

A DB 09H

B DB 02H

C DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AL,A

MOV BL,B
ADD AL,BL

MOV C,AX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

ExNo:4 ii) Program involving Arithmetic Instructions on 8 bit data- subtraction

AIM: To implement assembly language program for addition of two 08-bit numbers.

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

A DB 09H

B DB 02H

C DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE,DS:DATA

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AL,A

MOV BL,B
SUB AL,BL

MOV C,AX

INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

ExNo:5 i) Program involving Arithmetic Instructions on 16 bit data-

Addition

AIM: To implement assembly language program for addition of two 16-bit numbers.

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT
N1 DW 1234H
N2 DW 2134H
RES DW ?
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, N1
MOV BX, N2
ADD AX, BX
MOV RES, AX
INT 21H
CODE ENDS
END START

RESULT:

AX = 3368h
ExNo:5 ii) Program involving Arithmetic Instructions on 16 bit data -

Subtraction

AIM: To implement assembly language program for subtraction of two 16-bit numbers.

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

N1 DW 4444H

N2 DW 2121H

RES DW ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS:CODE, DS:DATA

START: MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AX,N1

MOV BX,N2

SUB AX,BX

MOV RES,AX
INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

RESULT:

AX = 2323h

ExNo:6i) Program involving Arithmetic Instructions on 16 bit data

Multiplication

AIM: To implement assembly language program for Multiplication of two 16-bit numbers.

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

PROGRAM:

DATA SEGMENT

A DW 1234H

B DW 5678H

C DD ?

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME DS:DATA, CS:CODE

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AX,A

MOV BX,B

MUL BX
INT 3

CODE ENDS

END START

ExNo:6 ii) Factorial of a given number

AIM: To implement assembly language program to find factorial of a given number

APPARTUS: TASM Software, P.C.

Program:

DATA SEGMENT

A DB 5

DATA ENDS

CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME DS:DATA,CS:CODE

START:

MOV AX,DATA

MOV DS,AX

MOV AH,00

MOV AL,A

L1: DEC A

MUL A

MOV CL,A

CMP CL,01

JNZ L1
 MOV AH,4CH

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

END START

Input: 5

Output: 0078H

EXPERIMENT : 07
STUDY OF HALF ADDER AND FULL ADDER
DATE :

AIM: To realize Half Adder and Full Adder using Basic gates

_ To realize the half adder circuits using basic gates

_ To realize full adder using two half adders

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

IC 7408, IC 7486, IC 7432, Patch Cords & IC Trainer Kit.

THEORY:

Adder circuit is a combinational digital circuit that is used for adding two numbers. A
typical adder circuit produces a sum bit (denoted by S) and a carry bit (denoted by C) as the
output. Typically adders are realized for adding binary numbers but they can be also realized
for adding other formats like BCD (binary coded decimal, XS-3 etc. Besides addition, adder
circuits can be used for a lot of other applications in digital electronics like address decoding,
table index calculation etc. Adder circuits are of two types: Half adder ad Full adder.

Half-Adder: A combinational logic circuit that performs the addition of two data bits, A
andB, is called a half-adder. Addition will result in two output bits; one of which is the sum
bit, S, and the other is the carry bit, C.

The Boolean functions describing the half-adder are:

Full-Adder: The half-adder does not take the carry bit from its previous stage into account.
This carry bit from its previous stage is called carry-in bit. A combinational logic circuit that
adds two data bits, A and B, and a carry-in bit, Cin , is called a full-adder.

The Boolean functions describing the full-adder are:

RESULT
Thus the study of half adder and full adder has been done and components has been realized

EXPERIMENT : 08
STUDY AND DESIGN OF RIPPLE CARRY ADDER
DATE :

AIM: To realize ripple carry adder using Basic gates

_ To realize the ripple carry adder circuits using basic gates

_ To realize ripple carry adder using four full adders

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

IC 7408, IC 7486, IC 7432, Patch Cords & IC Trainer Kit.

THEORY:

A ripple carry adder also known as “n-bit parallel adder” is a combinational logic circuit used
for the purpose of adding two n-bit binary numbers and requires ‘n’ full adders in the circuit.
 
4-bit Ripple Carry Adder-
 
4-bit ripple carry adder is used for the purpose of adding two 4-bit binary numbers.
In mathematics, any two 4-bit binary numbers A3A2A1A0 and B3B2B1B0 will be added as-
 
Using ripple carry adder, this addition will be carried out as shown by the following logic diagram-

Using ripple carry adder, this addition will be carried out as shown by the following logic
diagram-

Logic Diagram for 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder

As shown, Ripple Carry Adder works in different stages where the carry out produced by
each full adder as output serves as the carry in input for its adjacent most significant full
adder. When the carry in becomes available to the full adder, it activates that full adder and it
comes into operation.

 Output Sum = S3S2S1S0 = 1111

 Output Carry = C3 = 0

Why Ripple Carry Adder is called so?

 In Ripple Carry Adder, the carry out produced by each full adder as output serves as
the carry in input for its next most significant full adder.

 Since in ripple carry adder, each carry bit ripples or waves into the next stage, that’s
why it is called by the name “Ripple Carry Adder”.

Limitation of Ripple Carry Adder-

  Ripple Carry Adder does not allow all full adders to be used simultaneously and each
full adder has to necessarily wait till the carry bit becomes available from its adjacent
less significant full adder.

 This increases the propagation time and due to this reason, ripple carry adder
becomes extremely slow which is considered to be the biggest disadvantage of using
ripple carry adder.

RESULT
Thus the study of ripple carry adder has been done and components has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 09
STUDY AND DESIGN OF CARRY LOOKAHEAD ADDER
DATE :

AIM: To realize ripple carry lookahead adder using Basic gates

_ To realize the carry lookahead adder circuits using basic gates

_ To realize carry lookahead adder using four full adders

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

IC 7408, IC 7486, IC 7432, Patch Cords & IC Trainer Kit.

THEORY:

Carry Look Ahead Adder-

In Ripple Carry Adder, each full adder has to wait for its carry-in from its previous stage full
adder to start its operation which causes an unnecessary delay.
Carry Look Ahead Adder is an improved version of the ripple carry adder which generates
the carry-in of each full adder simultaneously without causing any delay.

Logic Diagram for Carry Look Ahead Adder-

 

Working of Carry Look Ahead Adder-

 
 The working of carry look ahead adder is based on the principle that the carry-in of
any stage full adder is independent of the carry bits generated during intermediate
stages and is only dependent of the following two parameters-
 
 1. Bits being added in the previous stages
2. Carry provided in the beginning
 
 Since, the above two parameters are always known, the carry-in of any stage full
adder can be evaluated at any instant of time. Thus, a full adder need not wait until its
carry-in is generated by its previous stage full adder.
 
Example-
 
Suppose we want to add two 4-bit binary numbers A3A2A1A0 and B3B2B1B0
They will be added as-

 
 
From here, we have-
C1 = C0 (A0 ⊕ B0) + A0B0
C2 = C1 (A1 ⊕ B1) + A1B1
C3 = C2 (A2 ⊕ B2) + A2B2
C4 = C3 (A3 ⊕ B3) + A3B3
For simplicity, Let-
 Gi = AiBi where G is called carry generator
 Pi = Ai ⊕ Bi where P is called carry propagator
 Then, re-writing the equations, we have-
C1 = C0P0 + G0 ………….. (1)
C2 = C1P1 + G1 ………….. (2)
C3 = C2P2 + G2 ………….. (3)
C4 = C3P3 + G3 ………….. (4) 
Now, let us remove C1, C2 and C3 from RHS of every equation as these are intermediate
carry bits.
Substituting (1) in (2), we will get C2 in terms of C0 and then substituting (2) in (3), we will
get C3 in terms of C0 and so on.
 Finally, we will have the following equations showing that the carry in of any stage depends
only on the bits being added in previous stages and the carry bit which was provided in the
beginning-
 C1 = C0P0 + G0 

 C2 = C0P0P1 + G0P1 + G1

 C3 = C0P0P1P2 + G0P1P2 + G1P2 + G2

 C4 =C0P0P1P2P3 + G0P1P2P3 + G1P2P3 + G2P3 + G3

Need of Carry Look Ahead Adder-

 In ripple carry adder, we have a cascade of n full adders and each full adder has to
wait for its carry-in from its previous stage full adder to continue its operation.

 Thus, nth full adder has to wait until all (n-1) full adders have completed their
operations which causes a delay and makes ripple carry adder extremely slow.

 The situation becomes worst when the value of n becomes very large.

 To overcome this delay, we use carry look ahead adder in which carry for each full
adder is generated simultaneously without any delay.

Advantage of Carry Look Ahead Adder-

 The advantage of carry look ahead adder is that it reduces propagation delay.

Disadvantage of Carry Look Ahead Adder-

 The disadvantage of carry look ahead adder is that it involves complex hardware.

 Because it involves complex hardware, it is costlier and it gets complicated as the

number of bits increases.

Time Complexity-

Time complexity of Carry Look Ahead Adder = Θ (logn)

RESULT

Thus the study of carry lookahead adder has been done and components has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 10
STUDY AND DESIGN OF ARRAY MULTIPLIER
DATE :

AIM: To realize array mutiplier using Basic gates

_ To realize the array mutiplier circuits using basic gates

_ To realize array mutiplier using four full adders

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

IC 7408, IC 7486, IC 7432, Patch Cords & IC Trainer Kit.

THEORY:

Array multiplier is well known due to its regular structure. Multiplier circuit is based on add
and shift algorithm. Each partial product is generated by the multiplication of the
multiplicand with one multiplier bit. The partial product are shifted according to their bit
orders and then added. The addition can be performed with normal carry propagate adder. N-
1 adders are required where N is the multiplier length.

ARR1 DB 20 DUP (0)

MULTIPLYING PROC
MOV AX, 0
MOV CX, 19
.WHILE CX != 0
MOV DI, CX
MOV AL, [DIGIT_ARR1+DI]
;MOV BL, 2
;MUL BL
SHL AX, 1
.IF AX > 9 ; IF THE NEW DIGIT IS LARGER THAN
9
SUB AX, 10
MOV AH, 0
MOV [DIGIT_ARR1+DI], AL
DEC DI
ADD [DIGIT_ARR1+DI], 1
.ELSEIF
 MOV [DIGIT_ARR1+DI], AL ; IF IT IS LESS THAN 9,
THEN JUST INSERT IT BACK INTO THE ARRAY
.ENDIF
DEC CX
.ENDW
RET
MULTIPLYING ENDP
MULTIPLYING PROC
PUSH CX
PUSH AX
MOV CARRY, 0 ; START WITH EMPTY CARRY FLAG
MOV CX, 19 ; ARRAY SIZE
.WHILE CX > 0
MOV DI, CX ; GET ELEMENT ADDRESS
MOV AL, [ARR1+DI] ; READ THE ELEMENT
SHL AL, 1 ; DOUBLING THE DIGIT
ADD AL, CARRY ; ADD THE CARRY FLAG
MOV CARRY, 0 ; CLEAR THE CARRY FLAG
.IF AL > 9 ; IF THE NEW DIGIT IS LARGER THAN 9
SUB AL, 10
MOV CARRY, 1 ; SET CARRY FLAG
MOV [ARR1+DI], AL ; INSERTING THE DOUBLED DIGIT BACK TO
THE ARRAY
.ELSEIF
MOV [DIGIT_ARR1+DI], AL ; IF IT IS LESS THAN 9, INSERT IT
BACK INTO THE ARRAY
MOV CARRY, 0
.ENDIF
DEC CX
.ENDW; END OF MULTIPLICATION PROC
POP AX
POP CX
RET
MULTIPLYING ENDP
RESULT

Thus the study of carry lookahead adder has been done and components has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 11
STUDY OF BOOTH ALGORITHM
DATE :

Booth's algorithm

This is a kind of algorithm which uses a more straightforward approach. This algorithm also
has the benefit of the speeding up the multiplication process and it is very efficient too.
Binary multiplication which has signed number uses this type of algorithms named
as Booth's algorithm.

Flowchart of Booth's algorithm:

Booth’s algorithm for two complements multiplication:

 1. Multiplier and multiplicand are placed in the Q and M register respectively.
2. Result for this will be stored in the AC and Q registers.
3. Initially, AC and Q-1 register will be 0.
4. Multiplication of a number is done in a cycle.
5. A 1-bit register Q-1 is placed right of the least significant bit Q0 of the register Q.
6. In each of the cycle, Q0 and Q-1 bits will be checked.
i. If Q0 and Q-1 are 11 or 00 then the bits of AC, Q and Q-1 are shifted to the right
by 1 bit.
ii. If the value is shown 01 then multiplicand is added to AC. After addition, AC,
Q0, Q-1 register are shifted to the right by 1 bit.
iii. If the value is shown 10 then multiplicand is subtracted from AC. After
subtraction AC, Q0, Q-1register is shifted to the right by 1 bit.

Basically, Booth’s algorithm uses the concept of an arithmetic right shift in which the
leftmost bit is not only shifted right by 1 bit but it also remains in the original position.

Example: Let us multiply (-6) and (2) using Booth’s algorithm.

Solution: (6)10 = (0110)2

As it is given multiplicand, M= (-6)10 =2 complement of 0110 = 1010

Multiplier, Q= (2)10 = 0010

Product by Booth’s algorithm= 1111 0100

RESULT

Thus the study of booth algorithm has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 12
PROGRAM TO CARRY OUT BOOTH ALGORITHM
DATE :

Booths Algorithm

.model small

.stack

.data

promptdb 13,10,"Enter first number to multiply. $"

prompt2db 13,10,"Enter second number to multiply. $"

resdb 13,10,"The answer is $"

ansdw 2

holddb 0

n1=0

n2=0

.code

start:

movax,seg prompt,prompt2,res,ans,hold,n1,n2

movds,ax

mov ah,09h

movdx,offset prompt
int 21h

call read

mov n1,bl

mov ah,09h

mov dx, offset prompt2

int 21h

call read

mov n2,bl

call Algorithm

mov [ans],ax

movbx,ax

movdx,offset res2

mov ah,09h

int 21h

call write

mov ah,4ch

int 21h

hlt

read:

mov ah,00h

mov [hold],bl

f0:

mov al,01h

int 21h

cmp al,0dh

je Copy

movcl,al
sub cl,30h

mov al,[hold]

mov bl,0ah

mulbl

mov [hold],al

add [hold],cl

jmp f0

Copy :

movbl,[hold]

ret

Algorithm:

mov ah,0

mov al,n1

mov cx,8

mov bh,n2

clc

f1:

movbl,al

and bl,1

jnz f2

JNC f3

subah,bh

jmp f3

f2:

jc f3

addah,bh

f3:
shr ax,1

loop f1

ret

write:

moval,bl

lea di,[ans]

mov bh,0ah

mov cl,24h

mov [di],cl

dec di

f4:

mov ah,00h

divbh

add ah,30h

mov [di],ah

dec di

cmp al,00h

jnz 4

inc di

mov ah,09h

movdx,di

int 21h

ret

end start
RESULT:

Thus the program of booth algorithm has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 13
STUDY AND PROGRAM TO CARRY SAVE
DATE : MULTIPLICATION

Carry –Save Addition

Consider adding six set of numbers (4 bits each in the example)

• The numbers are 1001, 0110, 1111, 0111, 1010, 0110 (all positive)

• One way is to add them pair wise, getting three results, and then adding them again

Carry-Save Multiplication

• n-bit carry-save adder take 1FA time for any n

• For n x n bit multiplication, n or n/2 (for 2 bit at time Booth’s encoding) partial products
can be generated
• For n partial products n/3 n-bit carry save adders can be used

• This yields 2n/3 partial results

• Repeat this operation until only two partial results are remaining

• Add them using an appropriate size adder to obtain 2n bit result

• For n=32, you need 30 carry save adders in eight stages taking 8T time where T is time for
one-bit full adder

• Then you need one carry-propagate or carry-look-ahead adder

PROGRAM TO CARRY OUT CARRY SAVE MULTIPLICATION

RESULT

Thus the study of carry lookahead adder has been done and components has been realized.

EXPERIMENT : 14
UNDERSTANDING OF PROCESSING UNIT AND
DATE : DESIGN OF PRIMITIVE PROCESSING UNIT

Definition
The central processing unit (CPU) is the unit which performs most of the processing inside a
computer. To control instructions and data flow to and from other parts of the computer, the
CPU relies heavily on a chipset, which is a group of microchips located on the motherboard.
The CPU has two components:
 Control Unit: extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): handles arithmetic and logical operations

To function properly, the CPU relies on the system clock, memory, secondary storage, and
data and address buses.
This term is also known as a central processor, microprocessor or chip.
The CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data input, executes instructions,
and processes information. It communicates with input/output (I/O) devices, which send and
receive data to and from the CPU. Additionally, the CPU has an internal bus for
communication with the internal cache memory, called the backside bus. The main bus for
data transfer to and from the CPU, memory, chipset, and AGP socket is called the front-side
bus.
The CPU contains internal memory units, which are called registers. These registers contain
data, instructions, counters and addresses used in the ALU's information processing.
Some computers utilize two or more processors. These consist of separate physical CPUs
located side by side on the same board or on separate boards. Each CPU has an independent
interface, separate cache, and individual paths to the system front-side bus. Multiple
processors are ideal for intensive parallel tasks requiring multitasking. Multicore CPUs are
also common, in which a single chip contains multiple CPUs.
Technical considerations are explained in the following sections:
1. Clock speed requirements for the CPU

The clock speed of the CPU is measured in Hertz and is an indication of the frequency in
cycles per second of the operation of the CPU. The higher the clock speed of a CPU, the
faster the performance of that CPU. For today’s personal computers, the clock speed of the
processors vary from 1 GHz (Giga Hertz) to 3.5 GHz.

2. 32-bit vs. 64-bit processors

Most of the newer computers have 64-bit compatible processor units. The move to the newer
64-bit technology emerges from the need to allow computers to support larger RAM memory
chips. The 32-bit architecture would only allow the use of a 4GB RAM, and even if a larger
RAM is installed in the PC, it will only be able to use 4GB and the rest will be wasted.
Users with moderate computer usage, who want to simply browse the internet, write
documents or send and receive e-mails can still select a 32-bit chipset. However users who
heavily use their PC for multitask-heavy applications such as games and video editing will
need to purchase a 64-bit chipset to optimize their computer performance.

3. Selection of the CPU’s core and thread

The latest CPUs to hit the market contain up to eight cores. At the moment, it is possible to
purchase CPUs containing from one to eight cores. The higher the number of cores in a CPU,
the faster the processes and operations it can compete at one time. There are also multiple
threads on each of those processors, these allow for a certain number of concurrent tasks to
be completed per processor unit.

For moderate web and applications use, the user can simply purchase a single or a dual-core
processor. However, for more heavy computer use such as multi-tasking applications,
gaming, video editing and multimedia processing, it is recommended that the user selects a
quad-core or higher in order to optimize the computer’s performance during use.

4. Thermal Design Power

Thermal design power refers to the temperature at which a processor can continue its normal
operation without damaging its own internal components. When buying a CPU, aim for a
higher Thermal Design Power (TPD) number, as this will allow the CPU to produce more
output without damaging its core.

5. Heatsink
When you buy a CPU unit, you need to keep in mind that the unit is prone to over-heating
because of the amount of operations it processes per second. Other factors also influence and
increase the over-heating of the CPU, such as the internal design of the computer’s
components, the distance between those components, the possibility of aeration of the CPU
and the ambient temperature of the room or location where the PC is stored. If the ambient
temperature is above average in hot summer days, it might also contribute to the over-heating
of the processor. For these reasons, it is highly recommended that all processors have a heat
sink installed to help cooling them down and preventing them from over-heating which will
optimize their performance.

When the CPU in the computer experiences overheating and there is no heat sink attached to
solve this problem, the user will start experiencing a range of erratic behaviour on the
computer, such as computer lock ups, sudden reboots, application errors, etc. Keep in mind
that the heat sink you buy should be compatible with the type of processor installed in your
computer.

Design of primitive processing unit

Control Unit is the part of the computer’s central processing unit (CPU), which directs the
operation of the processor. It was included as part of the Von Neumann Architecture by John
von Neumann. It is the responsibility of the Control Unit to tell the computer’s memory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have
been sent to the processor. It fetches internal instructions of the programs from the main
memory to the processor instruction register, and based on this register contents, the control
unit generates a control signal that supervises the execution of these instructions.
A control unit works by receiving input information to which it converts into control signals,
which are then sent to the central processor. The computer’s processor then tells the attached
hardware what operations to perform. The functions that a control unit performs are
dependent on the type of CPU because the architecture of CPU varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Examples of devices that require a CU are:
 Control Processing Units(CPUs)
 Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)
Functions of the Control Unit –
1. It coordinates the sequence of data movements into, out of, and between a processor’s
many sub-units.
2. It interprets instructions.
3. It controls data flow inside the processor.
4. It receives external instructions or commands to which it converts to sequence of
control signals.
5. It controls many execution units(i.e. ALU, data buffers and registers) contained within
a CPU.
6. It also handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution handling and
storing results.
Types of Control Unit –
There are two types of control units: Hardwired control unit and Micro programmable control
unit.
1. Hardwired Control Unit

In the Hardwired control unit, the control signals that are important for instruction
execution control are generated by specially designed hardware logical circuits, in
which we can not modify the signal generation method without physical change of the
circuit structure. The operation code of an instruction contains the basic data for control
signal generation. In the instruction decoder, the operation code is decoded. The
instruction decoder constitutes a set of many decoders that decode different fields of the
instruction opcode.

As a result, few output lines going out from the instruction decoder obtains active signal
values. These output lines are connected to the inputs of the matrix that generates
control signals for executive units of the computer. These matrixes implements logical
combinations of the decoded signals from the instruction opcode with the outputs from
the matrix that generates signals representing consecutive control unit states and with
signals coming from the outside of the processor, e.g. interrupt signals. The matrices are
built in a similar way as a programmable logic arrays.
 Control signals for an instruction execution have to be generated not in a single time
point but during the entire time interval that corresponds to the instruction execution
cycle. Following the structure of this cycle, the suitable sequence of internal states is
organized in the control unit.
A number of signals generated by the control signal generator matrix are sent back to
inputs of the next control state generator matrix. This matrix combines these signals
with the timing signals, which are generated by the timing unit based on the rectangular
patterns usually supplied by the quartz generator. When a new instruction arrives at the
control unit, the control units is in the initial state of new instruction fetching.
Instruction decoding allows the control unit enters the first state relating execution of
the new instruction, which lasts as long as the timing signals and other input signals as
flags and state information of the computer remain unaltered. A change of any of the
earlier mentioned signals stimulates the change of the control unit state.
This causes that a new respective input is generated for the control signal generator
matrix. When an external signal appears, (e.g. an interrupt) the control unit takes entry
into a next control state that is the state concerned with the reaction to this external
signal (e.g. interrupt processing). The values of flags and state variables of the computer
are used to select suitable states for the instruction execution cycle.
The last states in the cycle are control states that commence fetching the next
instruction of the program: sending the program counter content to the main memory
address buffer register and next, reading the instruction word to the instruction register
of computer. When the ongoing instruction is the stop instruction that ends program
execution, the control unit enters an operating system state, in which it waits for a next
user directive.
2. Microprogrammable control unit

The fundamental difference between these unit structures and the structure of the
hardwired control unit is the existence of the control store that is used for storing words
containing encoded control signals mandatory for instruction execution.

In microprogrammed control units, subsequent instruction words are fetched into the
instruction register in a normal way. However, the operation code of each instruction is
not directly decoded to enable immediate control signal generation but it comprises the
initial address of a microprogram contained in the control store.
RESULT

Thus the study of understanding processing unit,design of primitive processing unit has
been done and components has been realized.
EXPERIMENT : 15
UNDERSTANDING OF PIPELINE CONCEPT AND
DATE : DESIGN OF BASIC PIPELINE

What is Pipelining?
Pipelining is the process of accumulating instruction from the processor through a pipeline. It
allows storing and executing instructions in an orderly process. It is also known as pipeline
processing.
Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during execution.
Pipeline is divided into stages and these stages are connected with one another to form a pipe
like structure. Instructions enter from one end and exit from another end.
Pipelining increases the overall instruction throughput.
In pipeline system, each segment consists of an input register followed by a combinational
circuit. The register is used to hold data and combinational circuit performs operations on it.
The output of combinational circuit is applied to the input register of the next segment.

Pipeline system is like the modern day assembly line setup in factories. For example in a car
manufacturing industry, huge assembly lines are setup and at each point, there are robotic
arms to perform a certain task, and then the car moves on ahead to the next arm.

Types of Pipeline
It is divided into 2 categories:

1. Arithmetic Pipeline
2. Instruction Pipeline
Arithmetic Pipeline
Arithmetic pipelines are usually found in most of the computers. They are used for floating
point operations, multiplication of fixed point numbers etc. For example: The input to the
Floating Point Adder pipeline is:

X = A*2^a

Y = B*2^b
Here A and B are mantissas (significant digit of floating point numbers), while a and b are
exponents.
The floating point addition and subtraction is done in 4 parts:

1. Compare the exponents.

2. Align the mantissas.

3. Add or subtract mantissas

4. Produce the result.

Registers are used for storing the intermediate results between the above operations.

Instruction Pipeline
In this a stream of instructions can be executed by
overlapping fetch, decode and execute phases of an instruction cycle. This type of technique
is used to increase the throughput of the computer system.
An instruction pipeline reads instruction from the memory while previous instructions are
being executed in other segments of the pipeline. Thus we can execute multiple instructions
simultaneously. The pipeline will be more efficient if the instruction cycle is divided into
segments of equal duration.

Pipeline Conflicts
There are some factors that cause the pipeline to deviate its normal performance. Some of
these factors are given below:

1. Timing Variations
All stages cannot take same amount of time. This problem generally occurs in instruction
processing where different instructions have different operand requirements and thus
different processing time.

2. Data Hazards
When several instructions are in partial execution, and if they reference same data then the
problem arises. We must ensure that next instruction does not attempt to access data before
the current instruction, because this will lead to incorrect results.

3. Branching
In order to fetch and execute the next instruction, we must know what that instruction is. If
the present instruction is a conditional branch, and its result will lead us to the next
instruction, then the next instruction may not be known until the current one is processed.

4. Interrupts
Interrupts set unwanted instruction into the instruction stream. Interrupts effect the execution
of instruction.

5. Data Dependency
It arises when an instruction depends upon the result of a previous instruction but this result is
not yet available.

Advantages of Pipelining

1. The cycle time of the processor is reduced.

2. It increases the throughput of the system

3. It makes the system reliable.

Disadvantages of Pipelining

1. The design of pipelined processor is complex and costly to manufacture.

2. The instruction latency is more.

1. In 8086, to speed up the execution of program, the instruction fetching and execution
of instructions are overlapped with each other.
2. This process of fetching the next instruction when the present instruction is being
executed is called as pipelining.
3. In pipelining, when the nth instruction is executed, the (n+1) th instruction is fetched
and thus the processing speed is increased.
4. Pipelining has become possible due to the use of queue.
5. BIU (Bus Interfacing Unit) fills in the queue until the entire queue is full.
6. BIU restarts filling in the queue when at least two locations of queue are vacant.

The Instruction Queue:

 1. The execution unit (EU) is supposed to decode or execute an instruction.
2. Decoding does not require the use of buses.
3. When EU is busy in decoding and executing an instruction, the BIU fetches up to six
instruction bytes for the next instructions.
4. These bytes are called as the pre-fetched bytes and they are stored in a first in first out
(FIFO) register set, which is called as a queue.

Significance of Queue:

1. As shown in the above figure, while the EU is busy in decoding the instruction
corresponding to memory location 100F0, the BIU fetches the next six instruction
bytes from locations 100F1 to 100F6 numbered as 1 to 6.
2. These instruction bytes are stored in the 6 byte queue on the first in first out (FIFO)
basis.
3. When EU completes the execution of the existing instruction and becomes ready for
the next instruction, it simply reads the instruction bytes in the sequence 1, 2…. from
the Queue.
4. Thus the Queue will always hold the instruction bytes of the next instructions to be
executed by the EU.

Advantages of pipelining:
1. The EU always reads the next instruction byte from the queue in BIU. This is much
faster than sending out an address to the memory and waiting for the next instruction
byte to come.
2. In short pipelining eliminates the waiting time of EU and speeds up the processing.
3. The 8086 BIU will not initiate a fetch unless and until there are two empty bytes in its
queue. 8086 BIU normally obtains two instruction bytes per fetch.

Disadvantages of pipelining:
 1. While pipelining can severely cut the time taken to execute a program, there are
problems that cause it to not work as well as it perhaps should.
2. The three stages of the instruction execution process do not necessarily take an equal
amount of time, with the time taken for 'execute' being generally longer than 'fetch'.
This makes it much harder to synchronise the various stages of the different
instructions.
3. Also, some instructions may be dependent on the results of other earlier instructions.
This can arise when data produced earlier needs to be used or when a conditional
branch based on a previous outcome is used.

RESULT

Thus the study and design of understanding pipeline cocepts has been done and components
has been realized.