Environmental Studies

Environmental
Studies
D. S. Sohi
K. K. Datta
Madhu Mohini
Environmental Studies
Author
D. S. Sohi
ATIC, Dairy Economics, Statistics & Management Division,
NDRI, Karnal
K. K. Datta
Head, Dairy Economics, Statistics & Management Division
NDRI, Karnal
Madhu Mohini
Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division
NDRI, Karnal
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Index
Module 1: MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
Lesson 1. Definition, scope, and importance of environmental studies 5-11
Module 2: NATURAL RESOURCES
Lesson 2. Forest resources 12-20
Lesson 3. Water resources 21-26
Lesson 4. Mineral resources 27-30
Lesson 5. Food resources 31-37
Lesson 6. Energy resources 38-42
Lesson 7. Land resources 43-45
Lesson 8. Conservation and equitable use of natural resources 46-47
Module 3: ECOSYSTEMS
Lesson 9. Introduction, structure and function of an ecosystem 48-51
Lesson 10. Energy flow in the ecosystem and ecological succession 52-70
Lesson 11. Characteristic features of various ecosystems 71-81
Module 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
Lesson 12. Introduction to biodiversity 82-85
Lesson 13. Values of biodiversity 86-89
Lesson 14. Biodiversity at global, national and local levels: Inida as a
90-93
mega-diversity nation
Lesson 15. Hot-spots of biodiversity and threats to biodiversity 94-101
Lesson 16. Conservation of biodiversity 102-106
Module 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Lesson 17. Introduction and classification of polluants 107-116
Lesson 18. Solid waste management 117-119
Lesson 19. Role of an individual in prevention of pollution 120-121
Lesson 20. Pollution case studies 122-124
Lesson 21. Disaster management 125-128
Module 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Lesson 22. Sustainable development 129-131
Lesson 23. Urban problems 132-134
Lesson 24. Resettlement and rehabilitation 135-138
Lesson 25. Environmental ethics 139-145
Lesson 26. Wasteland reclamation 146-147
Lesson 27. Environment Protection Act
148-149
Lesson 28. Issues involved in enforcement of environmental
150-155
legislation
Module 7: HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT
Lesson 29. Population growth and variations among nations 156-164
Lesson 30. Environment and human health 165-172
Lesson 31. Women and Child Welfare 173-174
Lesson 32. Role of information technology (IT) in environment 175-178
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 1.DEFINITION, SCOPE, AND

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Module 1. Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies
Lesson 1
DEFINITION, SCOPE, AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
‘There is a sufficiency in the world for man's need but not for man's greed’ ~Mohandas K.
Gandhi
1.1 Introduction
Environment consists of surroundings which includes abiotic and biotic environment.

Environment refers to sum of all i.e. water, air and land, along with their inter-relationships
among themselves and also other living organisms. Environment can be studied by
interpreting the knowledge from all the disciplines. Global environment constitutes important
segment i.e. atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are major
gases which account for 99% of air. Hydrosphere consist of sea, ocean, rivers, glaciers, lakes,
reservoirs, polar ice caps, and shallow water ground bodies and about 70% of earth’s surface
covered with water . In the modern era, human beings have exploited natural resources
making the use of latest techniques in fields of information technology, genetic engineering,
and others technologies for enhancing productivity and income which may lead to brighten
our future. Over exploitation of natural resources may lead to starvation for resources and can
create an environment which is not suitable for living organisms. So there is a need to keep
the balance to sustain production level and maintain environment. Polluted air, water, and soil
have negative impact on health and economic opportunities for the humans. Polluted
environment gives birth to harmful biological and chemical agents which have direct or
indirect threats to human health. To face these threats, there is a growing realization at
national and international that proper utilization of environmental endowments of life support
systems such as air, water and soil is a must for sustainable development. Environmental
problems created by large population of human beings may due to individual or collective
actions influence the environment greatly, so there is need to identify environment problems
and to find solution .Individuals should be involved in the process of improving the
environment.
Academic disciplines are created to help us understand the universe better. While nature can
be understood using the disciplines, but not be ‘divided’ into disciplines. For instance, a
certain phenomenon may be referred to as a chemical change while another as a physical one.
But these categories are only perceptions. ‘Environmental studies’ is study about the
environment. Environment cannot be studied from the point of view of any one particular
discipline, but understanding of the interlinks between the complex ways in which one
phenomenon; how one action is connected to another, how the same thing can be understood
from different perspectives, perspectives often rooted in different disciplines.
There is need to create an consensus at national level to give emphasis to environment science
involving the application of scientific and technical information to understand, manage and
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conserve the environment and its resources.
1.2 Definitions
Some of the frequently used terms in study of environment are defined as follows:
1.2.1 Environment
The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’, which means
surrounding. Thus, Environment can be defined as the combined interaction of physical,
chemical and biological conditions affecting an individual or community in the complex
of social and cultural conditions.
1.2.2 Environmental science
Environmental science is a systematic study of our environment under different micro

climatic conditions and it is multi disciplinary in nature.
Environmental science can also be defined as the application of scientific principles to
understand environmental issues by studying the impact of interaction between different
parameters of environment. Many times, environmental science is related to other
sciences like ecology, environmental education and engineering.
A relatively new field, environmental science has evolved from integrated use of many
disciplines which include important topics of modern civilization and applied aspects of
environmental science need the basic knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology,
mathematics, engineering, anthropology, sociology, economics, management, ecology,
etc.
Environmental science integrates natural sciences, social sciences with environmental
ethics, environmental impact and planning.
Environmental science has emerged as a multi-disciplinary field of study to access the
impact of interaction of living beings and micro environments in which they live.
1.3 Environmental Science As a Multi Disciplinary Field
Environmental Science is interconnected to many branches of sciences. Some of these are:
1.3.1 Environmental science and biology
Biology mainly deals with life and environment factors have affect on living organisms.
Interaction between living things and different components of environment will affect
the efficiency and combined effect can be known as environmental biochemistry.
Biological processes in nature profoundly influenced by chemical species existing and
these processes will determine the nature of species, their degradation, and synthesis,
both in the aquatic and soil environments. Study of such phenomena are the basis of
biochemistry of environment
1.3.2 Environmental science v/s chemistry
Chemistry deals with chemical processes occurring in nature. When these processes are
studied in the shape of reaction which affects the existence of different species, with
special reference to air, soil and water environment, this relationship is termed as
environmental chemistry.
One of environmental chemistry’s major challenges is the determination of the nature
and quantity of specific pollutants in the environments
1.3.3 Relationship between environment and economics
Economic environment refers to all factors or forces, which contribute to economic

impact on the man, his activities and his region.
Resources such as agriculture, dairying, fisheries poultry, horticulture, floriculture and
machinery help to improve economic condition. Economic conditions, internal and
external factors such as export and import balances create favourable economic
environment for fast development of the country.
1.3.4 Social system and environment
Social environment of the society indicate the mental makeup of man’s activities and
helps the individual to decide his occupation and use of resources for his development.
Infrastructure such as roads, buildings, settlements, communication setup plantation of
horticulture and cropped fields are major component which helps to create social
environment.
Using the combination of tools of modern technology indigenous technical knowledge
(ITK) can help to fasten the change of physical environment into cultural environment.
1.3.5 Impact of population on environment
Work force is a major factor to fasten the role of individual in socio-economic

environment of a country. Population density can have significant effect on natural
environment. It can be observed that high population density have negative effects on
environment.
The world population, which is growing at alarming rate (annually 1.7 %) has damaged
the environment significantly. The growing trend which is likely to continue for another
three to four decades, which may further damage physical, social and economic
environment at both global and national level. On the other hand, negative growth rate
of population in developed countries is likely to hamper the development. Many policy
makers are considering the availability of young work force in India asset for
development in this changed scenario.
1.3.6 Political climate and environment
Main political institutions such as Legislature, executive and judiciary which constitutes the
political setup of any country can help to provide visionary leadership. Political decisions by
policy makers can have a direct effect on development and control of various human
activities, which includes formulation of laws related to increase the productivity, income and
town planning. The executives are pillars of policy implementation decided by legislature. A
stable and dynamic political setup is pre requisite for development of the nation. Stable
government can guide the nation by taking firm decisions. In a democratic setup, the
executive should function in public interest and within the boundaries of the constitution.
1.4 Importance
Earth’s living components establish equilibrium with their environment. Environmental

science helps to understand the scientific basis to establish different standards which help to
keep the equilibrium in the ecosystem.
Majority of environmental scientists are of the view that if environmental pollution i.e. air,
water and soil continued at the present rate the change will be irreversible and may cause
damage to ecological cycles and balances in the ecosystem which is may harm the life of
living organisms on the earth.
To maintain the ecological balance in the ecosystems, drastic changes have to be inculcated in
the human behaviour .There is well known fact that universe does not have infinite resources
to support the future generation. Earth’s limited resources must be conserved and reused
where ever possible. Policy makers at global level must devise new strategies to protect
natural ecosystem, keeping balance with economic growth. Future growth of developing
nations depends upon the development of sustainable conservation methods that protect the
environment, while also meeting the basic needs of citizens.
An environmental study is the subject in which we examine important issues relating to

environment as they affect our lives. It is an exploratory description of issues. Each issue can
be probed more deeply.
Many a time development and economic growth cannot go hand on hand. Development
activities are inversely related to environment because development leads to industrialisation
for employment which leads to depletion of natural resources and affect the standard of living
of the citizens. Developing nations are compromised with environment for fast growth in
different sectors to produce goods for domestic use and export which in turn pollute the
environment at the expense of development.
It is hard fact that consumption levels of the consumer life-style of humans is directly related
to environmental problems. Therefore, living habits attitude and ethical standards are the
areas of concern to keep the ecological balance intact.
The government and their agencies, the non-governmental organizations, the judiciary and
now the corporate sector also express a great concern on matters relating natural environment
and ecosystem. Many environmental problems such as depletion of ozone layer, global
warming, destruction and extinction of species, decreasing water table, contamination and
depletion of ground water and problem of increasing population can be solved by educating
the future generations about the impact of development activities on environment.
1.5 Objectives of Environment Education
The objectives of Environmental Education are classified as follows:
Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals, gain a variety of experiences and
acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems.
Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and sensitivity
to the total environment and its allied problems.
Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals to acquire a set of values and promote a
feeling of concern for the environment and provide motivation for actively participating
in environmental improvement and protection.
Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively
involved at all levels, working towards the resolution of environmental problems.
Skills : to help social groups and individual to acquires the skills for identifying and
solving environmental problems
Evaluation Ability: to evaluate environmental measures and education programs in
terms of ecological, economic, social and aesthetic factors.
The overall goal of environmental education can be expressed in another form as three
principal objectives (UNESCO, 1977a).
1. To foster clear awareness and concern about economic, social, political and ecological
interdependence in urban and rural areas.
2. To create new patterns of behaviors of individuals, groups and society as a whole
towards the environment.
3. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes,
commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment
1.6 Scope
The wide spread use of chemicals in agriculture and industry has introduced new dimensions
to sustain eco balance in the system. This possesses potential threat to human health through
the spread of pollutants through water and soil, as well as through food chain. The need for
use of environment science is drawing the intention of policy makers for pollution control to
sustain the life and nature. Study of environmental science helps us to understand the various
components of environment and disturbing factors and helps to find solution to overcome the
negative effect of these factors. The industrial waste which contains highly toxic elements
like lead, mercury and arsenic is discriminately discharged into the rivers. The water used for
drinking, irrigation and other purposes from these contaminated sources is a serious threat to
the human health. Study of environment science has helped in manufacturing pollution
control equipment, sewage and effluent treatment plants, and biomedical waste treatment. The
essence of environmental science is multidisciplinary in nature and helps to identify
environmental issues which are directly or indirectly concerned with environment. College
and university students, corporate houses can prove leaders to protect the environment and
conservation of natural resources by understanding the multidisciplinary nature of
environment studies. Policy makers from various government organisations can play an
important role to protect and conserve environment by understanding the nature of
environmental issues facing the country. Natural resources of any country are either
renewable or non renewable. Most countries are exploiting their resources at fast rate.
Increased population is creating stress on these resources. India, being in the phase of
development is exploiting its resources at a fast rate. Increasing industrialisation,
deforestation, soil erosion, increased mode of transformation and adoption of high intensity
agriculture has contributed to degradation of environment .Our ecosystem which is
constituted of air, soil and water cannot survive for long, unless efforts are made to protect the
environment from pollutants. Without suitable habitat, living organisms cannot survive. With
increased level of living standards, rate of consumption and disposal of waste has created
problems due to enhanced activities for product manufacturing, marketing, and management,
etc. Changed environment doesn’t affect only the poor but also affects the rich people.
Environmental studies has lot of scope in the areas like control of environment pollution,
conservation and management of natural resources, balance disturbance in ecology and
biodiversity ,control and education of human population and systematic development with
keeping eye on environment pollution .Environmental science is problem oriented and seeks
knowledge about the natural environment and its impact on living organisms. So there is a
need of best idea and information to deals success fully with environmental problems
1.7 Need for Awareness

Life on earth emerged approximately 2.6 billion years ago and since then planet is being
affected by number of species of organisms which flourished and died. Men acquired the
capacity to change the environment faster than any other organisms on this planet. For his
comfort he has exploited soil for agriculture industry, for manufacturing goods , transport and
communication, which has lead to disturbing the ecological balance due to degradation of life
supporting system including air ,water and land. It is the need of the hour that humans are
educated about the effect of degraded environment on human health. Degraded environment
is going to affect both developed and developing countries alike. Following steps can be
initiated to educate the masses about the pathetic state of environment and to improve the
environment for future generations.
1. Environmental science knowledge should be used to educate the masses about the
problems being faced by present generation as well as the problems to be faced by
future generation. Government of India, particularly ministry of agriculture in
cooperation with ministry of environment and forest can launch campaigns, so that
people can be educated about the importance of environment healthy plantation. State
governments should activate the machinery to generate awareness about the impact of
forest in maintaining ecological balance. At global level world environment day
celebrated on 5th June every year which can be undertaken as plantation day.
2. Multimedia can play leading role for dissemination of information by using different
tools like advertisements, group discussion, feature films, video conferencing, and
website and internet services.
3. Printing media can initiate the campaigns regarding impact of degraded environment on
living organisms by publishing articles through newspapers, magazines, newsletters.
4. Awareness campaign can be launched through displaying several holdings, posters at
prominent places and organising exhibitions, face to face interaction, online e-mail
service, SMS service throughout the country.
5. Individual actions can inspire large number of people. Therefore individual efforts can
significantly influence the environment. Individuals can involve themselves in different
activities for improving environment.
6. Social and political movement, environmentalism (code of conduct for achieving better
environmental management) can have significant effect to save the ecosystem for future
generations.
Lot of people talk about degradation of environment and preach for clean environment, but
only selective people have clear vision about this scope and need of safe guarding the interest
to keep balance between development and degradation of environment. There is a need to use
the experience of experts to implement the developmental projects. Many times environment
awareness campaign have been exploited for political propaganda rather than educational
programmes to educate the people about actual impacts of the project, for example the issue
of Enron Power Project (Dabhol Power Project) now called Ratnagiri Power Project in
Konkan area of Maharashtra, was much politicized and the environmental issues were put
forth as political propaganda.
Awareness regarding the state of environment is must for every human being living on this
planet. Already world is surrounded by several environmental problems, the effect of which is
directly felt by its inhabitants. Nobody can escape the wrath if fallen, may it be the people of
developing countries or those from the developed ones.
Looking at the present pathetic state of environment and the knowledge people have about it,
it has become evident for every country to educate their masses, so that they could start
understanding the problems that they are facing at present and would have to face in future. In
fact, almost all nations of world have geared up in creating awareness in their people.
The media is playing a leading role in this process. Several means are being employed to
educate the masses. Various advertisements, documentaries, feature films etc. are being made
to be telecasted on the video media. Newspapers and other magazines are publishing out lot
of articles on this subject.
Government with its separate ministry - Ministry of Environment and Forest has also
launched many campaigns like displaying several hoardings, posters etc. throughout the
country. The state ministries are also playing important roles in generating awareness in
masses.
Plantation of several trees on various occasions, especially on World Environment Day which
falls on 5th June is undertaken on large scale.
The complex link between human activities and the loss of biodiversity is rapidly coming to
light. Loss of habitats and poaching of wildlife is more obvious now a day. But more complex
and unsuspected links are being thrown up as scientists go deeper into the subject. For
example, the recent study suggest that rapid decline of species of vultures in South Asia could
be result of a veterinary drug given to cattle which is eventually passed on to vultures when
they feed one of the carcasses of these animals. This particular observation and many much
more complex observations are based on deep study that is being done in field of
Environment Sciences.
Similarly, while atmospheric science and chemistry may seem distantly related subjects, it
was the study of CFCs (chloro fluoro carbon) and their impact on ozone that finally led to an
understanding of the ozone ‘hole’ and the Montreal Protocol (a commitment by governments
to phase out the use of CFCs), which has been one of the success stories of a global response
to a global problem.
Fig. 1.1 Montreal protocol meeting
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. FOREST RESOURCES
Module 2. Natural resources
Lesson 2
FOREST RESOURCES
‘A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the
air and giving fresh strength to our people’- Franklin D. Roosevelt
2.1 Introduction to Natural Resources
Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful
can be termed as resource. In other words, it is possible to obtain valuable items from any
resources. Resource, therefore, are the means to attain given ends. The aspect of satisfaction
is so important that we consider a thing or substance a resource, as so long it meets our needs.
Life on this planet depends upon a large number of things and services provided by the
nature, which are known as Natural Resources. Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests,
crops and wild life are all examples of natural resources.
2.1.1 Classification of natural resources
Depending upon availability of natural resources can be divided into two categories such as
(1) renewable and (2) Non renewable resources.
1.Renewable resources
Renewable resources are in a way inexhaustible resources. They have the ability to replenish
themselves by means such as recycling, reproduction and replacement.Examples of renewable
resources are sunlight, animals and plants,soil,water,etc.
2. Non-Renewable Resources
Non renewable resources are the resources that cannot be replenished once used or perished.
Examples of non renewable resources are minerals, fossil fuels, etc.
Resources can also be classified as biotic or abiotic.
a)Biotic resources
These are living resources (e.g. forest, agriculture, fish and wild life) that are able to
reproduce or replace them and to increase.
b)Abiotic resources
These are non-living resources (e.g. petrol, land, minerals etc.) that are not able to replace
themselves or do so at such a slow rate that they are not useful to consider them in terms of
the human life times.
2.1.2 Problems associated with natural resources
1. The unequal consumption of natural resources
A major part of natural resources today are consumed in the technologically advanced or
‘developed’ world, usually termed ‘the west’. The ‘developing nations’ of ‘the east’,
including India and China, also over use many resources because of their greater human
population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of the
developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing countries. Advanced
countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse gases.
2. Planning land use
Land is a major resource, needed for not only for food production and animal husbandry, but
also for industry and growing human settlements. These forms of intensive land use are
frequently extended at the cost of ‘wild lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands, wetlands
and deserts. This demands for a pragmatic policy that analyses the land allocation for
different uses.
3. The need for sustainable lifestyles
Human standard of living and the health of the ecosystem are indicators of sustainable use of
resources in any country or region. Ironically, both are not in concurrence with each other.
Increasing the level of one, usually leads to degradation of other. Development policies
should be formulated to strike a balance between the two.
2.2 Forest Resources
Forest is important renewable resources. Forest vary in composition and diversity and can
contribute substantially to the economic development of any country .Plants along with trees
cover large areas, produce variety of products and provide food for living organisms, and also
important to save the environment.
It is estimated that about 30% of world area is covered by forest whereas 26% by pastures.
Among all continents, Africa has largest forested area (33%) followed by Latin America
(25%), whereas in North America forest cover is only 11%. Asia and former USSR has 14%
area under forest. European countries have only 3% area under forest cover. India’s Forest
Cover accounts for 20.6% of the total geographical area of the country as of 2005.
Fig 2.1 Forest area in percent of land area by country (courtesy : FAO, 2012)
2.2.1 Significance of forests
Forest can provide prosperity of human being and to the nations. Important uses of forest can
be classified as under
Commercial values
Ecological significance
Aesthetic values
Life and economy of tribal
Fig. 2.2 Uses of the forest
2.2.1.1 Commercial values
Forests are main source of many commercial products such as wood, timber, pulpwood
etc. About 1.5 billion people depend upon fuel wood as an energy source. Timber
obtained from the forest can used to make plywood, board, doors and windows,
furniture, and agriculture implements and sports goods. Timber is also a raw material for
preparation of paper, rayon and film.
Forest can provide food , fibre, edible oils and drugs.
Forest lands are also used for agriculture and grazing.
Forest is important source of development of dams, recreation and mining.
2.2.1.2 Life and economy of tribal
Forest provide food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital role
in the life and economy of tribes living in the forest.
2.2.1.3 Ecological uses
Forests are habitat to all wild animals, plants and support millions of species. They help in
reducing global warming caused by green house gases and produces oxygen upon
photosynthesis.
Forest can act as pollution purifier by absorbing toxic gases. Forest not only helps in soil
conservation but also helps to regulate the hydrological cycle.
2.2.1.4 Aesthetic values
All over the world people appreciate the beauty and tranquillity of the forest because forests
have a greatest aesthetic value. Forest provides opportunity for recreation and ecosystem
research.
2.2.2 Over exploitation of forests
Forests contribute substantially to the national economy. With increasing population increased
demand of fuel wood, expansion of area under urban development and industries has lead to
over exploitation of forest .At present international level we are losing forest at the rate of 1.7
crore hectares annually. Overexploitation also occurs due to overgrazing and conversion of
forest to pastures for domestic use.
2.2.3 Deforestation
1. Forest are burned or cut for clearing of land for agriculture ,harvesting for wood and
timber , development and expansion of cities .These economic gains are short term
where as long term effects of deforestation are irreversible
2. Deforestation rate is relatively low in temperate countries than in tropics If present rate
of deforestation continues we may losses 90% tropical forest in coming six decades
3. For ecological balance 33% area should be under forest cover but our nation has only
20.6% forest cover.
2.2.3.1 Causes of deforestation
Forest area in some developed area has expanded. However in developing countries area
under forest is showing declining trend particularly in tropical region. Main causes of
deforestation are
Fig. 2.3 Causes of deforestation
a) Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation
This practise is prevalent in tribal areas where forest lands are cleared to grow subsistence
crops. It is estimated that principle cause of deforestation in tropics in Africa, Asia and
tropical America is estimated to be 70, 50, and 35% respectively. Shifting cultivation which is
a practice of slash and burn agriculture are posses to clear more than 5 lakh hectares of land
annually. In India, shifting cultivation is prevalent in northeast and to limited extent in M.P,
Bihar and Andhra Pradesh and is contributing significantly to deforestation.
b) Commercial logging
It is a important deforestation agent. It may not be the primary cause but definitely it acts as
secondary cause, because new logging lots permits shifting cultivation and fuel wood
gatherers access to new logged areas.
c) Need for fuel wood
Increased population has lead to increasing demand for fuel wood which is also acting as an
important deforestation agent, particularly in dry forest.
d) Expansion for agribusiness
With the addition of cash crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruits and ornamental plants, there is
stress to expand the area for agribusiness products which results in deforestation.
e) Development projects and growing need for food
The growing demand for electricity, irrigation, construction, mining, etc. has lead to
destruction of forest. Increased population needs more food which has compelled for
increasing area under agriculture crops compelling for deforestation.
f) Raw materials for industrial use
Forest provides raw material for industry and it has exerted tremendous pressure on forest.
Increasing demand for plywood for backing has exerted pressure on cutting of other species
such as fir to be used as backing material for apple in J&K and tea in northeast states.
2.2.3.2 Major effects of deforestation

Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living beings
.Major causes of deforestation are
Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle
Fig 2.4 Effects of deforestation (courtesy :tutorvista)
Expansion of deserts
Climate change and depletion of water table
Loss of biodiversity ,flora and fauna
Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems
2.2.4 Case studies
1.Jhum cultivation
Jhum Agriculture or shifting agriculture has destroyed large number of hectare of forest tracts
in North-Eastern states and Orissa. Jhum agriculture is subsidence agriculture in which tract
of forest land is cleared by cutting trees and it is used for cultivation. After few years, when
productivity of the land decreases, cultivators abandon the land and clear next tract. As a
result of this practise, combined with increasing population there is rapid deforestation as
more and more cultivators clear forest to cultivate land. Also, with increase in population
there is cultivators are forced to return to previous tracts of land in relatively shorter
durations, not allowing the land to regain its productivity.
2.Chipko movement
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a social-ecological movement that practised the
Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees
to protect them from being felled. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in
the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand,with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant
women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to
prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by
the contractor system of the state Forest Department. Their actions inspired hundreds of such
actions at the grassroots level throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had spread
throughout India and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to
the open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
3.Western himalayan region.
Over the last decade, there has been widespread destruction and degradation of forest
resources in Himalayas, especially western Himalayas. This has resulted in various problems
such as erosion of top soil, irregular rainfall, changing weather patterns and floods.
Construction of roads on hilly slopes, have not only undermined their stability, but also
damaged protective vegetation and forest cover. Tribes in these areas are increasingly facing
shortage of firewood and timber, due large scale tree cutting. Increased traffic volumes on
these roads leads to increased pollution in the area.
2.2.5 Timber extraction
There has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use. Due to increased
industrial demand; timber extraction has significant effect on forest and tribal people.
2.2.5.1 Logging
Poor logging results in degraded forest and may lead to soil erosion especially on
slopes.
New logging roads permit shifting cultivators and fuel wood gatherers to gain access to
the logging area.
Loss of long term forest productivity
Species of plants and animals may be eliminated
Exploitation of tribal people by contractor.
2.2.6 Mining
Major effects of mining operations on forest and tribal people are:
Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits
is done by sub-surface mining. It leads to degradation of lands and loss of top soil. It is
estimated that about eighty thousands hectare land is under stress of mining activities in
India
Mining leads to drying up perennial sources of water sources like spring and streams in
mountainous area.
Mining and other associated activities remove vegetation along with underlying soil
mantle, which results in destruction of topography and landscape in the area. Large scale
deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to
indiscriminating mining.
The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33% and the increase in non-forest
area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to
landslides.
Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50000 ha of
forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas has caused extensive
deforestation in Jharkhand.
Mining of magnetite and soapstone have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hilly slopes of
Khirakot, Kosi valley and Almora.
Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar
threats of deforestation.
The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining projects
for excavation of copper, chromites, bauxite and magnetite.
2.2.7 Effects of dams on forests and tribal people
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru referred dam and valley projects as “Temples of modern India”.
These big dams and rivers valley projects have multi-purpose uses. However, these dams are
also responsible for the destruction of forests. They are responsible for degradation of
catchment areas, loss of flora and fauna, increase of water borne diseases, disturbance in
forest ecosystems, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal peoples.
India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra
(more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130).
The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms
of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh. Big dams have been in
sharp focus of various environmental groups all over the world, which is mainly because
of several ecological problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems
related to tribal or native people associated with them.
The Silent valley hydroelectric project was one of the first such projects situated in the
tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats which attracted much concern of the people.
The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam
was led by Shri. Sunder Lal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement.
The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues have been taken up by the
environmental activitist Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Ray and Baba Amte. For
building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural
ecological balance of the region.
Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such areas. Forests are the
repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying
them (particularly, the tropical rain forests), we are going to lose these species even
before knowing them. These species could be having marvellous economic or medicinal
value and deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which have evolved
over millions of years in a single stroke.
2.2.8 Forest conservation and management
Forest is one of the most valuable resources and thus needs to be conserved. To conserve
forest, following steps should be taken.
1. Conservation of forest is a national problem, thus it should be tackled with perfect

coordination between concerned government departments.
2. People should be made aware of importance of forest and involved in forest
conservation activities.
3. The cutting of trees in the forests for timber should be stopped.
4. A forestation programmes should be launched
5. Grasslands should be regenerated.
6. Forest conservation Act should be strictly implemented to check deforestation.
7. Awards should be instituted for the deserving.
References
http://www.earthwatch.org/rcc_india
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHE1oUFO_-U&feature=related
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 3. WATER RESOURCES
Lesson 3
WATER RESOURCES
'Water is the driver of Nature' - Leonardo daVinci
3.1 Introduction
Water is an indispensable resource for life on earth. Approximately 70.8 % surface of

earth is covered with water in the form of oceans. Out of this, about 97% is not fit for
human consumption, about 2% is locked as a glacier and only less than 1% available as
fresh water that can be used for human consumption and other uses.
Fig. 3.1 Water resources in world
Water is a very important source and essential for life because it has very unique
characteristic such as
1. Water exists as liquid over a wide range of temperature 0-1000C with highest specific
heat and latent heat of vaporizations.
2. Water is excellent solvent and act as carrier of nutrient and helps to distribute them to
the cells in the body, regulates the body temperature and support structure and can
dissolve various pollutant and can act as carrier of large number of microorganisms
3. It is responsible for hydrological cycle which acts as resource of water to the earth. It is
estimated that about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates and majority of water
returns to earth through hydrological cycle.
3.2 Water Use
More than 99% of earth water is unavailable for use; only 1% water is available for
people, animal, plants and earth. There is an uneven distribution of water resources,
tropical rainforest are receive maximum rainfall where as desert receive only little rainfall.
Due to its unique properties water is of multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is
absolutely essential for all the living organisms. One can survive for weeks without food
but cannot survive more than a few days without water. Since the earliest days of mankind
water availability was the major factor to decide the place of human settlements. Water
dissolves nutrients and distributes them in different parts of plants and regulates the
temperature and removes the waste.
3.2.1 Fresh water crisis
On global scale water availability is not a problem itself, but it’s availability in right form,
right time and right place is a problem. Irregularities in duration and intensity of rainfall
cause floods and droughts. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty
water (marine) and only 3% is fresh water.
Due to increased demands overuse of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and domestic
purposes has lead to rapid depletion of groundwater in various regions leading to lowering
of water table.
Pollution of many of the groundwater aquifers has made them unfit for consumption.
Rivers and streams have long been used for discharging the wastes. due to
industrialization river water are being polluted because industrial residues are pushed into
the river .Civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers, but being over
populated due to fast growth are polluting the natural resources of water.
3.2.2 Problems associated with water resources
These are some problems associated with use of water
Water Scarcity (precipitation/evapotranspiration balance, temporal availability, per

capita availability)
Floods and droughts (spatio-temporal distribution; regular floods related to heavy
winter or spring rains, increasing damage level due to shifting land use (settlements
in flood zones) recurrent summer droughts coinciding with peak demand periods for
agriculture and tourism)
Groundwater availability and quality (aquifer size and access, yield, saltwater
intrusion, pollution of shallow aquifers)
Watershed degradation (deforestation, land use, increasing impervious (sealed)
areas due to urbanization the main concern here is land use change (primarily
deforestation and urbanization) and its effects on runoff patterns (flooding) and water
quality including erosion/sediments with subsequent problems such as reservoir
siltation/capacity loss)
Coastal interaction (salinity intrusion in groundwater and estuaries, coastal
pollution due to pollution runoff)
3.3 Over-Exploitation of Water
3.3.1 Groundwater
About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources are in the form of groundwater and it is
about 35-50 times that of surface water supplies.
Effects of extensive and reckless groundwater usage:
1. Subsidence
2. Lowering of water table
3. Water logging
3.3.2 Surface water
Surface water mainly comes directly from rain or snow covers. The various surface
sources are natural lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, artificial reservoirs. Availability of
surface water decides the economy of the country. On one side surface water availability
affects the productivity, but on the other side water sources may cause floods and drought.
Due to unequal distribution, water may lead to national (interstate) or international
disputes. Sharing of surface water due to these disputes is affecting productivity of
different agro eco-zone and creating problems for government.
Recently many water conflicts at national and international levels relating to sharing of
surface water are catching the headlines of newspaper.
3.3 Major Water Conflicts
Some of the major water conflicts that have become thorn in relations between states and
countries are
3.3.1 Water conflict in the middle east
Countries involved are Sudan, Egypt and Turkey. It also affects countries which are water
starved viz. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Israel and Jordan.
Fig. 3.2 Water conflict in the middle-east (courtesy :furmen.edu)
3.3.2 The Indus water treaty
This Indus water treaty dispute between India and Pakistan is lingering since long.
Fig. 3.3 The Indus water treaty (Courtesy-Indian Express)
3.3.3 The Cauvery water dispute
It involves two major states of India viz. Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

Fig 3.4 The Cauvery water dispute (Courtesy-KBK)
3.3.4 The Satluj-Yamuna link canal dispute
The dispute is between two Northern states viz. Punjab and Haryana and UP, Rajasthan as
well as Delhi has also interest in it .
Fig. 3.5 the Satluj-Yamuna link canal Dispute (Courtesy-DEEP)
In traditional water management, innovative arrangements ensure equitable distribution of

water, which are democratically implemented. These disputes can be solved amicably
through ‘Gram Panchayats”, if transparency is maintained. But disputes between countries
or states sometimes attain war like situation and are difficult to solve.
3.4 Dams - Benefits and Problems
Water is a precious resource and its scarcity is increasing at global level. There is a
pressure to utilise surface water resources efficiently for different purposes. According to
World Commission on Dam Report -2001 there are 45000 large dams spread over 140
countries
3.4.1 Major benefits of dams
The major benefits of dams are
1. Hydroelectricity generation
2. Year round water supply to ensure higher productivity
3. Equal water distribution by transferring water from area of excess to area of deficit
4. Helps flood control and protects soil
5. Assure irrigation during dry periods
6. River valley projects provide inland water navigation ,employment opportunities and
can be used to develop fish hatcheries and nurseries
7. River valley projects have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and will help
to raise the standard of living and can help to improve the quality of life
3.4.2 Disadvantages/problems
Although dams have proved very useful over the centuries but recent past big dams has
created lot of human as well as environmental issues
1. Submergence of large areas may lead to loss of fertile soil and displacement of tribal
people
2. Salt left behind due to evaporation increase the salinity of river water and makes it
unusable when reaches down stream
3. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs not only makes dams use less but also is
responsible for loss of valuable nutrients
4. Loss of non-forest land leads to loss of flora and fauna
5. Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds
6. Stagnation and water logging near reservoir leads to breeding of vectors and spread of
vector-borne diseases
7. Growth of aquatic weeds may lead to microclimatic changes.
References
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y945x25tNLU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5H0wCs3k4g&feature=related
http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xhkjzd_learn-our-water-resources-animation_fun
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 4.MINERAL RESOURCES
Lesson 4
MINERAL RESOURCES
‘God sleeps in the minerals, awakens in plants, walks in animals, and thinks in man’ -Arthur
Young
4.1 Introduction
Minerals are essential for the formation and functioning of organisms, plant animals and human
beings. In the modern era, human life needs variety of minerals to sustain industry based
civilization. Mineral resources are broadly defined as elements, chemical compounds, and
mixtures which are extracted to manufacture sustainable commodity. India has rich mineral
resource base to provide suitable base for industrial development in the country. Sufficient
reserve of nuclear energy minerals is available in India.
India’s reserves, as well as production are adequate in petroleum, ores of copper, lead, zinc, tin,
graphite, mercury, tungsten, and in the minerals required for fertilizer industry such as sulphur,
potassium and phosphorus.
4.1 Exploitation of Minerals
Depending on their use, mineral resources can be divided into several broad categories such as
elements for metal production and technology, building materials, minerals for the chemical
industry and minerals for agriculture. When usually we think about mineral resources we often
think of metals but the predominant mineral resources are not metallic. The picture of annual
world consumption of some elements is as under:
Sodium and iron are used at a rate of about 0.1 to 1.0 billion metric tons per year.
Nitrogen, sulphur, potassium and calcium are primarily used as fertilizers at a rate of
about 10 to 100 million metric tons per year.
Zinc, copper, aluminium and lead are used at a rate of about 3 to 10 million metric tons
per year;
Gold and silver are used at a rate of about 10 thousand metric tons per year.
Out of all the metallic minerals, iron consumption is 95% of the metals consumed
Thus, with the exception of iron, the non-metallic minerals are consumed at much greater rates
than the elements used for their metallic properties.
4.3 Uses of Minerals
Due to increased population, there is increased demand of minerals by the industry, transport,
agriculture and defence preparation. Depletion of almost all known and easily accessible
deposits is anticipated in near future. Moreover, there may be shortage of some crucial elements
such as mercury, tin, copper, gold, silver and platinum. The limited resource of phosphorus,
which is an essential component of chemical fertilizers, is another area of concern.
Fig. 4.1 Mineral and metal source of India (courtesy: Indian mirror)
Table 4.1 Uses of minerals
4.4 Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction
Extracting and use of mineral resources can affect the environment adversely. Environmental
affect may depend on factors such as mining procedures, ore quality, climate, size of operation,
topography, etc. Some of major environmental impacts of mining and processing operations are
as under
1. Degradation of land.
2. Pollution of surfaces and ground water resources.
3. Effect on growth of vegetation due to leaching out effect of minerals.
4. Surface water pollution and groundwater contamination lead to occupational health hazards
etc.
5. Air pollution due to emission of gases.
6. Deforestation affects flora and fauna.
7. Rehabilitation of affected population.
4.5 Conservation of Minerals
Conservation of minerals can be done in number of ways and these are as follows,
Industries can reduce waste by using more efficient mining and processing methods.
In some cases, industries can substitute plentiful materials for scarce ones.
Some mineral products can be recycled. Aluminum cans are commonly recycled.
Although bauxite is plentiful, it can be expensive to refine. Recycling aluminum products
does not require the large amounts of electric power needed to refine bauxite.
Products made from many other minerals, such as nickel, chromium, lead, copper, and
zinc, can also be recycled.
Strict laws should be made and enforced to ensure efficient management of mining
resources.
4.6 Case Study
Aravilli mountains which covers about 10% of geographical area is rich source of minerals
wealth .This mountain range play important role in control of climate and act as mini water
shed. On the request of environmentalist, Honourable Supreme Court has passed the order to
stop these mines in Rajasthan
Marble mining near Rajsamant Lake has lead to drying up of lake. Marble mining was stopped
on December 2002.
Recently, mining in Goa has attained the attention of the press and media and ultimately
government has to take the decision to stop this mining.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 5. FOOD RESOURCES

Lesson 5
FOOD RESOURCES
‘A house is not a home unless it contains food and fire for the mind as well as the body’--
Benjamin Franklin
5.1 Introduction
Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms. These essential
materials are called nutrients and these nutrients are available from variety of animals and
plants. There are thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, out of which only
about three dozen types constitute major food of humans.
5.1.1 Food sources
The majority of people obtain food from cultivated plants and domesticated animals.
Although some food is obtained from oceans and fresh waters, but the great majority of
food for human population is obtained from traditional land-based agriculture of crops and
livestock.
Table 5.1 Indian food production in 2010-11
5.1.2 Food crops
It is estimated that out of about 2,50,000 species of plants, only about 3,000 have been
tried as agricultural crops. Under different agro-climatic condition, 300 are grown for food
and only 100 are used on a large scale.
Some species of crops provide food, whereas others provide commercial products like
oils, fibres, etc. Raw crops are sometimes converted into valuable edible products by using
different techniques for value addition .At global level, only 20 species of crops are used
for food. These, in approximate order of importance are wheat, rice, corn, potatoes; barley,
sweet potatoes, cassavas, soybeans, oats, sorghum, millet, sugarcane, sugar beets, rye,
peanuts, field beans, chick-peas, pigeon- peas, bananas and coconuts. Many of them are
used directly, whereas other can be used by changing them by using different techniques
for enhancing calorific value.
5.1.3 Livestock
Domesticated animals are an important food source. The major domesticated animals used
as food source by human beings are ‘ruminants’ (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, camel, reindeer,
llama, etc.).
Ruminants convert indigestible woody tissue of plants (cellulose) which are earth’s most
abundant organic compound into digestible food products for human consumption. Milk,
which is provided by milking animals, is considered to be the complete food. Other
domestic animals like sheep, goat, poultry and ducker can be used as meat.
5.1.4 Aquaculture
Fish and seafood contributes 17 million metric tonnes of high quality protein to provide
balance diet to the world. Presently aquaculture provides only small amounts for world
food but its significance is increasing day by day.
5.2 World Food Problems
As per estimates of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about 840 million people
remain chronically hungry and out of this 800 million are living in the developing world.
In last decade, it is decreasing at the rate of 2.5 million per year, but at the same time
world’s population is increasing. Target of cutting half the number of world’s chronically
hungry and undernourished people by 2015 will difficult to meet, if the present trend
continues. Due to inadequate purchasing power to buy food, it is difficult to fulfil
minimum calorific requirement of human body per day .Large number of people are in
India are poor which can be attribute to equitable distribution of income .
Food insufficiency can be divided into two categories into under-nourishment and
malnourishment. Both of these insufficiencies are global problems.
5.2.1 Under-nourishment
The FAO estimates that the average minimum daily caloric intake over the whole world is
about 2,500 calories per day. People who receive less than 90% of their minimum dietary
intake on a long-term basis are considered undernourished. Those who receive less than
80% of their minimum daily caloric intake requirements are considered ‘seriously’
undernourished. Children in this category are likely to suffer from stunted growth, mental
retardation, and other social and developmental disorders. Therefore, Under-nourishment
means lack of sufficient calories in available food, resulting in little or no ability to move
or work.
5.2.2 Malnourishment
Person may have excess food but still diet suffers from due to nutritional imbalance or
inability to absorb or may have problem to utilize essential nutrients. If we compare diet of
the developed countries with developing countries people in developed countries have
processed food which may be deficient in fibre, vitamins and other components where as
in the diet of developing countries, may be lack of specific nutrients because they
consume less meat ,fruits and vegetables due to poor purchasing power .
Malnourishment can be defined as lack of specific components of food such as proteins,

vitamins, or essential chemical elements.
The major problems of malnutrition are:
Marasmus: a progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein and calories.

Kwashiarkor: a lack of sufficient protein in the diet which leads to a failure of
neural development and therefore learning disabilities.
Anemia: it is caused by lack of iron in the diet or due to an inability to absorb iron
from food.
Pellagra: it occurs due to the deficiency of tryptophan and lysine, vitamins in the
diet.
Every year, food problem kill as many people as were killed by the atomic bomb dropped
on Hiroshima during World War II. This shows that there is drastic need to increase food
production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth. Although India is
the third largest producer of staple crops, it is estimated that about 300 million Indians are
still undernourished. India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three times
population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to population.
5.2.3 Balanced diet
Supply of adequate amount of different nutrient can help to improve malnutrition and its
ill effects. Cereals like wheat and rice can supply only carbohydrate which are rich in
energy supply, are only fraction of nutrition requirement. Cereal diet has to be
supplemented with other food that can supply fat, protein and minor quantity of minerals
and vitamins. Balanced diet will help to improve growth and health.
5.3 Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing
From centuries, agriculture is providing inputs to large number of industries involved in

production, processing and distribution of food. Accordingly, agriculture has significant
effect on environment. The effects of agriculture on environment can be classified as local,
regional, and global level. The agriculture also makes impact on the usage of land
generally as follows:
1. Deforestation
2. Soil Erosion
3. Depletion of nutrients
4. Impact related to high yielding varieties (HYV)
5. Fertilizers related problems include micronutrient imbalance, nitrite pollution and
eutrophication.
6. Pesticide related problems include creating resistance in pests and producing new
pests, death of non-target organisms, biological magnification.
7. Some other problems include water logging, salinity problems and such others.
The carrying capacity of land for cattle depends upon micro climate and soil fertility. If
carrying capacity is exceeded than land is overgrazed. Because of overgrazing the
agricultural land gets affected as follows,
Reduction in growth and diversity of plant species

Reduce plant cover leads to increased soil erosion
Cattle trampling leads to land degradation
5.4 Effects of Modern Agriculture
For sustainable production modern techniques are used to enhance productivity of

different cropping systems under different agro-eco-zones. Adoption of modern
agricultural practises has both positive and negative effects on environment. Effects of
modern agriculture are briefly discussed under different heads as under:
5.4.1 Soil erosion
Raindrops bombarding bare soil result in the oldest and still most serious problem of
agriculture. The long history of soil erosion and its impact on civilization is one of
devastation. Eroded fields record our failure as land stewards.
5.4.2 Irrigation
Adequate rainfall is never guaranteed for the dry land farmer in arid and semiarid regions,
and thus irrigation is essential for reliable production. Irrigation ensures sufficient water
when needed and also allows farmers to expand their acreage of suitable cropland. In fact,
we rely heavily on crops from irrigated lands, with fully one-third of the world's harvest
coming from that 17% of cropland that is under irrigation. Unfortunately, current irrigation
practices severely damage the cropland and the aquatic systems from which the water is
withdrawn.
5.4.3 Agriculture and the loss of genetic diversity
As modern agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the earth's land surface to

monoculture, the genetic and ecological diversity of the planet erodes. Both the conversion
of diverse natural ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the genetic
diversity of crops contribute to this erosion.
5.4.4 Fertilizer-pesticide problems
For photosynthesis apart from water, sunshine and CO2, plants need micro and macro
nutrients for growth. These nutrients are supplied in the shape of fertilizers. There is lot of
potential to increase food productivity by increasing fertilizer use. On one hand
application of artificial chemical fertilizers increases the productivity at faster rate as
compare to organic fertilizers, on the other hand application of fertilizers can be a serious
problem of pollution and can create number of problems. Excessive level of nitrates in
ground water has created problems in developed countries. These are:
a. Accumulated phosphorous as a consequence of use of phosphoric fertilizer are posing

serious threat as residues in domestic water supply and for ecology of river and other
water bodies. Increased level of phosphates in different water results in eutropication.
b. Effect of chemical fertilizer is long term, therefore leads to net loss of soil organic
matter.
To control insects, pests, diseases and weeds which are responsible for reduction in
productivity different chemicals are used as insecticides, pesticides and herbicides.
Successful control of insects, pests and weeds increases productivity and reduces losses
and provide security for harvest and storage. Applications of these synthetic chemicals
have great economic values and at the same time cause number of serious problems such
as:
a. Affects human health which includes acute poisoning and illness caused by higher
doses and accidental exposes
b. As long term effect, cause cancer, birth defects, Parkinson’s disease and other
regenerative diseases.
c. Long term application of pesticides can affect soil fertility.
d. Danger of killing beneficial predators.
e. Pesticides resistance and pest resurgence
5.5 Water Logging
High water table or surface flooding can cause water logging problems .Water logging
may lead to poor crop productivity due to anaerobic condition created in the soil. In India,
deltas of Ganga, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and some areas of Kerala are prone to
frequent water logging.
5.6 Salinity
Due to adoption of intensive agriculture practices and increased concentration of soluble

salts leads to salinity. Due to poor drainage, dissolved salts accumulate on soil surface and
affects soil fertility. Excess concentration of these salts may form a crust on the surface
which may injurious to the plants. The water absorption process is affected and uptake of
nutrient is disturbed. According to an estimate, in India, 7 million hectare of land is saline
and area is showing in increasing trends due to adoption of intensive agriculture practises.
5.7 Case Studies
1. A study on birth defects in water birds, in Kesterson wildlife refuge in California,

indicated that these defects where due to high concentration of selenium.
2. Recent reports from cotton growing belt of Punjab which covers Abohar, Fazalka
and part of Bathinda indicates that over use of pesticides for control of insect pest in
cotton to enhance productivity has not only affected soil health, but also caused
cancer in human being.
3. Diclofenac is the drug for veterinary use to treat the livestocks which have strong
residual nature, which leads to high persistence throughout the foodchain .Due to
biomagnification it becomes more dangerous to the vultures as they are consumers of
diclofenac treated cattle. Diclofenac is responsible for bringing three South Asian
species of Gyps vultures to the brink of extinction. It has been banned in India since
2006.
References
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7pYJnhY64I
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwkXpJkUqA8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9rG3SBQYOms&feature=related
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 6. ENERGY RESOURCES
Lesson 6
ENERGY RESOURCES
6.1 Growing Energy Needs
Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development, because

almost all the development activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. Power
generation and energy consumption are crucial to economic development as economy of any
nation depends upon availability of energy resources. There are wide disparities in per capita
energy use of developed and the developing nations. With increased speed of development in
the developing nations energy needs are also increasing.
The very original form of energy technology probably was the fire, which produced heat
and the early man used it for cooking and heating purposes.
Wind and hydropower has also been used. Invention of steam engineers replaced the
burning of wood by coal and coal was further replaced by oil.
The oil producing has started twisting arms of the developed as well as developing
countries by dictating the prices of oil and other petroleum products.
Energy resources are primarily divided into two categories viz. renewable and non-
renewable sources.
Renewable energy resources must be preferred over the non-renewable resources.
It is inevitable truth that now there is an urgent need of thinking in terms of alternative
sources of energy, which are also termed as non-conventional energy sources which
include:
1. Solar energy needs equipments such as solar heat collectors, solar cells, solar
cooker, solar water heater, solar furnace and solar power plants .
2. Wind energy
3. Hydropower, Tidal energy, ocean thermal energy, geothermal energy, biomass,
biogas, biofuels etc.
The non renewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear energy.
6.2 Energy Scenario
Energy is a key input in the economic growth and there is a close link between the availability
of energy and the future growth of a nation. Power generation and energy consumption are
crucial to economic development.
In India, energy is consumed in a variety of forms such as fuel wood; animal waste and
agricultural residues are the traditional sources of energy. These non-commercial fuels are
gradually getting replaced by commercial fuels i.e. coal, petroleum products, natural gas and
electricity.
Out of total energy, commercial fuels account for 60% where as the balance 40% is coming
from non-commercial fuels. Of the total commercial energy produced in the form of power or
electricity,
69% is from coal (thermal power),

25% is from hydel power,
4% is from diesel and gas,
2% is from nuclear power, and
Less than 1% from non- conventional sources like solar, wind, ocean, biomass, etc.
Petroleum and its products are the other large sources of energy. In a developing country like
India, in spite of enhanced energy production, there is still shortage due to increased demand
of energy. In spite of the fact that there is a phenomenal increase in power generating
capacity, still there is 30% deficit of about 2,000 million units.
Policy makers are in the process of formulating an energy policy with the objectives of
ensuring adequate energy supply at a minimum cost, achieving self-sufficiency in energy
supplies and protecting environment from adverse impact of utilizing energy resources in an
injudicious manner. The main features of this policy are
1. Accelerated exploitation of domestic conventional energy resources, viz., oil, coal,

hydro and nuclear power;
2. Intensification of exploration to achieve indigenous production of oil and gas;
3. Efficient management of demand of oil and other forms of energy;
4. To formulate efficient methods of energy conservation and management;
5. Optimisation of utilisation of existing capacity in the country
6. Development and exploitation of renewable sources of energy to meet energy
requirements of rural communities;
7. Organisation of training for personnel engaged at various levels in the energy sector.
8. Government private partnership to exploit natural energy resources
6.3 Renewable Resources
The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known as
renewable resource.
These resources are able to increase their abundance through reproduction and
utilization of simple substances.
Examples of renewable resources are plants (crops and forests),and animals who are
being replaced from time to time because they have the power of reproducing and
maintain life cycles.
Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but can be
recycled are wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibres (e.g. cotton,
jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibres) and leather.
In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable resources.
Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a renewable
resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.
Fig 6.1 Renewable & non-renewable resources
6.4 Non-Renewable Resources
The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are known as non-
renewable resources.
These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources
include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), nuclear energy sources (e.g. uranium, thorium,
etc). metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates,
phosphates, nitrates etc.).
Once a non-renewable resource is consumed, it is gone forever. Then we have to find a
substitute for it or do without it.
Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz. Recyclable and
non-recyclable
6.4.1 Recyclable resources
These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they are used and can be
recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust
(e.g. ores of aluminium, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g.
phosphate sock and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica
etc.)
6.4.2 Non-recyclable resources
These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any way. Examples of these
are fossil fuels and nuclear energy sources (e.g. uranium, etc) which provide 90 per cent of
our energy requirements.
6.5 Use of Alternate Energy Sources
There is a need to develop renewable energy sources which are available and could be utilized
(solar or wind) or the sources which could be created and utilized (bio-mass). The main
renewable energy sources for India are solar, wind, hydel, waste and bio-mass. Bio-mass are
resources which are agriculture related like wood, bagasse, cow dung, seeds, etc.
6.5.1 Hydel energy
India has a total hydro energy potential of about 1.5 lakh MW, of which only about 20 % is
installed. Small hydro plant potential is about 15000 MW and most of it is in the northern and
eastern hilly regions.
6.5.2 Wind energy
The wind power potential of India is about 45,000 MW out of which capacity of 8748 MW
has been installed in India till 2008. India is one of the leading countries in generating the
power through wind energy.
Gujarat, AP, Karnataka, MP and Rajasthan are states having more than 5000 MW potential
each. These potentials could be improved if the technology of putting turbines in sea is
embraced. There are wind farms on sea generating as high as 160 MW of power.
6.5.3 Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the
energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from
the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but
has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological
advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for
applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation.
Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions
are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has
the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
6.5.4 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC )
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the difference between cooler deep and
warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work,
usually in the form of electricity. A heat engine gives greater efficiency and power when run
with a large temperature difference. In the oceans the temperature difference between surface
and deep water is greatest in the tropics, although still a modest 20 to 25 °C. It is therefore in
the tropics that OTEC offers the greatest possibilities. OTEC has the potential to offer global
amounts of energy that are 10 to 100 times greater than other ocean energy options such as
wave power
6.5.5 Biomass energy
Biomass is the oldest means of energy used by humans along with solar energy. As soon as
the fire was discovered, it was used widely among humans mainly for heat and light. Fire was
generated using wood or leaves, which is basically a biomass. The biomass could be used to
generate steam or power or used as a fuel. Power is generated using rice husk in Andhra
Pradesh, while several bagasse based plants are there. India has a potential of 3500 MW from
bagasse. Other fast growing plants could be planned over a huge area, so that it provides
biomass for generating power.
Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung, and kitchen waste can be
converted by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation into a gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas
is a mixture of 65% methane (CH4) and of 35% CO2 and may have small amounts of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. It is a renewable energy resulting from
biomass. Biogas can be used as a fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as
cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic digesters where it is typically used in a gas engine to
convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like
natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles.
6.5.6 Bio-fuels
India has more than 50 million hectare of wasteland, which could be utilized for cultivating
fuel plants. Jatropha is one of the options which can be planted on arid lands and be used for
production of bio fuels.
6.5.7 Solar energy
India being a tropical country has potential to use solar energy on commercial bases.
According to estimates, 35 MW of power could be generated from one sq km. With such
potential, solar energy has bright future as energy source for the development of the country.
Initial cost is the biggest limitation which has led to the low realization of its potential. For
solar energy to become one of the front runners, it will require lot of research, cheap
technology and low capital.
6.6 Problems Relate To the Use of Energy Resources
6.6.1 Fossil fuel:
• Global warming
• Acid rains
• Dangers posed by leaded fuels ,Oil spills
• Water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines
• Air pollution.
6.6.2 Alternate energy resources:
• The initial cost of establishment of alternate energy generation is costlier than conventional
resources.
• Maintenance of these structures is difficult.
• It requires more space.
• Energy supply is unpredictable during natural calamities.
6.7 Case Study
Importance of the energy resources in present economy and as a base for our future can be
underlined by the fact that recent confrontations between some powerful nations of the world
have primarily been attributed driven by objective to secure their energy supplies. Examples
of this have been the two gulf wars. It was the hunger for energy resources that drove Iraq to
lead an offensive over Kuwait and also reason for second Gulf war has been attributed to
energy security by defence experts. In recent times, world has witnessed a confrontation at
South China Sea between India, Vietnam and China over the issue of exploring natural gas
and petroleum under the sea bed.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 7. LAND RESOURCES
Lesson 7
LAND RESOURCES
‘A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself’- Franklin D. Roosevelt
7.1 Land as a Resource
Land area constitutes about 1/5 of the earth surface. To meet out the challenging demand of
food, fibre and fuel for human population, fodder for animals and industrial raw material for
agro based industries, efficient management of land resources will play critical role. Soil,
water, vegetation and climate are basic natural resources for agricultural growth and
development.
7.2 Land Degradation
Due to increasing population, the demands for arable land for producing food, fibre and fuel
wood is also increasing. Hence there is more and more pressure on the limited land resources
which are getting degraded due to over-exploitation. Nearly 56% of total geographical area of
the country is suffering due to land resource degradation. Out of 17 million hectare canal
irrigated area, 3.4 million hectare is suffering from water logging and salinity. Soil erosion,
water logging, salinization and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes like fly-ash,
press mud or heavy metals all cause degradation of land.
7.3 Soil Erosion
Soil erosion refers to loss or removal of superficial layer of soil due to the action of wind,
water and human factors. In other words, it can be defined as the movement of soil
components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place to another. It has been
estimated that more than 5000 million tonnes topsoil is being eroded annually and 30% of
total eroded mass is getting loosed to the sea .It results in the loss of fertility. It basically is of
two types, viz. geologic erosion and accelerated erosion. Various factors which affect soil
erosions include soil type, vegetation cover, slope of ground, soil mismanagement and
intensity and amount of rainfall. Wind is also responsible for the land erosion through
saltation, suspension and surface creep.
In order to prevent soil erosion and conserve the soil the following conservation practices are
employed,
Conservational till farming, Contour farming and Terracing

Strip cropping and alley cropping
Wind breaks or shelterbelts
Fig. 7.1 Terracing
Fig. 7.2 Shelterbelts
Fig. 7.3 Conservational tillage (USDA,2007)
7.4 Salinization
It refers to accumulation of soluble salts in the soil. Concentration of soluble salts increases
due to poor drainage facilities. In dry land areas, salt concentration increases where poor
drainage is accompanied by high temperature. High concentration of salts affects the process
of water absorption hence affects the productivity.
7.5 Water Logging
Excessive utilization of irrigation may disturb the water balance which can lead to water
logging due to rise of water table .Anaerobic condition due to poor availability of oxygen in
water logged soils may affect respiration process in plants which will ultimately affect the
productivity of water logged soil.
7.6 Desertification
Desertification is a process whereby the productive potential of arid or semiarid lands falls by
ten percent or more. Desertification is characterized by devegetation and depletion of
groundwater, salinization and severe soil erosion.
7.6.1 Causes of desertification
Deforestation
Overgrazing
Mining and quarrying
7.7 Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is a practice of slash and burn agriculture adopted by tribal communities
and is a main cause for soil degradation particularly tropical and sub tropical regions. Shifting
cultivation which is also popularly known as ‘Jhum Cultivation’ has lead to destruction of
forest in hilly areas .It is responsible for soil erosion and other problems related to land
degradation in mountainous areas.
7.8 Man induced Landslides
Human race has exploited land resources for his own comfort by constructing roads, railway
tracks, canals for irrigation, hydroelectric projects, large dams and reservoirs and mining in
hilly areas. Moreover productive lands under crop production are decreasing because of
development activities. These factors are affecting the stability of hill slopes and damage the
protective vegetation cover. These activities are also responsible to upset the balance of nature
and making such areas prone to landslides.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 8. CONSERVATION AND EQUITABLE

USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Lesson 8
CONSERVATION AND EQUITABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
8.1 Role of an Individual
Natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, minerals and energy resources play an
important role in the economy and development of a nation. Humans can play important role
in conservation of natural resources. A little effort by individuals can help to conserve these
resources which are a gift of nature to the mankind. Brief description of role of individual to
conserve different types of natural resources is given below:
8.1.1 Roles to conserve water
To minimise the evaporation losses irrigate the crops, the plants and the lawns in the
evening, because water application during day time will lead to more loss of water due
to higher rate of evapo-transpiration.
Improve water efficiency by using optimum amount of water in washing machine,
dishwashers and other domestic appliances, etc.
Install water saving toilets which use less water per flush.
Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
Don’t keep water taps running while they are not in use.
Recycle water of washing of cloths for gardening.
Installing rainwater harvesting structure to conserve water for future use.
8.1.2 Energy conservation for future use
Turn off all electric appliances such as lights, fans, televisions, computers, etc when not
in use.
Clean all the lighting sources regularly because dust on lighting sources decreases
lighting levels up to 20-30%
Try to harvest energy from natural resources to obtain heat for example drying the cloths
in sun and avoid drying in washing machine.
Save liquid petroleum gas (LPG) by using solar cookers for cooking.
Design the house with provision for sunspace to keep the house warm and to provide
more light.
Avoid misuse of vehicles for transportation and if possible share car journey to minimise
use of petrol/diesel. For small distances walk down or just use bicycles.
Minimise the use air conditioner to save energy
8.1.3 Protect soil health
Use organic manure/compost to maintain soil fertility

To avoid soil erosion does not irrigate the plants by using fast flow of water.
Use sprinkler irrigation to conserve the soil.
Design landscape of lawn in large area which will help to bind soil to avoid erosion.
Provide vegetation cover by growing of ornamental plant, herbs and trees in your
garden.
Use vegetable waste to prepare compost to use in kitchen gardening.
8.1.4 Promote sustainable agriculture
Diversify the existing cropping pattern for sustainability of agriculture

Cultivate need based crop
Maintain soil fertility
Make optimum use of fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals for production and
processing of agriculture products
Save grains in storage to minimise the losses
Improve indigenous breeds of milch animals for sustainable dairy production systems.
Adopt post harvest technologies for value addition
8.2 Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Life Style
In last 50 years, the consumption of resource in the society has increased many folds. There is
a big gap in the consumers lifestyle between developed and developing
countries.Urbanisation has changed the life style of middle class population in developing
countries creating more stress on the use of natural resources. It has been estimated that More
Developed Countries (MDC) of the world constitute only 22% of world’s population but they
use 88% of natural resources. These countries use 73% of energy resources and command
85% of income and in turn they contribute very big proportion of pollution. On the other hand
less developed countries (LDCs) have moderate industrial growth and constitute 78% of
world’s population and use only 12% of natural resources, 27% of energy and have only 15%
of global income.
There is a huge gap between rich and poor. In this age of development the rich have gone
richer and the poor is becoming more poorer.. This has lead to unsustainable growth. There is
an increasing global concern about the management of natural resources. The solution to this
problem is to have more equitable distribution of resources and income. Two major causes of
unsustainability are over population in poor countries and over consumption of resources by
rich countries. A global consensus has to be reached for balanced distribution of natural
resources.
For equitable use of natural resources more developed countries/rich people have to lower
down their level of consumption to bare minimum so that these resources can be shared by
poor people to satisfy their needs. Time has come to think that it is need of the hour that rich
and poor should make equitable use of resources for sustainable development of mankind.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 9. INTRODUCTION, STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Module 3. Ecosystem
Lesson 9
INTRODUCTION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
9.1 Introduction
The term ecosystem is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all the living
and non-living factors of the environment. The terms biocoenosis, microcosm, biocoenosis or
geobiocoenosis, holocoen, biosystem, bioinert body and ecocosm, respectively are used to
express similar ideas. However, the term ecosystem is most preferred, where eco refers the
environment, and system implies an interacting and interdependent complex. The organisms
of any community besides interacting among themselves always have functional relationship
with the environment. This structural and functional system of communities and environment
is called ecological system or ecosystem. It is the basic functional unit in ecology, since it
includes both biotic and abiotic environment, influencing each other for maintenance of life.
An ecosystem may, in its simplest form, be defined as a self-sustained community of plants

and animals existing in its own environment. An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of pond
water (microecosystem) or as large as ocean. It can be of temporary nature, e.g., a fresh pool
or a field of cultivated crops, or permanent e.g., a forest or an ocean. A balanced aquarium
may be thought of as an artificially established self-sustained ecosystem.
9.2 Characteristics of Ecosystem
According to Smith (1966), the ecosystem has the following general characteristics:
1. It is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. Its structure is related to its species diversity; the more complex ecosystems have high
species diversity and vice versa.
3. Its function is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within the
system.
4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its
structure. The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to maintain
itself.
5. It matures by passing from fewer complexes to more complex states. Early stages of
each succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per
unit biomass. Later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through
more diverse components.
6. Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited and
cannot be exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
7. Alternations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the population to
which it must adjust. Organisms which are unable to adjust to the changed environment
must necessarily vanish.
9.3 Kinds of Ecosystems
Artificially ecosystems may be classified as follows:
9.3.1 Natural ecosystems
These operate under natural conditions without any major interference by man. On the basis
of the type of habitat these may be further divided as:
a) Terrestrial
Forest, grassland, desert, etc.
b) Aquatic
1. Fresh water - which may be lotic (e.g., running water as spring, stream or rivers) or
lentic (e.g., standing water as lake, pond, pools, puddles, ditch, swamp, etc.).
2. Marine - such deep bodies as ocean or shallow ones as seas or an estuary, etc.
9.3.2 Artificial (Man - engineered) ecosystems
These are maintained artificially by man whereby addition of energy and planned
manipulation, natural balance is disturbed regularly, e.g. cropland ecosystem.
In addition to above types, some other types such as spacecraft and microecosystem have also
been recognised.
An outline of classification of the ecosystems is as follows:
A detailed account of the various major ecosystems may follow in the later part of this
chapter.
9.4 Structure of the Ecosystem
All ecosystems, whether terrestrial, fresh water, marine or man-engineered, consist of

following major components:
1. Species components
2. Stratification
3. Trophic organisation—relationship of food between various layers
4. Nutrients—required for living organisms
9.4.1 Biotic (living) components
This comprises of all the living organisms. On the nourishment (or trophic) standpoint, they
may be divided into two categories:
The autotrophs (autotrophic = self nourishing)
These are green plants and certain photosynthetic or chemosynthetic bacteria which can
convert the light energy of sun into potential chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds needed by plants for their own growth and development. Oxygen is produced as a
by-product of photosynthesis, needed by all living organisms for respiration. These green
plants are also known as producers because they produce food for all the other organisms.
The heterotrophs (heterotrophic = other nourishing)
They are dependent directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. The organisms
involved are also known as consumers because they consume the materials built up by
producers. These may be subdivided into two kinds:
Macroconsumers (or Phagotrophs, Phago = to eat)
These are organisms which ingest food and digest it inside their bodies. They may be
herbivores (plant eating), carnivores (= animal eating), or omnivores (= eating all kind of
food). The herbivores are primary consumers. For example, insects like grass hopers, chew up
stems and leaves, animals like goat, cow, deer and rabbit eat up entire aerial portion of green
plants, and man eats up plant products, are all primary consumers. Frog, a carnivore, is a
secondary consumer as it eats the herbivores, the snake that eats the frog is a tertiary
consumer, there is also a class of top consumers, which are not killed and eaten by any other
animals e.g. lion, tiger, leopard, vulture, etc.
Microconsumers (Saprotrophs, sapro = to decompose, or osmotrophs, osmo = to pass through

a membrane)
These are the organisms which secrete digestive enzymes to breakdown food into simpler
substances and then absorb the digested food. They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic
bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. They are also known as decomposers because of their role
in decomposition of dead organic matter. However, the parasites are not decomposers and
also some consumers (e.g. insects and such small animals) also which help in decomposition
by breaking down the organisms into small bits. Keeping this in view, Wiegert and Owens
(1970) suggested the classification of heterotrophs into two categories, biophages (= feeding
on living organisms) and saprophages (= feeding on dead organic matter). Decomposers
breakdown the complex compounds of dead or living protoplasm, absorb some of the
decomposition products and release inorganic nutrients which are cycled back to the soil and
the atmosphere from where they are once again made available to the primary producers.
Such a division of organisms based on the type of nutrition gives rise to the trophic structure
of the ecosystem and the energy source used which is one kind of producer-consumer
arrangement, where each food level is known as trophic level. The amount of living material
in different trophic levels or in a component population is known as the standing crop, a term
applicable to both, plants as well as animals. The standing crop may be expressed in terms of
organism’s mass, which can be measured as living weight, dry weight, ash-free dry weight or
carbon weight or calories or any other convenient unit suitable for comparative purposes.
In nature simple food chains occur only rarely. There are several food chains linked together,
and intersecting each other to form a network known as food web.
9.4.2 Abiotic components
Structurally abiotic components include -
1. Climate regime: Precipitation, temperature, light, and other physical factors.

2. Inorganic substances: Elements such as C, N, H, O, P, S, etc., involved in material
cycles.
3. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances that link the
abiotic components with the biotic components (for details see any elementary book on
ecology).
The minerals and atmospheric gases keep on cycling. They enter into biotic systems and after
the death and decay of organisms return to the soil and atmosphere. This is known as
biogeochemical cycle. This circulation of materials involves trapping of the solar energy by
the green plants which are ultimately lost by the organisms in several ways. The amount of
abiotic materials present in an ecosystem is called standing stage.
9.5 Functions
The function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of materials which
ensures stability of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological processes
including interaction between the abiotic environment and the communities. For the sake of
convenience, the ecosystem dynamics may be analysed in terms of the following: (i) food
chains, (ii) food pyramids, (iii) energy flow, (iv) nutrient cycles, (v) development and
evolution of ecosystem, and (vi) homeostasis and stability of ecosystem.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 10.ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM AND
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Module 3. Ecosystem
Lesson 10
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM AND ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
10.1 Ecosystem Functioning
To understand clearly the nature of the ecosystem, its function must be thoroughly investigated. The
function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of materials which ensures stability
of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological processes including interaction between
the abiotic environment and the communities may be considered as the ‘heart’ of the ecosystem
functioning. For the sake of convenience, the ecosystem dynamics may be analysed in terms of the
following: (i) food chains, (ii) food pyramids, (iii) energy flow, (iv) nutrient cycles, (v) development
and evolution of ecosystem, and (vi) homeostasis and stability of ecosystem.
10.2 Ecological Energetics
In ecological energetics one is mainly interested in the (i) quantity of solar energy reaching an
ecosystem, (ii) quantity of energy used by green plants in the process of photosynthesis and (iii) the
quantity and path of energy flow from producers to consumers.
In the earth’s atmosphere about 15 X 108 calories m-2 yr-1 of solar energy is received (Phillipson,
1966). The fate of solar radiations upon its incidence on earth’s surface is shown in Fig. 10.2. About
34% of the solar radiations reaching the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back into space by clouds
and the suspended dust particles in the atmosphere; 9% is further held by ozone, water vapour and
other atmospheric gases. Remaining 47% reaches the earth’s surface. In fact, only 1 to 5% of the
energy reaching the ground is converted by green plants to chemical energy, and 42 to 46% is
absorbed as heat by ground, vegetation or water. Water budget showed that 45% of the incoming
Fig. 10.1
radiation was dissipated by transpiration of 370 t ha-1 of water from the crop. The quantity of solar
radiation received at any place not only depends upon the clarity of the atmosphere, but also on the
latitude of the area. The equatorial region receives maximum solar radiation followed by other
regions of the tropics. The quantity of energy goes on decreasing with increase in latitude both in
the northern and southern hemispheres (fig.10.1).
Fig. 10.2
10.2.1 Energy flow in the ecosystem
The behaviour of energy in ecosystem can be conveniently termed as energy flow because of
unidirectional energy transformations. Total energy flow that constitutes the energy environment has
already been dealt in detail, and now we take up the study of that portion of the total energy flow
that passes through the biotic components of the ecosystem. Entrance of energy, its retention within
the ecosystem and dissipation into space, are governed by two laws of thermodynamics. According
to the first law, the law of conservation of energy, in a closed system, no energy comes in or escapes
out and not created or destroyed but may be altered from one form to another. The second law of
thermodynamics, the law of entropy, states that there is always a tendency for increase in entropy or
degradation from a concentrated (non-random) to a dispersed (random) form leading to dissipation
of heat. All the energy entering the earth’s surface can be accounted for. Some energy is used in
photosynthesis; the rest is used in converting the water into vapours or heating the soil and air.
Ultimately the energy reflected back to outer space as heat. The light energy fixed by green plants in
the process of photosynthesis may be represented by the following equation:
Out of the amount of energy so fixed by green plants, some is released again in respiration. The
fixed energy, in the form of food, then passes from plant source through herbivores to carnivores. At
each stage of food transfer, potential energy is released, resulting in further loss of a large part of
energy. The energy flow, thus follows the second law of thermodynamics.
10.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
The absorption and utilization of elements by organisms is compensated by their recycling and
regeneration back into the environment by the breakdown of these organic compounds again. The
more or less cyclic paths of these elements in the biosphere from environment to organisms and into
the environment back are called biogeochemical cycles (Bio - living organisms, Geo - rock, soil, air,
water).
Many elements enter living organisms in the gaseous state from the atmosphere or as water soluble
salts from the soil. As the flux of these elements through an ecosystem gives some measure of its
continuity and productivity, the analysis of exchange of various components of the biosphere is
essential. Furthermore, society depends upon this life-support system of the earth for sustained and
increased production of food, fodder, fibre and fuel.
These biogeochemical cycles may be categorized into three global types:
1. The hydrological cycle, involving the movement of water.

2. The gaseous cycle of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen
3. The sedimentary (non-gaseous) cycle of remaining nutrient elements e.g. phosphorus, calcium
and magnesium. Sulphur is to extent intermediate, since H2S or SO2, formed under some
circumstances, adds a gaseous component to its normally sedimentary cycle. These elements
normally do not cycle through the atmosphere in the absence of a gaseous phase. The elements
concerned in the sedimentary cycle are earthbound and follow a basic pattern of flow through
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity and biological transport (e.g.
through the excreta of marine birds). Sedimentary cycles are much less perfect than gaseous in
that some of the element may get stuck in certain phase of the cycle.
10.3.1 Hydrologic (Water) cycle
The important cycle among all the materials is that of water. Water is by far the most important
substance necessary for life. It is very important ecological factor that determines the structure and
function of the ecosystem, and regulates the plant environment to a large extent. The cycling of all
other elements is also dependent upon water as it provides the solvent medium for their uptake. It
provides H+ for reduction of CO2 in photosynthesis. It has moderating effect on the temperature of
the surrounding area by virtue of its heat absorbing ability. Protoplasm the very basis of life is made
up of 85 to 95% of water. The content varies in different tissues of the organism and in different
plants and animals. Human blood is 90% water. Water cycle involves an exchange of water between
the earth’s surface and the atmosphere via precipitation and evapo-transpiration. Water covers about
75% of the earth’s surface, occurring in lakes, rivers, seas, oceans, etc. The ocean occupies 70% of
the surface and contains 97% of all the water on earth. Much of the remainder is frozen in the ice
caps and glaciers. The water in rivers and lake is comparatively small. Less than 1% is in the form
of ice-free fresh waters in rivers, lakes and aquifers. Yet this relatively negligible portion of the
planet’s water is crucially important to all forms of terrestrial and aquatic life. There is also a large
underground supply of water. Soils near the surface also serve as reservoirs for enormous quantities
of water. Based on the data from Hutchinson (1957) (Table 10.1), prepared a diagram of hydrologic
cycle (Fig.10.2).
Every year 4.46 G of water comes in the form of rainfall of which 3.47 G precipitates over the
ocean’s surface. About 1 G rainfall occurs over land mass of which 0.2 G runs away and 0.6 G
evaporates again, and only a small quantity (0.2 G) is stored as underground water. 0.13 G water
moves in the form of water vapour and clouds from ice caps present on South and North poles and
on the top of high mountains. Only about 0.004% (~10 G) of the total water is all the time moving
in the cycle as much of earth’s water is in cold storage. Glaciers and the ice caps cover 11% of the
world’s land area; permanent frozen ground holds another 10% area in its grip, while 30 to 50% of
the land is covered with snow at any given time. Icebergs and pack ice occupy 25% of the ocean
area. Therefore of all fresh water is locked up as ice, mostly in Antarctica and Greenland.
Table 10.1 Data on water cycle from Hutchinson, 1957
10.3.2 Carbon cycle
Carbon is present in atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, and thus it cycles in this
gaseous phase. Though it is a minor constituent of the atmosphere (0.032% v/v), as compared to
oxygen (~21% v/v) and nitrogen (~79% v/v), yet without carbon dioxide no life could exist, for it is
vital to the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis in plants, the basic building blocks
for other organic compounds needed in metabolic synthesis and incorporation of the carbon with the
protoplasm. Fig. 10.3 illustrates the global carbon cycle. Carbon from atmospheric pool moves to
green plants (producers), then to animals (consumers), and finally from these to bacteria, fungi and
other microorganisms (decomposers) that return it to the atmosphere, through decomposition of
dead organic matter. Some of this is also returned to the atmosphere through respiration at various
levels in the food chain. It is estimated that half of the carbon fixed is subsequently returned to the
soil in the form of decomposing organic matter. Fig. 10.3 illustrates the global cycle of carbon
indicating the quantities involved at various levels. The atmospheric pool (711 X 109 tons) is very
small as compared to that of carbon in ocean (39,000 X 109 tons) and in fossil fuels (12,000 X 109
tons). Before the onset of industrial revolution flows among atmosphere, continents and oceans
were balanced, but with industrialization and urban development this equilibrium appears to be
disturbed. Fossil fuel burning, forest fire, deforestation and agriculture are some of the important
sources of new input. On the contrary, forests are important carbon “sinks” as forest biomass is
estimated to contain 1.5 times and forest humus 4 times the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.
There are two main sources of carbon in the abiotic world:
1. The rocks containing carbonates such as lime stone in the earth’s crust.
2. The carbon dioxide of the air and that dissolved in water.
In addition, there is present large amounts of carbon in fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.)
but this is not available to the plants until and unless it is burned to produce carbon dioxide
Fig. 10.3
Carbon dioxide is released from carbonate rocks by acids resulting from geological action and also
by acids formed during fermentation and by bacteria that produce nitric acid and sulphuric acid. An
insignificant amount of carbon dioxide is also produced by activity by bacterium Carboxydismonas
oligocarbophila which oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide (a poisonous
gas for aerobic organisms including man) is not of common occurrence in nature but may be
produced due to partial combustion of fossil fuel. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, some of
it reacts to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which immediately produces carbonate (CO2-3) and
bicarbonate (HCO-3) ions.
The richest source of stored carbon today is in the ocean, and in the form of these ions. The oceans
contain about 50 times more carbon dioxide than in the atmosphere. This regulates atmospheric
carbon dioxide than in the atmosphere. This regulates atmospheric carbon dioxide content level to
0.03% despite photosynthetic uptake. Thus, there is a continuous exchange of carbon dioxide
between the atmosphere and organisms on the one hand and between the atmosphere and sea on the
other hand. However, the majority of ocean-dissolved CO2 (HCO-3) is below the thermocline and
inaccessible for rapid exchange with the atmosphere. The immediate source of CO2 for exchange is
thus restricted to relatively small quantity of epilimnic CO2. The sea water being rich in calcium
and being alkaline (NaOH) helps in accelerating the process of carbonate decomposition. About 48
ml l-1 CO2 occurs as carbonate in sea water. Such deposits in the form of coral reefs and calcium
carbonate rocks are common in the tropical regions of the oceans. In warm climates, high
temperatures and greater salinity and alkalinity favour the process of carbonate decomposition, and
it is also reflected in thicker, shells of moluscs.
The carbon dioxide has the unique property of absorbing infra-red radiations. While the small
quantities of carbon dioxide are helpful in keeping the earth warm, the enhanced atmospheric
carbon dioxide results in rise in the temperature of the atmosphere much in the same way as glass
houses do (i.e. they permit the radiations to pass through and strike the earth, but once converted
into heat and reflected upwards, the heat waves are absorbed by carbon dioxide rich atmosphere and
cause rise in temperature) and in turn, causes rise in ocean level. Fig. 10.4 shows the carbon cycle in
an ecosystem.
Fig. 10.4
10.3.3 Oxygen cycle
Oxygen which is in abundance (20.9476% v/v) in the atmosphere is another indispensable material
for life. According to Broecker (1970), each square metre of the earth’s surface is covered by
60,000 moles (about a ton) of oxygen gas. Terrestrial, aquatic and marine plants, during
photosynthesis release about 8 moles of oxygen annually for each square metre of the earth’s
surface. Nearly all of this gaseous oxygen is utilized in the process of respiration by plants, animals
and bacteria with the result that the amount of oxygen consumed is almost equal to that of released
in the atmosphere. However, there is a small net addition of oxygen to the atmosphere (about 1 part
in 15 million parts of the oxygen present), which probably does not bring about any change in the
oxygen content, as much of this is utilized in the oxidation of carbon, iron, sulphur and other
minerals during the normal process of weathering.
Oxygen in bound state, occurs as oxides of carbonates in rocks, and in water. Oxygen dissolved in
water is the main source of oxygen for aquatic plants, which may act as one of the limiting factors
in their growth and development. Another important phase of oxygen is the ozone layer (oxygen
acted on by short-wave radiation to produce ozone), of the outer atmosphere, which by shielding out
the deadly ionizing short-wave ultraviolet radiations, protects the life. Oxygen is thus present in
atmosphere in sufficiently large quantities and there is no possibility of oxygen deficiency on global
scale even if all the earth’s organic matter including the fossil fuel is burnt.
Oxygen in bound state, occurs as oxides of carbonates in rocks, and in water. Oxygen dissolved in
water is the main source of oxygen for aquatic plants, which may act as one of the limiting factors
in their growth and development. Another important phase of oxygen is the ozone layer (oxygen
acted on by short-wave radiation to produce ozone), of the outer atmosphere, which by shielding out
the deadly ionizing short-wave ultraviolet radiations, protects the life. Oxygen is thus present in
atmosphere in sufficiently large quantities and there is no possibility of oxygen deficiency on global
scale even if all the earth’s organic matter including the fossil fuel is burnt.
10.3.4 Nitrogen cycle
Gaseous nitrogen is the most abundant element of the atmosphere (78.084% v/v), and seems to have
a highly complex nutrient cycle in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This substance is very
important for plants and animals as an essential, constituent component of chlorophyll and proteins.
Despite its immense value and indispensable nature it is never taken directly from the atmosphere
by animals or higher plants. Atmospheric nitrogen is rather inert and does not readily participate in
any reaction. A generalized nitrogen cycle is shown in Fig.10.5.
The chief sources of nitrogen for plants are nitrates in the soil. The atmospheric nitrogen is fixed
symbiotically as well as asymbiotically by a variety of microorganisms. The chief nitrogen fixers
are bacteria belonging to the genus Rhizobium found in root nodules of legumes. Asymbiotic
nitrogen fixers are some blue green algae, like Anabaena and Nostoc, aerobic bacteria like
Azotobacter, and anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium. Certain photosynthetic bacteria like
Rhodospirillum are also nitrogen fixers. Some proportion of atmospheric nitrogen is fixed during
lightening also. The fixed atmospheric nitrogen reaches the soil as nitrates, which are taken up by
plants for manufacture of complex nitrogenous compounds which in turn, are eaten by animals. The
dead organic matter formed due to death of plants and animals is decomposed by various types of
bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi occurring in soil and water. This releases nitrogen either in free
stage or as ammonia gas in the atmosphere. Ammonia gas may reach the soil as nitrates through the
activity of nitrifying microbes, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Some nitrates of soil due to activity
of denitrifying microbes, Pseudomonas, may also be converted to free nitrogen gas returning to the
atmosphere. This inorganic nitrogen is again recycled into the organic system upon absorption by
higher plants. It is presumed that the fixation of nitrogen by microorganisms is generally in
equilibrium with denitrification.
But in recent years there has been high quantity of atmospheric nitrogen fixation by Industrial
process (Haber’s process). Nitrogen so fixed is not readily and fully denitrified so as to cause
accumulation of nitrates or ammonia in water and soil. The accumulation of nitrates in water causes
eutrophication. NO2
from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel in automobiles further pollute
the environment. It appears that through photochemical and electrical fixation 2.5 x 107 ty-1 and
through biological fixation 5-(6)x 109 ty-1 of nitrate is formed. Industrial nitrogen fixation including
oxides of nitrogen formed during fossil fuel combustion is 8 x 107 ty-1. Nitrogen fixed by
microorganisms is 1-(2) x 108 ty-1, which is presumed almost equal to that of denitrification. A tiny
fraction of annual N-fixation is lost to fossilization in sediments because the anaerobic sedimentary
environment is favourable to denitrifying bacteria.
10.3.5 Sulphur cycle
Sulphur is a component of sedimentary cycle. It is found in the gaseous forms (H2S, SO2, etc.) in
the atmosphere, and as sulphates, sulphides and organic-sulphur in the soil. SO2 gas present in the
atmosphere is produced volcanically, by burning of vegetation, and now in copious quantities by
oxidation of sulphides and organo-S in fossil fuels. H2S and dimethyl sulphide are commonly
formed by the activity of anaerobic bacteria. The elemental and organic sulphur, and SO42- are
formed through oxidation of H2S. SO2 and H2S from the atmosphere are returned to the soil
through precipitation. Sulphur in the form of sulphates (SO42-) is the principal available form that is
reduced and incorporated into proteins by autotrophs. Sulphur is an essential constituent of certain
amino acids (cysteine, cystine, and methionine), the peptide glutathione and certain vitamins or
enzyme cofactors (thiamine, biotine, and thiotic acid). It is the mercaptan, containing the thiol (-SH,
or sulphydryl) group, and as the corresponding oxidized disulfide form that sulphur is most reactive
in the plant.
The sulphur cycle links air, water and soil, where microbes play a key role. The sulphur is
incorporated in the tissues of autotrophs as -SH in the proteins. It passes through the grazing food
chain and excess of it is released through the faeces of animals. Within the detritus food chain the
decomposition of proteins releases sulphur. Under aerobic conditions Aspergillus and Neurospora
and under anaerobic conditions the bacteria like Escherichia and Proteus are largely responsible for
the decomposition. In anaerobic soils and sediments H2S is formed by sulphate reducing bacteria
like Desulphonovibrio desulfuricans which utilize the oxygen in the sulphate molecule to obtain
energy and in turn reduce the sulphate in deep sediments to H2S gas:
In iron-rich materials, much of this H2S is scavenged by ferrous iron to produce the very insoluble,
black FeS. Many photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria play an important role in sulphur
metabolism. Chemoautotrophic colourless bacteria like Beggiatoa, Thiothrix and Thiobacillus
occurring in H2S containing water oxidizes H2S to S or S to SO42- when the H2S supply is
exhausted.
Thiobacillus thiooxidans under highly acidic conditions (up to pH 0.6) may convert sulphur to
sulphuric acid of 10% concentration and thus strongly acidify the soil. There are also green sulphur
(e.g. Chlorobium) and purple-sulphur (e.g. Chromatium) photosynthetic bacteria that use the H2S as
the source of hydrogen in reducing CO2.
Light
Green bacteria are able to oxidize H2S only to elemental sulphur, whereas the purple one can carry
oxidation to sulphate stage.
Sulphur cycle plays a key role in the metabolism of other nutrients like iron, copper, cadmium, zinc,
cobalt etc. For example, when iron is precipitated as sulphide, phosphorus is converted from
insoluble to soluble form and thus becomes available to organisms.
10.3.6 Phosphorus cycle
Like sulphur, phosphorus is also a component of sedimentary cycle. It is an essential component as

in the form of ATP it acts as an energy carrier. It is comparatively less abundant in natural
ecosystems, particularly in terrestrial ecosystems and occurs in meager amounts in aquatic
ecosystems too. The phosphorus is made available to the plants form the phosphatic rocks by slow
weathering process. The phosphatic (inorganic phosphates typically orthophosphate ions) are
metabolised in the plant body and pass through the food chain to animals, and then to decomposers
(as food as well as through death and decay) in the form of organic phosphate, which is
subsequently made available in the soil for reutilization through mineralisation and decomposition.
However, a major proportion of phosphorus becomes lost to this central cycle through run off to the
deep sediments of the oceans and in biological processes, such as formation of teeth and bones. On
the contrary some quantities of phosphates are returned back to the earth in the form of bird guana
(excreta) and fishes. In recent years the excessive use of phosphate fertilizers and the detergents is a
problem of global concern as it has been considered responsible for accelerated eutrophication of
water bodies.
10.3.7 Calcium cycle
It is important element needed by plants for building their cell walls and by animals for bone
formation. It is being regularly added to the soil pool through the weathering of rocks and through
atmosphere. A large proportion of this is kept in a state of cycling by uptake from soil into the biotic
pool of plants and animals and their return through litter fall, death and decay via detritus food
chain. Only a small portion is lost out of the ecosystem through stream flow and this is replenished
by weathering and precipitation.
10.3.8 Cycle of toxic elements
Several non-essential elements like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic and fluorine, despite their
substantial toxicity are freely cycled through biological systems in well regulated and balanced
manner. Growing industrial use, mining operations and other man’s activities tended to perturb this
equilibrium and upset the balance towards greater accumulation and lesser dispersion of toxic
elements. A very significant role in the mobility and dispersion of these elements in the biosphere is
played by microorganisms.
10.3.8.1 Mercury
It is one of the most important toxic elements which is now increasingly (about four-fold)
discharged in soils and water as an unwanted by-product of certain industrial and agricultural
activities. Mercury cycle is better known and the potential rate determining the role of
biomethylation of mercury in an ecosystem involving lakes, rivers, coastal environment, soil, etc., is
now well established. The natural level of mercury in soils is as high as 0.04 ppm, and in water 0.06
ppm. The amount of mercury found in the air depends on conditions of the environment. The
element is poisonous in the metallic state, as inorganic salts of mercury or in the form of organic
mercury compounds. It does not have to be ingested being poisonous. Metallic mercury gives off
vapours at room temperature; some of the metal even vaporizes at the freezing point of water and
this being highly volatile gets dispersed into biosphere. Elemental mercury can exist in three
alternative states, viz., Hg22+, Hg2+ and HgO and certain microorganisms are capable of
interconverting the three forms. Naturally occurring methyl-vitamin B12 compounds can aid the
synthesis of methyl mercury as well as dimethyl mercury in natural habitats. The bioaccumulation
of mercury is greatly facilitated by the natural synthesis of stable alkylmercury compounds (Wood,
1974). About 25% of the world mercury production form chlorine plant, where mercury is used as
in electrolyte electrode, escapes in fuel gases. Methyl mercury compounds formed probably in
sulphide-rich sediments by the activity of Methanobacterium amelankis are also highly toxic and
move in the ecosystem either in solution or as atmospheric volatiles. Methyl mercury chloride is
particularly toxic to animals as it is easily passed across cell membranes. Dimethyl mercury, which
is highly volatile, passes into the air and decomposes into CH4, C2H6 and Hg2O, thus causing air
pollution.
The mercury cycle shows that the mercury in ecosystem passes through food chain or by inhalation
of dust or ingestion of surface-contaminated food. Mercury pollution can be best assessed by
measuring the concentration of total mercury in sediments and also the rate of uptake of methyl
mercury by fish.
10.3.8.2 Arsenic
It also has a biological cycle in nature. It is an element that is intermediate between the metals and
non-metals. It is more abundant in nature as compared to mercury. In drinking water it may occur at
levels of upto 50 ppm, whereas mercury levels commonly do not exceed 1 ppm. Arsenic
compounds are known as to accumulate through food chains (Summers and Silver, 1978), with the
result that even small doses can be lethal. Severe poisoning of human can be caused by as little as
100 mg, and 130 mg found to be fatal. It occurs in rocks, soils and water at much higher levels than
does in mercury. It is found in many vegetables and fruits. Some marine organisms, especially
shellfish tend to concentrate arsenic within their bodies, which may contain more than 100 ppm. For
example, 174 ppm in prawn, 42 ppm in shrimp, and 40 ppm in bass. In moist soils, it is present upto
500 ppm. It has also been detected at concentration of 10 to 70 ppm in several commonly marketed
house hold detergents. It may often stimulate plant growth in very low concentrations, but is
injurious in excessive quantities. Destruction of chlorophyll appears to be the main effect. As little
as 1 ppm of arsenic trioxides in the water has caused injury into plants. U.S. Public Health Service
in 1942 set a safe limit of 0.05 ppm, and in 1962 it recommended a maximum of 0.01 ppm in
drinking water. There is also evidence that arsenic accumulates in the livers of mammals. Skin
cancer has been found to be associated in several regions with arsenic intake in drinking water.
Arsenate is reduced to arsenite and then microbially methylated to form dimethylarsine and
trimethylarsine. The conversion of arsenate through arsenite and methylarsenic acid occurs in lake
sediments; di-and tri-methylarsines are released in water. These become oxidized in air to less toxic
dimethylarsenic acid. The dimethylarsenic acid is thus cycled between air and sediment (Wood,
1974). Dimethylarsine is highly toxic to fish and other organisms.
10.3.8.3 Lead
The lead is prevalent in the natural environment. The earth’s crust contains an average of about 10
to 15 ppm lead, though the content in rock, soil and water is extremely variable. Lead enters the
environment in enormous quantities and particularly efficiently dispersed to the atmosphere by the
use of tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead as antiknock additives to petrol (gasoline), which may contain
about 2 g Pb gal-1. About 2.5 X 108 kg y-1 Pb enters the oceans from this source and the mean sea-
water concentration has increased almost seven fold during the past 50 years and is now about 0.07
µ g kg-1 (Goldberg, 1971).
Normally lead is not strongly absorbed from soil, by plants. The main toxicity hazard is therefore,
from inhalation of dust or ingestion of surface-contaminated food. However, plants grown on
heavily contaminated soil absorb several thousand µ g g-1 compared as the normal plant content of
between 1 and 15 µ g g-1 (Johnston and Proctor, 1977).
10.3.8.4 Cadmium
Cadmium belongs to same family of elements as zinc and mercury. A major source of cadmium is
zinc mining and smelting in addition to its release by other industries such as metal plating, and in
making pigments, ceramics, photographic equipments, and nuclear reactors as well as those
engaged in textile printing, lead mines and various chemical industries.
There is no evidence that cadmium has any role in nutrition of plants and animals. It is toxic in
relatively small amounts. Being highly mobile in soil and water it is taken up freely by plants and
passed on to grazing food chain (Coughtrey and Martin, 1976). In animals and humans, cadmium
tends to accumulate in kidneys, pancreas and bones. In Japan the disease itai itai was caused by
people’s consumption of heavy metals, primarily cadmium either by drinking water or by eating rice
which had accumulated the metal from the irrigation water. The affliction is characterized by kidney
malfunction, a drop in phosphate level of blood serum, loss of minerals from the bones, and a
condition called osteomalacia, which is a rickets-like condition characterized by pathogenic bone
fracture and intense pains.
10.3.8.5 Fluorine
Fluorine makes up about 0.1 per cent of the earth’s crust. In its elemental state it is a gas. However,
in nature it is always found in various combinations. The greater proportion is in the form of the
mineral fluorspar (Calcium fluorate, CaF) and in large deposits of mineral cryolite (sodium
aluminium fluoride, NaAIF). Sources of atmospheric fluorine are aluminium smelting using cryolite
as a flux, coal burning and the firing of clays in brick manufacture.
Fluorine is freely mobile in the atmosphere and ultimately appears in rainfall as fluoride. Plants take
it from soil and water. In gaseous form, it enters open stomata, causes collapse of mesophyll cells,
loss of photosynthetic activity and necrosis. Animals derive it from food, water, and minerals. The
effect on tooth decay from drinking the water deficient in fluorine was noted. On the other hand,
teeth impairment, called dentineri or black teeth, was observed among people.
10.4 Food Chains
The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms with repeated
stages of eating and being eaten is known as the food chain. The green plants, in the food chain,
occupy the first trophic (nutritional or energy) - the producer level, the herbivores that eat the plants
the second trophic - the primary consumer level, the carnivores that eat the herbivores the third
trophic - the secondary consumer level and perhaps even a fourth- the tertiary consumer level. Some
organisms are omnivores that eat the plant as well as animals at their lower level in the food chain
and they may occupy more than one trophic level in the food chain. Thus, in any food chain, energy
flows from producers -----> primary consumers (herbivores) -----> secondary consumers
(carnivores) A tertiary consumers (carnivores), and so on. At each step of food transfer, a large
proportion, 80 to 90% of the potential energy is lost through dissipation of heat resulting in
continuous diminution of available energy. This is the reason that rarely more than five trophic
levels occur in a food chain. The efficiency of energy transfer also varies from one trophic level to
another.
In nature, three types of food chains have been distinguished:
10.4.1 Grazing food chain
The consumers which utilise the living plant parts as their food or energy source constitute the
grazing food chain. The food chain, thus begins from a green plant base. It is common in the
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where most of the primary production is edible by herbivores.
Some of the common examples of grazing food chain are given in Table 10.2
10.4.2 Parasitic food chain
It also begins from a green plant base and goes to herbivores, which may be the host of a huge
number of lice living as ectoparasites.
10.4.3 Detritus food chain
The food chain goes from dead organic matters of decaying animal and plant bodies to the
microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organisms (detrivores or saprovores) and their
predators is known as “detritus food chain”. Soil organisms are thus less dependent on direct solar
energy and depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another system. This is very
clear from the following illustration:
Table 10.2 Some examples of grazing food chains
A good example of detritus food chain based on mangrove leaves.

Some examples of food chains are shown in Fig. 10.6
In the brackish zone of Southern Florida, leaves of the red mangrove (Rhizophore mangle) fall into
the warm, shallow waters. The fallen leaf fragments acted on by such saprotrophs as fungi, bacteria,
and protozoa, and colonised by phytoplanktonic and benthic algae are eaten and reeaten by a group
Fig. 10.6
of small animals. These animals include crabs, copepods, insect larvae, mysids, nematodes, grass
shrimps, amphipods, etc. All these animals are called detritus consumers. These animals, in turn, are
eaten by some minnows, small game fish, etc. The small carnivores, which in turn, serve as the food
for large game fish, and so on. Mangrove leaves, through detritus food chain make substantial
contribution to the food chain that is upto 90% of the stored energy in the dead organic material is
consumed through detritus food chain. This chain is further important from the view point of
mineral cycles within the ecosystem.
10.5 Food Web
Food chain, normally do not operate in isolated but are interlocked with each other forming some
sort of pattern known as food web. An organism in the ecosystem may operate at more than one
trophic level, i.e. it derives its food from more than one source and in turn, may serve as a source of
food for several organisms of higher trophic level. This results into linking together, but intersecting
each other, of several food chains. Another reason for the formation of food web seems to be
successive loss of energy at higher trophic levels till no more energy is available to support yet
another link in the food chain. A food web delineated for small organisms of a stream community in
South Wales. This illustrates: (i) the interlinking of food chain, (ii) three trophic levels, (iii)
intermediate position of the organisms e.g. Hydropsyche, and (iv) an “open” system in which part of
the basic food is “imported” from outside the stream.
The food webs are very important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem, in nature. For
example, in grazing food chain of a grassland, (Fig 10.7) in the absence of rabbit, grass may be
eaten by mouse. The mouse in turn may be eaten directly, either by hawk or snake. The snake then
may be eaten by hawk.
Absence of rabbit thus would not disturb the ecosystem as the alternative (mouse) may serve for the
maintenance of its stability. Moreover, a balanced ecosystem is essential for the survival of all the
living organisms of the system. For example, if the primary consumers (herbivores) are not in nature
than the producers would perish due to overcrowding and competition. In the same way, the
survival of the primary consumers is linked with the secondary consumers (carnivores) and so on.
Thus each species of an ecosystem is indeed kept under some sort of a natural check so that the
system may remain stable.
Fig. 10.7
A food web, unlike a food chain has therefore, several alternative pathways for flow of energy.
Sudden decrease in population of one category of consumers at any trophic level does not affect
much the functioning of an ecosystem, as at that trophic level, the second category of consumers
multiply and build up their numbers. An ecosystem is, therefore, more stable, if it has a greater
number of alternative pathways. Some examples of food webs are given in fig. 10.8, 10.9, 10.10.
Fig. 10.8
10.6 Ecological Pyramids

The concept of ecological pyramids was developed by Charles Elton (1927), the pioneer British
Ecologist. There is some sort of relationship between the number, biomass and energy content of the
primary producers, consumers of the first and second orders and so on to top carnivores in the
ecosystem. This relationship may be represented graphically by means of pyramids which is
referred to as ecological pyramids, where the first or producer level forms the base of the pyramid
Fig. 10.9
Fig. 10.10
and the successive levels (the tiers) making the apex. Ecological pyramids are of three general
types: (i) Pyramid of numbers, showing the number of organisms at each trophic level (number m-
2), (ii) Pyramid of biomass, showing the total dry weight or any other suitable measure of the total
amount of living matter (g m-2), and (iii) Pyramid of energy, showing the amount of energy flow
and/or productivity at successive trophic levels (calories m-2 year-1).
10.6.1 Pyramid of numbers
The relationship between the number of producers, consumers of primary, secondary and tertiary
orders constitutes the pyramid of numbers. The form of the pyramid of numbers will vary widely
with different communities, depending on whether producers are small (phytoplankton, grass) or
large (oak trees). Sometimes, number of individuals varies so widely that it is difficult to represent
the entire ecosystem on the same numerical scale. Such data could best be presented in a tabular
form. The pyramids of numbers in grassland, pond, and forest ecosystem are shown in Fig. 10.11,
10.12, 10.13. In a grassland, the producers which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in
number. This number then shows a successive decrease towards apex, as the primary consumers
(herbivores), which are rabbits, mice, etc., are lesser.
Fig. 10.11
in number than the grasses; the secondary consumers, the snakes and lizards are lesser in number
than the rabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the hawks and birds, are least in
number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright. Similarly, in pond ecosystem, the pyramid is upright.
Here the producers, which are mainly phytoplanktons as algae, bacteria, etc. are maximum in
number; the herbivores which are very small fish, rotifers, etc., are lesser in number than the
producers; and the secondary consumers (carnivores), such as water beetles and small fish, etc., are
lesser in number than the herbivores. Finally, the top (tertiary, consumers), the bigger fish and birds
are least in number.
Fig. 10.12
In a forest ecosystem (Fig. 10.12), however, the pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape
the producers which are mainly large-sized trees are lesser in number, and form
Fig. 10.13
base of the pyramid. The herbivores, which are the fruit eating birds, deers, etc., are more in number
than the producers. Then, there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores, thus
making the pyramid again upright one.
However, in a parasitic food chain (Fig. 10.14), the pyramids are always inverted. This is due to the
fact that a single plant may support the growth of many herbivore birds and each one of these, in
turn, may provide nutrition to several hyperparasites like bugs and lice. Thus from the producers
towards consumers, the number of organisms successively shows an increase, making the pyramid
inverted one. In crop ecosystem, the pyramid is upright one where primary consumers, viz.,
grasshoppers are lesser in number than the crops; frogs, snakes, and eagle- the primary, the
secondary and the top consumers respectively are present in decreasing number.
Fig. 10.14
10.6.2 Pyramids of biomass

In this type of pyramid, the relationship between different trophic levels is presented in terms of
weight of organisms (biomass). The pyramids of biomass in different ecosystems are shown in Fig.
10.15. In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual decrease in mass of organisms at
successive levels from the producers to the top consumers. Thus, pyramids are upright. In an aquatic
ecosystem (like pond), however, the biomass of producers is least. This value gradually shows an
increase towards the apex of the pyramid, thus making the pyramid inverted one. In this case the
biomass of diatoms and phytoplanktons (primary consumers) that feed on them. The biomass of
large carnivore fishes (secondary consumers) which feed on smaller fishes is the highest of all the
trophic levels. In English Channel the biomass of primary producers is only 4 g m-2 whereas that of
the consumers is 21 g m-2. Infact, this is the case in most aquatic bodies . In lakes and sea, on the
other hand, the phytoplanktons usually outweigh their grazers (zooplanktons) during periods of high
primary productivity, as during the spring “bloom”, but at other times, as in winter the reverse may
be true. This difference in biomass trend can be explained if the time is also taken into account.
Fig. 10.15
10.6.3 Pyramid of energy
The pyramid of energy represents the total quantity of energy utilized by different trophic level
organisms of an ecosystem per unit area over a set period of time (usually, per square metre per
year). The primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant energy of the sun and covert it into
potential chemical energy. This trapped energy flows in the food chain from the producers to the top
carnivores, decreasing at successive trophic levels. If the relationship of total quantity of energy
utilized in unit area over a particular period of time by different trophic levels is diagrammatically
represented, an upright pyramid is invariably formed. As against the pyramid of numbers and
biomass, the shape of the pyramid of energy is always upright because in this the time factor is
taken into account. In a grassland the green plants (primary producers) trap the maximum light
energy in a particular area over a fixed period of time. Similarly, in a pond ecosystem, the
phytoplanktons, in a particular area, trap and accumulate much more energy than the herbivore
fishes in the course of year because of their large numbers and quicker rate of multiplication.
Comparatively, the amount of energy utilized in a year by the top carnivores is much less than that
of herbivore fishes.
Of the three types of pyramids as discussed above, the energy pyramid gives by far the best overall
picture of the functional role of communities in an ecosystem. This is because of the fact that energy
pyramid is a picture of rate of passage of food mass through the food chain, whereas number and
biomass pyramids are pictures of standing states, i.e. organisms present at any moment. Its shape is
invariably an upright one, and not affected by variation in the size and metabolic state of
individuals, if all the sources of energy in the ecosystem are considered. The number and biomass
pyramids on the other hand, may be upright or inverted depending upon the size and biomass of the
producer organisms as compared to consumers.
10.7 Ecological succession
Ecological succession is the phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes

more or less orderly and predictable changes following disturbance or initial colonization of new
habitat. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology and the study of succession
remains at the core of ecological science. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new,
unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. fire,
severe wind throw, logging) of an existing community.
10.7.1 Primary Succession
Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called primary
succession. In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungus as well as other
abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalize" the habitat. This creating conditions nearer
optimum for vascular plant growth; pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most important
process.
These pioneer plants are then dominated and often replaced by plants better adapted to less odd
conditions, these plants include vascular plants like grasses and some shrubs that are able to live in
thin soils that are often mineral based.
For example, spores of lichen or fungus, being the pioneer species, are spread onto a land of rocks.
Then, the rocks are broken down into smaller pieces and organic matter gradually accumulates,
favouring the growth of larger plants like grasses, ferns and herbs. These plants further improve the
habitat and help the adaptation of larger vascular plants like shrubs, or even medium- or large-sized
trees. More animals are then attracted to the place and finally a climax community is reached.
10.7.2 Secondary succession
Succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. (e.g.
forest fire, harvesting, hurricane) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a
wheat field) to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on
preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil.
Simply put, secondary succession is the succession that occurs after the initial succession has been
disrupted and some plants and animals still exist. It is usually faster than primary succession as:
1. Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer species;

2. Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 11.CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF

VARIOUS ECOSYSTEMS
Module 3. Ecosystems
Lesson 11
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF VARIOUS ECOSYSTEMS
11.1 Homeostatis, Management and Optimization of Ecosystem
Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as their component

population and organisms. However, they have a delicate balance of inputs and outputs, and
this balance is often insufficient to avoid instability. The term homeostatis (homeo = same;
statis = standing) is generally applied to the tendency for biological system to resist change
and to remain in a state of equilibrium. An essential feature of such regulatory mechanism is
the process of feedback operating both at the level of individual and the entire system.
Many of the large-scale human activities- industrial, agricultural or transport - tend to alter the
natural balance of biotic and abiotic components in a stable ecological system. These
activities frequently lead to acceleration of hydro geochemical cycles, disturbance of input-
output balances, accumulation of toxic substances such as hydrocarbons, metals and gases,
overproduction or depletion of certain essential substances, and eutrophication. All these
involve simplification of ecosystem resulting into shortening of food webs, decrease in
species diversity and counteraction of forces of natural selection and organic evolution has
developed a theory of ecosystem stability based on energy-matter constraints in living
systems. Some important features of the theory are:
1. Ecosystems have a zero state trending tendency, pertinent to stability. The concept of
stability incorporates two ideas, (a) resistance to change, and (b) restoration to the near
original state after the change has occurred;
2. Curtailment of energy and material inputs tends to lead decay or extinction of
ecosystems to zero state; such decay is guaranteed by the second law of
thermodynamics;
3. Ecosystems have only one free (unforced) equilibrium, the zero state;
4. Ecosystems tend to revert to nominal, no equilibrium dynamics when perturbed by
uniformly vanishing disturbances;
5. Ecosystems have only one forced steady state;
6. Ecosystems are structurally stable;
7. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in small degrees by parameter variation within fixed
structure, and
8. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in large degrees by structure variation.
Proper management is essential for maintaining the stability of the ecosystem. This will
require an adequate knowledge of the nature and kinds of system components, functional
relationship between them, and the degree of tolerance and resistance to the environmental
strain and stress has listed the following features contributing to stabilization of ecosystem:
(a) tolerance to extreme and harsh conditions, (b) ability for rapid recovery upon the
recurrence of favourable growth conditions, (c) flexible and opportunistic feeding habitat, (d)
nomadic migration of animals, etc. Similarly, some destabilizing features include: (i)
sensitivity to damage to reserves, (ii) sensitivity to lagging components, (iii) low density,
biomass and productivity, and (iv) sensitivity to soil erosion.
11.2 Evolution of Ecosystems
Life began on earth more than three billion years ago. The first ecosystems then were
populated by tiny anaerobic heterotrophs that lived on organic matter synthesized by abiotic
processes. Following the origin and population explosion of algal autotrophs, which
converted a reducing atmosphere into an oxygenic one, organisms have evolved through the
long geological ages into increasingly complex and diverse systems that (i) have achieved
control of the atmosphere and (ii) are populated by larger and more highly organized multi
cellular species. Within this community component, evolutionary change is believed to occur
principally through natural selection at below the species level, but natural selection above
this level may also be important, especially (i) co evolution, i.e., the reciprocal selection
between interdependent autotrophs and heterotrophs, and (ii) group or community selection,
which leads to the maintenance of traits favourable to the group. Similarities between major
biomass or ecosystems in respect to ecosystem structure and function can be attributed to
evolutionary convergence as a consequence of their evolution under similar environmental
conditions.
11.3 Major Ecosystems
11.3.1 Introduction
Various ecosystems like a pond, a lake, a river, a stream, a spring, an estuary, the sea, a forest,
grassland, a desert, a coral reef and a cropland are operating as self-sufficient interacting
systems in the biosphere. These ecosystems have a more or less similar fundamental plan of
their gross structure and function. However they differ in respect of their species composition
and productivity rates. In brief, organization pattern of some of the major ecosystems is
described here.
11.3.2 The forest ecosystem
Forests are natural plant communities with dominance of phanerophytes and occupy nearly
40% of the land. In India, the forests occupy roughly 10% of the total land area. According to
Champion and Seth (1968), Indian forests are of 11 types, which are classified on the basis of
physiography, physiognomy floristics, habitat etc. The different components of forest
ecosystems are as follows:
11.3.2.1 Abiotic components
These include inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. The
climate (temperature, light, rainfall, etc.) and soil (minerals) vary from forest to forest. In
addition to minerals the occurrence of litter is characteristic feature of majority of forests.
11.3.2.2 Biotic components
a) Producers
These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater degree of stratification
especially in tropical moist deciduous forests. Besides trees, there are also present shrubs and
ground vegetation. In these forests, the producers include the dominant tree species such as
Tectona grandis, Butea frondosa, Shorea robusta and Lagerstroemia parviflora. In temperate
coniferous forests, shrubs and ground flora are insignificant. In temperate deciduous forests
the dominant trees are species of Quercus, Acer, Betula, Thuja, Picea, etc., whereas in
temperate coniferous forests, the producer trees are species of Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus,
Juniperus, Rhododendron, etc.
b) Consumers
These are as follows:
i) Primary consumers
These are the herbivores that include smaller animals feeding on tree leaves as ants, flies,
bettles, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc., and larger animals grazing on shoots and/ or fruits of
producers as elephant, neelgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, mongooses, etc.
ii) Secondary consumers
These are the carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox, etc. feeding on the herbivores.
iii) Tertiary consumers
These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat carnivores of secondary consumers
level.
c) Decomposers
These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of Aspergillus, Polyporus,
Alternaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Clostridium, etc.), and actinomycetes (species of Streptomyces). Rate of decomposition in
tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than in the temperate ones.
11.3.3 The grassland ecosystem
Grasslands occupy roughly 24% of the earth’s surface (Shantz, 1954). Whyte (1957) divided
grassland into 8 types based on the floral characteristics. The different components of a
grassland ecosystem are:
These include nutrients present in soil and the atmosphere. Thus the elements like C, H, O, N,
P, S, etc. are supplied by carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates present in
air and soil of the area.
a) Producers
They are mainly grasses, as species of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium, Dactyloctenium,

Digitaria, Setaria, Sporobolus, etc. Besides them a few forbs and shrubs also contribute to
primary production.
b) Consumers
The herbivores feeding on grasses are mainly such grazing animals as cows, buffaloes, deers,
sheep, rabbit, mouse, etc. Besides them, there are also present some insects as Leptocorisa,
Dysdercus, Oxyrhachis, Cicindella, Coccinella, some termites and millipeds, etc. that feed on
the leaves of grasses.
Snake, lizard, birds, jackals, fox, etc. are common secondary consumers which feed on
herbivores.
These include hawks which feed on secondary consumers.
c) Decomposers
Several fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium, etc.),

actinomycetes and bacteria decay the dead organic matter of different forms of higher life.
They bring about minerals back to the soil, thus making them available to the producers.
11.3.4 Cropland ecosystem
This is an artificial or man - engineered ecosystem aimed primarily to grow a single species
of one’s choice. To secure maximum production, man makes much planned manipulation in
the physico-chemical environment. These include addition of fertilizers to the soil, use of
chemicals for disease control, proper irrigation practices, etc. This may include the dominant
species like maize, sugar-cane, jowar, paddy, vegetables, etc. The following are the main
components of a maize cropland ecosystem:
These include the climatic conditions of the region, where the crop may grow most
successfully, and the various minerals and gaseous elements such as C, H, O, N, P, K in soil
and atmosphere. Maize generally grows best in slightly alkaline soil with good aeration.

These occur in the following order:
a) Producers
In the field, in addition to dominant species of maize, a number of weeds like Cynodon
dactylon, Launaea nudicaulis, Euphorbia hirta, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria species., and
Alysicarpus also contribute to primary production of the field.
b) Consumers
These are herbivores. The smaller animals include chiefly the insects as aphids, thrips,
beetles, etc., which feed and lay their eggs on maize leaves. The larger animals include birds,
rats, rabbits and man feeding on leaves, flowers and fruits on the crop.
These are carnivores like frogs and some birds that eat insects.
Snakes and hawks belong to this category which can eat frogs and small birds, respectively.
c) Decomposers
Several microbes such as actionmycetes, fungi and bacteria found in soil and climate
decompose dead organic matter of plants as well as animals and help in circulation of
minerals making available them to producer again.
11.3.5 The desert ecosystem
The areas with an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm come in deserts. They occupy about 17%
of land. Due to extremes of both, water and temperature factors the biota is much more varied
and is poorly represented. The various components of the ecosystem are:
In desert ecosystem temperature is found to be very high and rainfall is very low. A dry
atmosphere, high temperature and intense illumination favour the rate of transpiration.
a) Producers
These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses, and a few trees. The shrubs have
widespread branched root system with their leaves, branches and stems variously modified.
Sometimes a few succulents like cacti are also present. Some lower plants like lichens and
xerophytic mosses may also be present.
b) Consumers
Insects, reptiles, nocturnal rodents, birds, camels, etc. are the main consumers.
c) Decomposes
These are very few, as due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is
correspondingly less. They are some fungi and bacteria, most of which are thermophilic.
11.3.6 The mountain ecosystem
The chief components of the ecosystem are:
It is the altitude which provides different climates.
a) Producers
They differ to difference in climatic conditions even on the same mountain e.g., in the forests,
trees are the main producers, while in desert the chief producers are shrubs, herbs and only a
few trees.
b) Consumers
They vary with the type of producers in the area.
11.3.7 Cave ecosystem
A cave is a natural hollow opening under the surface of the earth, or a mountain or a hill.
Many caves are found in North America and Europe, e.g., Mammoth cave in North America.
The main components of the cave ecosystem are as follows:
Absence of light is the most striking feature since it has telling effect on the cave dwelling
organisms. Temperature is nearly uniform, except some fluctuations with the depth of the
cave. Several fluctuations in moisture level occur. Atmospheric pressure varies as that of the
terrestrial environment.

a) Producers
They are almost absent.
b) Consumers
Both vertebrates and invertebrates of cave dwelling existence are found. They may be
temporary, such as bats, owls, etc., or permanent, such as turbellarians, Leeches, insects, etc.,
(invertebrates). Mammals are rare; birds are absent.
c) Decomposers
Fungi and bacteria are present
11.3.8 Tundra ecosystem
Tundra means a barren land or a hostile territory. Tundra biomes occur in the polar regions in
northern Canada, Greenland, other islands of Arctic oceans, and northern Europe (northern
hemisphere). Since, Antarctic Ocean has not been exploited much; this biome has been
designated as Arctic Tundra. Tundra biome also occurs on the peaks of High Mountain of
world and has been called as the Alpine Tundra. The chief components of the Tundra
ecosystem are as follows:
These include temperature, light, moisture, pressure, soil, etc. Of these temperature exerts a
very powerful influence so that only a few organisms have successfully got adapted to the
Tundra conditions. In the Arctic Tundra, the winters are very long and cold, during which the
ground remains frozen. The summer is short and sharp during which snow melts to some
depth only, hence the deeper layer of soil remains permanently frozen and is known as
permafrost. Due to this Tundra soil is very shallow. In the Alpine Tundra, Alpine climate
prevails.
a) Producers
Suitable conditions for plant growth exist only for about 60 days. The dominant producers are
the hardiest of plants like bushes, lichens, mosses, grasses and grass like herbs.
b) Consumers
These include mammals like carbou, hares, reindeers, foxes, and polar bears, amphibians and
reptiles are totally absent. However, some species of birds and insects are present. The insects
are represented by black flies, bumble bees, etc. The birds are migratory and are represented
by arctic loon, goose, hawks, gulls, larks, etc. The South Pole has only marine birds,
penguins. The fauna of Alpine Tundra varies with the type of vegetation.
11.3.9 The pond ecosystem
A pond is a good example of a small self-sufficient and self-regulating ecosystem. Location,

size, depth and substratum of a pond influence the biology of pond ecosystem. The
components of the systems are as follows:
Temperature, light, water, and several inorganic and organic substances like CO2, O, N, PO,
Ca, S, and carbohydrates, proteins and lipids make abiotic components. Some proportions of
nutrients are in solution state but most of them are present stored in particulate matter as well
as in living organisms. The amount of minerals present at any time in the physical
environment of the pond is called standing state.
These include:
a) Producers
They are green plants and photosynthetic bacteria categorized into two types:
i) Macrophytes
Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, Utricularia, Vallisneria, Jussiaea, Nitella, Wolfia, Lemna,

Spirodella, Pistia, Eichhornia, Azolla, Salvinia, Trapa, Typha, Marsilea, etc. are included in
this category. This may be classified further into submerged, free floating and amphibious
plants.
ii) Phytoplanktons
These are minute floating or suspended lower plants belong to some algae and flagellates.
Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chlamydomonas, Zygnema, Volvox, Pandorina,
Cosmarium, Scendesmus, Closterium, Anabaena, Pediastrum, Microcystis, diatoms, etc. are
common algal phytoplanktons.
b) Consumers
(a) Zooplankton comprises ciliates, flagellates, other protozoans, small crustacean like
Copepods and Daphnia, etc. These animals drift with the water current and are found along
with phytoplankton upon which they feed. (b) Benthos or bottom forms comprise the bottom
dwelling animals, e.g., annelids and mollusks which feed on plants directly or on plant
remains at the bottom.
These are the carnivores which feed on the herbivores, e.g. insects and fish.
These are some large fish as game fish that feed on the smaller fish.
c) Decomposers (or microconsumers)
Several bacteria, fungi (Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Pythium, etc.) and actinomycetes

represent the group.
11.3.10 The ocean (marine) ecosystem
The oceans of the world cover approximately 36,10,00,000 km2, i.e. about 71% of the earth’s
surface. Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic are the main oceans of the world. The
ocean represents a very large and stable ecosystem. The main components of the ocean
ecosystem are as follows:
Marine environment, as compared with fresh water, appears to be more stable in chemical
composition due to being saline (35 parts of salts by weight per 1000 parts of water, while
salinity of fresh water is less than 0.5%), and moreover other physico-chemical factors such
as dissolved oxygen content, light and temperature are also different. About 27% is NaCl;
most of the rest consists of Ca, Mg, and K salts. Water is strongly buffered. The concentration
of dissolved nutrients is low and constitutes an important limiting factor to determine the size
of marine populations. Waves of various kinds and tides prevail there. Like ponds and lakes,
ocean show distinct zonation.
This category includes phytoplanktons and larger marine plants. The former group includes
diatoms and dinoflagillates. The latter group includes sea weeds (algae) belonging to
chlorophyceae, phaeophyceae and rhodophyceae; and angiosperms. Ruppia, Zostera,
Posidonia, Halophila, Enhalus, etc. are true marine angiosperms while various species of
Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Carapa, Aegiceros, etc., represent the mangrove complex-
tidal woodlands
a) Consumers
These are heterotrophic macroconsumers, being dependent for their nutrition on the primary
producers. These are:
The herbivores that feed directly on producers are chiefly crustaceans, mollusks, fish, etc.
Carnivorous fishes, such as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, etc. are included in this group.
Fishes like Cod, Haddock, etc. are the tertiary or top consumers.
b) Decomposers
They are chiefly bacteria and some fungi which participate actively in decomposition of dead
organic matter.
11.3.11 Estuarine ecosystem
An estuary is a semiclosed coastal body of water that has a free connection with sea. It is
strongly affected by tidal action, and within it sea water is mixed with fresh water from land
drainage. River mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and bodies of water behind barrier
beaches are some of the examples. Estuaries are generally productive because of water flow
subsidises an abundant of nutrients. The chief biotic components of estuarine ecosystem are
as follows:
a) Producers
Macrophytes- marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses, benthic algae and phytoplankton.
b) Consumers
Oysters, crabs, several kinds of shrimp and many commercial sport fish.
11.3.12 Coral reef ecosystem
A coral reef represents one of the most beautiful and well adapted ecosystems to be found in
the world. Coral reefs are made up of calcareous skeletal remains and secretion of corals and
certain algae. They are confined largely to the warm waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.
A few coral reefs also occur elsewhere. The reef-building corals grow best in waters having
an average annual temperature of about 24°C at a depth of about 40-50 metres. They can
survive neither sudden temperature changes nor prolonged exposure to temperature below
18°C. They also require for their growth rocky floor and sunlit water having normal salinity
of 35g I-1. They cannot grow in fresh or turbid waters or on highly saline lagoons.
Reef structures are built around islands and volcanic peaks by coral and other lime-secreting
minute animals. Corals build protective shells of calcium carbonate around their bodies,
which after their death, sink and accumulate on the sea bottom. Coral families usually
produce forms that resemble branching trees or shrubs. In due course, the inner-spaces
between the branching coralline structures are filled up by the deposition of calcium
carbonate either by lime-secreting organisms or by debris brought by sea waves. Apart from
polyps (corals), a number of organisms and plants such as calcareous algae, bryozoans,
molluscs and microscopic protozoans (foraminifera) take part in building coral reefs.
11.3.13 Microecosystem
These are little self-contained worlds, in bottles or other containers that simulate in miniature
the nature of ecosystems. Completely closed microecosystems (or microcosms) that require
only light energy are very difficult to have on a small scale. Experimental microcosms usually
vary from partially closed systems having outlets and inlets only for gaseous exchange with
the atmosphere to very open systems involving assemblages of organisms maintained in
various kinds of chemostates and turbidostates with regulated flux of both nutrients and
organisms. Well-designed microcosms may exhibit most of the basic functions and trophic
structures of an ecosystem, except the reduction in variety and size of constituent
components. Microcosms are suitable for the study of nature and functions of the ecosystems
in laboratory.
11.3.14 Spacecraft as an ecosystem
During space travel for a short journey, such as a few orbits around the earth, man does not
require to take along with him a self-sustaining ecosystem since sufficient oxygen and food
can be stored in the capsule to last for a short time. However, for a long journey involving a
number of astronauts, such as an expedition to one of the planets he must devise some self-
contained system so as to get at least minimum requirements, necessary for his smooth
working and survival, as in nature. Such a self-contained space-craft must include all four of
the basic components producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic components in such
proportion and diversity as to maintain a stable environment capable of adjusting to the
incoming solar radiation as do the earth’s ecosystems. A small capsule with a few
components might function outside the biosphere for a short time, but a larger, more diverse
system would be more stable and safer for a longer time. Engineers and environmentologists
associated with such a planning, however, could not able to decide as yet on the size and
composition of self-contained system that might function completely independent of other
ecosystems during a long space journey.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 12. INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
Module 4. Biodiversity and its conservation
Lesson 12
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
12.1 The Concept of Biodiversity
The term biodiversity is a relatively new term. It is a contraction of ‘biological diversity’.

Simply stated, biodiversity is the variety of life on earth and its myriad of processes. It
includes all life forms – from the unicellular fungi, protozoa and bacteria to complex
multicellular organisms such as plants, birds, fishes and mammals. According to the World
Resources Institute – “Biodiversity is the variety of the world’s organisms, including their
genetic diversity and the assemblage they form. It is the blanket term for natural biological
wealth that undergirds human life and well-being. The breadth of the concept reflects the
inter-relatedness of genes, species and ecosystems. Because genes are the components of
species, and species are the components of ecosystems. Therefore, altering the make-up of
any level of this hierarchy can change the others – species are central to the concept of
biodiversity’.
Since biodiversity covers a wide range of concepts and can be examined at different levels;
therefore, it has now become customary to study the concept of biodiversity at three
hierarchical levels.
12.1.2 Genetic diversity
Within any given species, there can be several varieties, strains or races which slightly differ
from each other in one or more characteristics such as size, shape, resistance against diseases,
pests, insects, etc., and resilience to survive under adverse environmental conditions. Such
diversity in the genetic make-up of a species is termed as the ‘genetic diversity’. In other
words ‘genetic diversity’, is the variety of building blocks found within individuals of a
species. The species having large number of varieties, strains or races are considered as rich
and more diverse in its genetic organization. The differences between individual organisms
arise from variation in the genetic material possessed by all organisms and passed on to
successive generations (heritable variation), and from environmental influence on the growth
and development of each individual organism. Heritable variation serves as the raw material
for both, evolution by natural selection and by artificial selection, and is ultimately the basis
for all biodiversity.
Opportunities for evolutionary change, the survival of species and the formation of new
species are in part a function of the amount of genetic diversity in populations. The various
applications of biotechnology, such as crop or animal breed improvement, depend on the
identification of genetic material that give rise to desirable traits and the incorporation of this
genetic material in appropriate organisms.
12.1.3 Species diversity
In practice, most attention is generally given to ‘species diversity’. It refers to the number of
different kinds of organisms found at a particular place, and how it varies from place to place
and even seasonally at the same place. In terms of species diversity, it must be noted that
merely counting the number of species is not enough to describe biological diversity.
Diversity has to do with the relative chance of seeing species as much as it has to do with the
actual number present. A community in which each species has the same number of
individuals as all others would be the most diverse; whereas, a community with one species
making up most of the individuals would be least diverse. Further, species that are very
different from each other contribute more to overall diversity than species which are similar
to each other.
12.1.4 Ecosystems diversity
Ecosystem diversity is generally assessed in terms of the global or continental distribution of

broadly-defined ecosystem types, or in terms of the species diversity within ecosystems. It is
the distinctive assemblage of species that live together in the same area and interact with their
physical environment in unique ways. A system having the component species present in
nearly equal abundance is considered as more diverse than one having extremes of high and
low abundance.
12.1.5 Landscape diversity
Sometimes, the phrase ‘landscape diversity’ is used on a broad regional scale. It refers to size
and distribution of several ecosystems and their interaction across a given land surface.
12.2 The Biogeographic Zones of India
India is recognized to be uniquely rich in biodiversity. Here, almost all the biogeographic
zones of the world are represented. According to a recent classification done by the Wild-life
Institute of India, the country’s biological wealth can be seen as representing about ten broad
biogeographical zones (Fig. 12.2). Each of these ten biogeographic zones has characteristic
biota, and broadly represents similar climatic conditions and constitutes the habitat for diverse
species of fauna and flora.
12.2.1 Trans-Himalayan zone
The Trans-Himalayan zone, spreads over an area of about 1,86,000 sq.km. With its sparse
mountain vegetation type it has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the world. The
snow leopard is found here, as is the migratory black-necked crane.
12.2.2 Himalayan zone
The Himalayan zone extends from north-west region of Kashmir to the east upto NEFA
(North East Frontier Area). It encompasses an area of about 3,47,000 sq.km and comprises of
four biotic provinces--north-west, west, central and east Himalayas. Altitudinally there are
three zones of vegetation in the Himalayan zone corresponding to three climatic belts. First,
the sub-montane or lower region (tropical and subtropical), that extends from plain foot of the
hill upto 5,000 to 6,000 ft. altitude, has vegetation dominated by trees of Acacia catechu,
Cedrala toona, Eugenia jambolana, Albizzia procera, etc. Second, the temperate or montane
zone (ranges between 5,500 to 12,000 ft. altitude) has vegetation dominated by Pinus excelsa,
Cedrus deodara, Cedrela, Eugenia, etc. in the lower region, and confers such as Abies
pindrow, Picea morinda, Juniperus, Taxus baccata, etc. in the upper regions. Third, the alpine
zone (above 12,000 ft.) is the limit of tree growth (known as ‘timber or tree line’), where the
shrubby growth of Betula utilis, Juniperus and Rhododendron is found in grassy areas. At
about 15,000 ft. and above snow-line, plant growth is almost nil.
12.2.3 Desert zone
The desert zone comprises of three biotic provinces, viz. Kutch, Thar and Ladakh. The north-
west Desert region (Kutch and Thar) spreads over an area of about 2,25,000 sq.km. and
consists of parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The climate of this region is
characterized by very hot and dry summer, and cold winter. Rainfall here is less than 700 mm.
The north-west desert region has extensive grasslands. The plants are mostly Xerophytic,
such as Acacia nelotica, Prosopis spicifera, etc.; and the ground vegetation is dominated by
the species Calotropis, Eleusine, Panicum antidotale, etc. The Great Indian Bustard, a highly
endangered species, is found in this north-west desert region. The Ladakh region, on the other
hand, has sparse vegetation – it is a cold desert region.
12.2.4 Semi-Arid zone
Adjoining the north-west desert are the Semi-Arid areas comprising of Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, parts of Orissa and Gujarat. It spreads over an area of about 5 lac sq.km.
Depending upon the amount of rainfall, the forests in this region have developed into thorny,
mixed decidiuous and sat type. The forest vegetation is mostly constituted by Tectona
grandis, Diospyros melanoxylon and Butea monosperma. The thorny vegetation is dominated
by Acacia leucophloea, Accacia catechu, etc.
12.2.5 Western ghats zone
The Western Ghats zone comprises the Malabar coast and Western Ghat mountains of India
extending from Gujarat in the north to the Cape Camorin in the south. This zone encompasses
an area of about 1.6 lac sq.km. Rainfall in this region is heavy. The vegetation is of four types
– tropical moist evergreen forests, sub-tropical or temperate evergreen forests, mixed
deciduous forests and the mangrove forests.
12.1.6 Deccan peninsular zone
The Deccan Penninsula zone comprises of five biotic provinces, viz. Deccan Plateau (South),
Central Plateau, Eastern Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau and Central Highlands. The zone
spreads over an area of about 14 lac sq. km. It is a semi-arid region lying in the rain-shadow
of the Western Ghats. Rainfall is about 100 mm. The zone has a centrally hilly plateau with
forests of Boswellia serrata, Hardwickia Pinnata and Tectona grandis.
12.2.7 The gangetic plain
In the North, is the Gangetic Plain extending up to Himalayan foothills. This region
comprising of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal is the most fertile region and
encompasses an area of about 3.5 lac sq.km. The major climatic factors, the temperature and
rainfall together are responsible for the distinctive type of vegetation in this zone. The rainfall
varies from less than 700 mm in Western Uttar Pradesh to more than 1,500 mm in West
Bengal. Vegetation is chiefly of tropical moist and dry deciduous forest type.
12.2.8 The north-east India
The North-East India is one of the richest flora regions in the country covering an area of
about 1.6 lac sq.km. The region receives the heaviest rainfall, with Cherrapunji as much as
more than 10,000 mm. The temperature and wetness are also very high, resulting in dense
tropical evergreen forests. The important trees are Mesua ferrea, Michelia champaca,
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus etc., and many Bamboo species. Many grass species and
insectivorous plants like are also present. Beside this, the region has several wild relatives of
cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper.
12.2.9 The Islands
The Islands of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal have a wide range of coastal vegetation like mangroves, beech forests and in
the interior some of the best preserved evergreen forests of tall trees. Rhizophora,
Calophyllum and Dipterocarpus are some of the important species of Islands’ vegetation.
12.2.10 Coast
India has a coastline of about 7,516.5 km. Mangroves vegetation is the characteristic of
estuarine tracks along the coast, for instance, at Pichavaram near Chennai and Ratna Giri in
Maharashtra.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 13. VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
Lesson 13
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
13.1 Values of biodiversity
Environmental economics (or ecological economics) provides methods of assigning economic

values to species, communities and ecosystem. These values include the harvest (or market
place) value of resources, the value provided by un-harvested resources in their natural
habitat, and the future value of resources. For example, the Asian wild guar could be valued
for the meat could be harvested from its current populations, its value for eco-tourism, or its
future potential in cattle breeding.
The values can be divided as:
13.1.1 Direct values
Direct values, also known as use values and commodity values, are assigned to the products
harvested by people. Direct values can be readily estimated by observing the activities of
representative groups of people, by monitoring collection points for normal products and by
examining the export/ import statistics. These values can be further sub-divided as:
a) Consumptive use value
It can be assigned to goods such as fuel wood and goods that are consumed locally and do not
figure in national and international market
b) Productive use value
It is assigned to products that are derived from the wild and sold in commercial markets, both
national as well as international markets.
13.1.2 Indirect values
Indirect values are assigned to benefits provided by biodiversity that do not involve
harvesting or destroying the natural resource. Such benefits include ecological benefits such
as soil formation, nutrient cycling, waste disposal, air and water purification, education,
recreation, future options for human beings, etc. Indirect value can be further sub-divided as:
a) Non-consumptive use value
It is assigned to benefits such as soil formation/ protection, climate regulation, waste disposal,
water and air purification, eco-tourism, medical research, etc.
b) Aesthetic, social and cultural value
The diversity of life on Earth brings us many aesthetic and cultural benefits. It adds to the
quality of life, providing some of the most beautiful and appealing aspects of our existence.
Biodiversity is an important quality of landscape beauty. Many species of birds, large land
mammals, sea animals and flowering plants are appreciated for their beauty. Millions of
people enjoy hiking, camping, picnics, fishing, wildlife watching, and other recreational
activities based on nature. These activities provide invigorating physical exercise and allow
us to practice pioneer living skills. Contact with nature can also be psychologically and
emotionally restorative. In many cultures, nature carries spiritual connotations, and a
particular plant or animal species or landscape may be inextricably linked to a sense of
identity and meaning.
Today we continue to imbue certain animals and plants with cultural significance; for
instance, in India tiger and peacock, which are endangered, are especially valued because they
have been adopted as national animal and bird respectively.
c) Option value
The option value of a species is its potential to provide our economic benefit to human society
in the near future. For instance, there are several plant species which are edible and superior
than those which are currently in use; e.g. Katemfe, a plant found in W. Africa, produces
proteins that are 1,600 times sweeter than sucrose.
d) Existence value
It is assigned to protect wildlife. Since, for many people, the value of wildlife goes beyond
the opportunity to photograph or even see a particular species. They argue that ‘existence
value’, based on simply knowing that a species exist, is a sufficient reason to protect and
preserve it. This right to exists was also stated in the U.N. General Assembly World Charter
for Nature, 1982.
e) Ethical value
Moral justification for conservation of biodiversity is based on the belief that species have a
moral right to exist, independent of our need for them. Consequently, the argument follows
that in our role as the most intelligent species on Earth we have a responsibility to try as much
as possible for the continuance of all forms of life.
Ethical values are deep rooted within human culture, a religion and society, but, those who
look on cost benefit analysis, they overlook these ethical values. International boycotts of
furs, teak and ivory are the good examples of moral justification.
13.2 Significance/ Importance/ Uses of Biodiversity
Various uses of biodiversity regarding direct and indirect values are as follows:
13.2.1 Timber
Wood is one of few commodities used and traded worldwide that is mainly harvested from
wild sources. It is also one of the economically most important commodities in national and
international trade. Wood export constitutes a significant part of the export earnings of many
tropical developing countries. Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are among the
major exporters of hardwoods, including prized timbers such as teak and mahogany, produced
mainly from natural forests.
13.2.2 Fishery
Fish and other fishery products make up another class of commodities of great economic
importance in international trade that are harvested mainly from wild sources. These
resources are also of crucial importance to global food security. Annual landings of aquatic
resources have increased nearly five-times in the past four decades; and more than 80% was
harvested from marine capture fisheries, the remainder was from inland fisheries and from
aquaculture, both inland and marine. Though there are over 22,000 species of fish, but just ten
individual marine fish species make up one-third of marine capture landings. The most
important are the herrings, sardines and anchovies group.
13.2.3 Food
Food plants exemplify the most fundamental values of biodiversity. Presently, around 200
species have been domesticated as food plants. Out of these about 15 to 20 are of major
international economic importance.
13.2.4 Medicinal value
Living organisms provide us with many useful drugs and medicines. Digitalis, an important
drug in the treatment of certain heart ailments, comes from a small flowering plant – purple
foxglove; Penicillin is a derivative of fungus; and so on. The UNDP estimates the value of
pharmaceutical products derived from Third World plants, animals and microbes to be more
than $30 billion per year.
There are numerous organisms that may produce useful medical compounds that are as yet
unknown and untested. For instance coral reefs offer a particularly promising use in
pharmaceutical drugs, because many coral reef species produce toxins to defend themselves.
Many plant species native to India such as Neem, Tulsi, etc. too have potential medicinal
applications.
13.2.5 Genetic value
Biological diversity is a valuable genetic resource. Most of the hybrid varieties of crops under
cultivation have been developed by incorporating useful genes from different species of
plants to produce better quality of the product with longer self-life or having better resistance
to pests. Though such breeding techniques are unlimited in scope; but, for getting better
strains in future, it is essential to build-up a gene-pool because the quality, yield, and
resistance to pests, disease and adverse climatic conditions mostly depend on genetic factors
and combination of genes which may be different in different strains/ varieties of species.
There are hundreds of examples which illustrate how genetic modification helped in
improved quality of the product. A few of them are mentioned as under:
The genes from a wild variety of melon grown in U.P. helped in imparting resistance to
powdery mildew in musk-melons grown in California (USA).
The genes from the Kans grass (Saccharum Spontaneium) grown in Indonesia helped in
imparting resistance to red rot disease of sugarcane.
A wild variety of rice from U.P. saved millions of hectares of paddy crop from Grossy-
Stunt virus.
13.2.6 Tourism
Tourism industry is mainly based on observation of wildlife within protected areas and is a
major source of income for many developing countries. Tourism is the major source of
foreign income for Kenya. Eco-tourism is now getting more attention and it includes interest
in the all species of plants and animals, and forests.
13.2.7 Poor and indigenous people
Poor and indigenous people of under-developed countries are dependent on diversity in

forests and wildlife for food, shelter, tools, and materials for clothing and medicines. Further
reduction in the biodiversity can further increase the poverty of these poor people.
13.2.8 Pollution control
Plants and certain micro-organisms in particular can remove toxic substances from the air,
water and soil. Since the different species have different characteristics and capabilities,
therefore, a diversity of species can provide wide range of pollution control. For example,
toxins like carbon-di-oxide and sulphur-di-oxide are removed by vegetation; carbon-
monoxide is controlled by soil fungi and bacteria.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 14.BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL,

NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS: INIDA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
Lesson 14
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS: INIDA AS A
MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
14.1 The global patterns in biodiversity
The present geological era is perhaps the richest in biological diversity. About 2.1 million
species have been identified till date, while many more species are believed to exist.
According to UNEP (1993-94) (UN convention on environment protection) estimate, the total
number of species that might exist on Earth range between 9.0 – 52 million (Table 14.1).
Invertebrate animals and plants make-up most of the species. About 70% of all known species
are invertebrates (animals without backbones such as insects, sponges, worms, etc.); while,
about 15% are plants. Mammals, the animal group to which man belong, comprise a
comparatively small number of species. Of all the world’s species, only 10 to 15% live in
North America and Europe. By contrast, the centers of greatest biodiversity tend to be in the
tropics. The twenty countries most rich in biodiversity are listed in Table 14.1
Table 14.1 The world biota
Table 14.2 The twenty countries most rich in biodiversity
14.2 Patterns in Biodiversity
Species are not uniformly distributed over the Earth; diversity varies greatly from place to
place. In terms of the number of basic kinds of organism and number of species of each kind,
biodiversity has varied markedly through geological time; and, in terms of present day species
richness, biodiversity varies greatly between one part of the earth and another. The present
global patterns in biodiversity indicate that the species richness tends to vary geographically
according to a series of fairly well defined rules. For example, in case of terrestrial
environments:
Warmer areas hold more species than the colder areas;

Wetter areas hold more species than the drier ones;
Larger areas hold more species than the smaller areas;
Areas of varied climate and topography hold more species than the areas of uniform
climate and topography;
Areas at lower altitude (elevation) hold more species than the high altitude areas; and
Less seasonal areas hold more species than the highly seasonal areas.
Similarly, in case of pelagic marine species, there tends to be more species in warmer and less
seasonal waters, i.e. at lower latitudes.
In a much more simplified way, it can be said that there are much more species, both per unit
area and overall, in the tropics than in temperate regions and for more in the latter (temperate
regions) than in Polar Regions. The moist tropical forests, in general, are the most species rich
areas or environments on earth. Though they cover just about 7% of the world’s surface; but it
is estimated that they may hold more than 90% of the world’s species, if the yet unknown
tropical forest micro fauna (mainly insects) are accepted. If small tropical forest insects are
discounted, then the areas that may be similarly rich in species are:
Coral reefs; and

Areas of Mediterranean climate in South Africa and Western Australia. These areas are
rich in species, especially for flowering plants (angiosperms).
14.3 The reasons for Greater Biodiversity in the Tropics
The centers of greatest biodiversity tend to be in the tropics. The reasons for greater
biodiversity in the tropics are as under:
1. Tropical areas receive more solar energy over the year. Therefore, tropical communities
are more productive resulting in a greater resource base that can support a wider range
of species.
2. Warm temperatures and high humidity of tropical areas provide favourable
environmental conditions for many species that are unable to survive in the temperate
areas.
3. Over geological times, the tropics have had a more stable climate than the temperate
areas. In tropics, therefore, local species continued to thrive and live there itself;
whereas, in temperate zones, they tend to disperse to other areas.
4. There has been more time for tropical communities to evolve as they are older than
temperate ones. This could have allowed tropical communities greater degree of
specialization and local adaptation to occur.
5. In tropics, the greater pressure from pests, parasites and diseases does not allow any
single species to dominate. Thus, there is opportunity for many species to coexist. In
temperate areas, on the other hand, there is reduced pressure from pests, parasites and
diseases due to cold, and there is one or a few dominating species that exclude many
other species.
6. In tropics, higher rates of out crossing among plants may lead to higher levels of genetic
variability.
14.4 India as Mega-diverse Biodiversity
Biodiversity has three aspects, viz. genetics, species and ecosystem. India is recognized to be
uniquely rich in all these three aspects. The country has a rich heritage of biodiversity,
encompassing a wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation, and
from temperate forests to coastal wetlands. Almost all the biogeographical regions of the
world are represented here in India. With a mere 2.4% of the total land area of the world, the
known biodiversity of India contributes 8.22% of the known global biodiversity. India is one
of the twelve mega-diversity nations of the world accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal
and 10.88% of the global floral total species. Currently available data place India in the tenth
position in the world and fourth in the Asia in plant diversity. In terms of number of
mammalian species, the country ranks tenth in the world; and in terms of endemic species of
higher vertebrates, it ranks eleventh. In terms of number of species contributed to agriculture
and animal husbandry, it ranks seventh in the world.
Some of the salient features of India’s biodiversity are as under:
India has two major realms called the Palaearctic and the Indo Malayan; and three
biomes, namely the tropical humid forests, the tropical dry deciduous forests and the
warm desert/ semi-deserts.
India has ten biogeographic regions, namely the Trans-Himalayan, the Himalayan, the
Indian desert, the semi-arid zone, the Western Ghats, the Deccan Peninsula, the Genetic
plain, North-East India, the Islands, and the coasts.
India is one of the 12 mega-diversity nations of the world.
India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.
There are two hotspots that extend into India. There are the Western Ghats/ Sri Lanka
and the Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas). Further these hotspots are
included amongst the top eight most important or hottest hotspots.
India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all the
flowering plants (angiosperms) identified and described to date.
India has six Ramsar Wetlands. They are –
Chilika Lake, Harike Lake, Loktak Lake, Keoladeo National Park, Wular Lake and
Sambhar Lake.
India has 5 world heritage sites namely, Kaziranga National Park, Keolades Ghana
National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Nanda Devi National Park and Sundarban
National Park.
India has twelve biosphere reserves, namely Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrerk, Manas,
Sunderbans, Gulf or Mannar, Great Nicobar, Similpal, Dibru-Saikhowa, Dehang
Debang, Pachmarchi and Kanchanjanga.
Further, amongst the protected areas, there are 88 national parks and 490 sanctuaries in
India covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq.km.
Based on a survey of about two-third of the geographical area of the country, the Ministry of
Forests and Environment (MOEF) reports that India has at present 89,317 species of fauna
and 45,364 species of flora representing about 7.31% of the world fauna and 10.88% the
world flora described so far.
In plants, the species richness is high in angiosperms, bryophyta and petridophyta, and in the
family orchidaceae. In animals, arthropoda (insects) are predominant.
India is also rich in agro-biodiversity. There are 167 crop species and wild relatives. Further,
India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice, pigeon-pea,
mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries, etc. and ranks seventh in terms of
contribution to world agriculture.
India also boasts of rich marine biodiversity, along the coastline of 7516.5 km with exclusive
economic zone of 202 million sq.km, supporting the most productive ecosystems such as
mangrooves, estivaries, lagoons and coral reefs. The number of zooplankton recorded is about
16,000 species. The benthic fauna largely consists of polychaeta (62%), crustacean (20%) and
molluscs (18%) with the biomass of about 12 gm per sq.metre. Over 30 species of marine
algae and 14 species of seagrass have been reported. There are over 45 species of mangrove
plants. Over 342 species of corals belonging to 76 genera have been reported and about 50%
of the world’s reef building corals are found in India.
B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 15. HOT-SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

AND THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Lesson 15
HOT-SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY AND THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
15.1 Hotspots of Biodiversity
The most remarkable places/ areas on earth are also the most threatened ones, and many of
them have been reduced to less than 10 percent of their original vegetation. These places/
areas are called hotspots of biodiversity for preservation. Hotspots are the main areas of focus
for biodiversity conservation. These are the areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity, have
high level of endemism, and are under constant threat of species extinctions and habit
destruction.
Recently, Norman Myers and a team of scientists have brought out updated lists of 25
hotspots (Myers et. al. 2000). These identified hotspots of biodiversity are
Caribbean, California Floristic Province and Mesoamereca in North and Central America;
Tropical Andes, Choco-Darien-Western Ecuador, Atlantic Forest, Brazilian Cerrado and
Central Chile in South America; Caucasus and Mediterranean Basin in Europe and Central
Asia; Madgascar and Indian Ocean Islands, Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests,
Guinean Forests of West Africa, Cape Floristic Region and Succulent Karoo in Africa;
Mountains of Southwest China, Indo-Burma and Western Ghats of India in Mainland Asia;
and Philippines, Sundaland, Wallacea, Southwest Australia, Newzeland, New Calenonia and
Pollynesia and Micronesia in Asia Pacific region..
The two hotspots of biodiversity that extend into India.
The two hotspots that extend into India are the:
1. Indo-Burma and Western Ghat

2. Sri Lanka.
15.1.1 Indo-Burma
The Indo-Burma hotspot covers about 2 million square kilometres of tropical Asia east of the
Indian subcontinent. The hotspot includes all of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos, and nearly the
entire areas of Thailand, Myanmar and Bhutan, as well as part of Nepal, far eastern India and
extreme southern China. In addition, it covers several offshore Islands including Mainan
Islands in the South China Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean.
Today, it is estimated that about 1,00,000 square kilometres or 5% of the original extent of the
habitat is in pristine condition.
The entire hotspot was originally covered with broad-leaf forests; but, today, only fragments
remain. In these fragments, a wide variety of ecosystems is represented including deciduous,
wet evergreen dry evergreen and montane forests. Also, there are patches of shrublands,
woodlands and scattered heath forests. The hotspot has the world’s highest diversity of
freshwater turtle species. Moreover, the hotspot is still revealing its biological treasures, for
example, three large mammal species have been discovered in recent years.
15.1.2 Western ghats and Sri Lanka
The hotspot encompasses the montane forests in the south-western parts of India and on the
neighbouring Island of Sri Lanka. Although the two forest blocks are separated from each
other by about 400 kilometres of land and water, yet they are similar enough that they can be
grouped into a single hotspot. Though the entire extent of the hotspot was originally about
1,82,500 square kilometres; but, due to tremendous population pressure, now only 12,445
square kilometres or 6.8% is in pristine condition.
The Western Ghat Mountains stretch from India’s southern tip of Gujarat in the North, and
run parallel to the country’s western coast. They cover an area of about 1,60,000 square
kilometres. The western slopes of the mountains receive heavy annual rainfall, whereas the
eastern slopes are drier. The wet tropical south-western zone of Sri Lanka is remarkably
similar to the Western Ghats because of the repeated appearance and disappearance of a land
bridge between them over many thousands of years.
The predominant vegetation of the entire hotspot includes deciduous and tropical rain forests,
montane forests and grasslands, as well as scrup forests in lower, drier areas. The hotspot is
home to a diverse and endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles and amphibians. The important
populations include Asian elephants, Indian tigers and the endangered lion-tailed macaque.
15.2 Threats to Biodiversity
Human actions have caused extinctions (elimination of species) over a long time, not just in
recent decades. The earliest humans probably caused extinctions through hunting; with the
invention of fire, humans began to change habitats over large areas; with the development of
agriculture and the rise of civilization, rapid deforestation and other habitat changes took
place; as new areas were explored, the introduction of exotic species became an important
cause of extinction; later, in the twentieth century, with the introduction of industrial
chemicals and emissions, pesticides, etc. into the environment, pollution has become an
increasingly significant cause of extinction.
Human actions poses threats to biodiversity through:
15.2.1 Habitat loss and degradation
Habitat loss and degradation are the major proximate causes of species extinction, affecting
89% of all threatened birds, 83% of mammals and 91% of all threatened plants assessed
globally. The main causes of habitat loss are agricultural activities, harvesting or extraction
(including mining, fishing, logging, etc.) and development of human settlements, industry and
associated infrastructure.
Habitat destruction inevitably results from the expansion of human populations and human
activities. The ever-expanding human settlements have been causing destruction of natural
ecosystems to meet their requirements of food, space, shelter, etc. The greatest destruction of
biological communities has occurred during the last 150 years during which the human
population went from just one billion in 1850 to 6.2 billion in 2002, and will reach an
estimated 7.8 billion in 2025. In many countries, particularly Islands and where human
population density is high, most of the original habitat has already been destroyed.
15.2.2 Habitat fragmentation
It is a process where a large, continuous area of habitat is both reduced in area and divided
into two or more fragments. Habitat fragmentation may take place due to the development of
roads, towers, canals, fields, industries, etc. in an original large habitat. The fragments thus
divide populations into isolated groups that not only limit the potential of species for dispersal
and colonization but also reduce the foraging ability of animals. These isolated, small,
scattered populations are increasingly vulnerable to inbreeding depression, high infant
mortality and susceptible to environmental hardships, and consequently, in the end, possible
extinction.
15.2.3 Genetic assimilation
Some rare and endangered species are threatened by genetic assimilation because they
crossbreed with closely related species that are more numerous or more vigorous.
Opportunistic plants or animals that are introduced into a new habitat by human actions may
genetically overwhelm local populations. For example, hatchery-raised trout introduced into
lakes or streams may genetically dilute indigenous stocks.
15.2.4 Pollution
Environmental pollution is the most subtle form of habitat degradation. The most common
causes of which are pesticides, industrial effluents and emissions, and emission from
automobiles. Toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local populations of organisms.
Pesticides linked declines of fish-eating birds and falcons was well documented in the 1970s.
Mysterious, widespread deaths of thousands of seals on both sides of Atlantic in recent years
are linked to an accumulation of chemicals such as DDT, PCB’s and dioxins. Lead poisoning
is another major cause of mortality for many species of wildlife.
15.2.5 Poaching
Poaching is another insidious threat that has emerged in recent decades as one of the primary
reasons for the decline in number of species. Poaching pressures, however, are unevenly
distributed since certain selected species are more heavily targeted that others are. Despite
legal protection in many countries, products from endangered species are widely traded
within and between nations.
Wildlife is sold for live specimens, folk medicines, furs, hides, skin (or leather) and other
products such as ivory, antlers and horns amounting to millions of dollars each year.
Developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America with the richest biodiversity in the
world are the main source of wild animal and animal products, while Europe, North America
and some Wealthy Asian countries are the principal importers.
15.2.6 Introduction of exotic species
Organisms introduced into habitats where they are not native are termed as exotics. They can
be thought of us biological pollutants and are considered to be among the most damaging
agents of habitat alteration and degradation in the world. Inducing species intentionally or
unintentionally (accidentally) from one habitat into another where they have never been
before is a very risky business. Freed from the parasites, pathogens, predators and competitors
that normally keep their numbers in check, exotics often exhibit explosive population growth
that crowds out native species. Their aggressive invasion might be considered a kind of
ecological cancer. Introductions of exotic species have caused especially severe problems on
Islands.
The above mentioned causes of biodiversity loss due to human actions, however, are poverty,
macroeconomic policies, international trade factors, policy failures, poor environmental laws/
weak enforcement, unsustainable development projects and lack of local control over
resources. Population pressures and accompanying increases in the collection of fuel wood
and fodder, and grazing in forests by local communities too take their toll on the forests, and
consequently its biodiversity.
15.3 Important Terms in Biodiversity
(i) Endangered species

(ii) Vulnerable species
(iii) Rare species
(iv) Threatened species
15.3.1 Endangered species
The species that are considered in imminent danger of extinction and whose survival is
unlikely if factors causing their decline continue to operate. These are species whose numbers
have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that
they are in immediate danger of extinction.
15.3.2 Vulnerable species
The species that are under threat such that they may have to be classified as endangered in the
near future if causal factors continue to operate. These include species whose populations
have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not assured, as well as those
species whose populations are still abundant but are under threat throughout their range.
15.3.3 Rare species
These are species with small total population size in the world. In their distribution, they are
usually localized within restricted habitats or geographical area or are thinly scattered over an
extensive range. It is necessary to mention here that a species that is rare is not necessarily in
danger of becoming extinct; some species, like the whooping crane, are naturally rare.
However, rarity does raise concerns about the possibility of extinction. Rare species, thus, are
not at present endangered and vulnerable but are at risks.
15.3.4 Threatened species
The term ‘threatened’ is used in the context of conservation of the species which are in any
one of the above three categories. These are species that have declined significantly in total
numbers and may be on the verge of extinction in certain localities.
At present, 1672 species of animals are listed in these four categories worldwide (Table 4.10).
Information is sketchier about plants, because numerous plant species grow only in poorly
explored areas. Of 34,266 plants in the IUCN Red Database, 15780 are listed as threatened.
As per IUCN estimates, there are 20,000 to 25,000 species of vascular plants (plants having a
system for moving fluid, such as sap) that either have recently become extinct or are
endangered, vulnerable or rare. Infact, the total number of species that are threatened is not
yet known, because many areas, particularly in tropics, have not yet been explored for species
diversity.
Table 15.1 Worldwide threatened species of animals
15.4 ‘Endangered and Endemic Species of India’
India ranks second in terms of the number of threatened mammals, while sixth in terms of
countries with the most threatened birds. The numbers of threatened species of India by
taxonomic group are shown in Table 4.11. Such a biological impoverishment of the country is
a serious threat to sustainable advances in biological productivity as gene erosion also erodes
the prospects for deriving full economic and ecological benefits from recent advances in
molecular biology and genetic engineering.
Table 15.2 Threatened species of India by taxonomic group
According to the Red List of Threatened Animals, 18 animal species are critically
endangered, 54 endangered and 143 are vulnerable, while 10 species are lower risk
conservation dependent and 99 are lower risk near threatened. Amongst plants, 44 are
critically endangered, 113 endangered and 87 vulnerable.
Some of the animal species that have been identified as endangered or threatened ones are
Lion tailed macaque, Golden monkey, Himalayan brown beer, Tiger, Indian Lion, Great
Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Indian antelope (or Blackbuck), Kashmir stag (or Hangul),
Swamp deer (or Barasingha), Baleen whale, Mute swan, Great Indian bustard, Indian pied
hornbill, Gharial.
Endemics are species that are found in a single locality/ area and nowhere else in the world.
They, thus, have a value in their uniqueness. Areas of endemism containing several endemic
species, genera or even families have generally been isolated for a long time, thus enabling
the original species to evolve into new genetic entities better adopted to local area. Isolated
mountain tops, valleys and large oceanic Islands are usually areas of endemism. Conservation
of resources of these areas is very difficult as each area will pose its own peculiar problems.
The endemism of Indian biodiversity is quite high. About 33% of the country’s flora are
endemic to the country and are concentrated mainly in the North-East, Western Ghats, North-
West Himalaya and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Of the 49,219 plant species, 5,150 are
endemic (not found elsewhere) and distributed into 141 genera under 47 families
corresponding to about 30% of the world’s recorded flora, which means 30% of the world’s
recorded flora are endemic to India. About 15,000 species of flowering plants (angiosperms)
are known to occur in India, out of which 4,950 species of flowering plants had a birth in
India. Of all these endemic plant species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas and adjoining
regions and 1,600 in the Western Ghats alone. Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are
exceptionally rich in endemic plant species. Such as, in Sikkim, in an area of 7,298 square
kilometer, of the 4,250 plant species, 2,550 (60%) are endemic.
India is particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism, not only in flowering plants but also
in reptiles, amphibians, swallow-tailed butterflies, and some mammals. About 62% of the
known amphibian species and nearly 50% of the lizards of the country are endemic with the
majority occurring in the Western Ghats.
Endangered species of mammals, amphibians, reptiles and birds


B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 16. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Lesson 16
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
16.1 Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation is defined as ‘the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest
sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of
future generations’. Conservation of our natural resources has the following three specific objectives:
1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems;

2. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found in the organisms on the planet;
and
3. To ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support millions of rural communities
as well as the major industries all over the world?
The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on protecting plant and animal life in protected habitats,
such as – botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, etc. The two basic
approaches to the wildlife conservation in protected habitats are:
16.1.1 In-situ conservation
In-situ or on-situ conservation means conservation of species in its natural ecosystem or even in man-made
ecosystems (i.e. artificial ecosystems). This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora, and not
to the domesticated animals and plants because conservation is possible by protection of population in nature.
In-situ conservation is a comprehensive system of “protected area”, which involves setting aside large
portions of earth’s surface for wildlife with emphasis either to save the entire area or an endangered species.
According to World Conservation Union, ‘protected area’ is defined as -” an area of land and/ or sea specially
dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural
resources and managed through legal or other effective means”. There are different categories of protected
areas which are managed with different objective. These include – national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves, etc.
The advantages of In-situ conservation are:
In-situ conservation is the best strategy for the long term protection of biodiversity.
Large pockets/ areas of protected zones are essential for not only conserving vast number of species of
living organisms but also provide opportunities to evolve. Otherwise, man-made habitats (e.g. zoo,
aquarium, etc.) may end-up with static gene-pool.
Further in-situ conservation are always preferred because, in most cases, it is cheaper to protect
populations in their natural habitat than to reintroduce captive-bred ones.
Some of the limitations or factors that reduce the laudable advantages of in-situ conservation to some extent
are:
Many protected habitats are not large enough, not maintained properly, and are not properly protected
from environmental pollution; and
Many protected habitats are used for logging, tourism or other profitable activities; thus, diluting the
objective of conservation biodiversity.
16.1.2 Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation means conservation of species (sample of genetic diversity), particularly of endangered
species, away from their natural habitat under human supervision. Though in-situ conservation is the best
strategy for the long-term protection of biodiversity; however, for many rare species or species having small
remaining population, it is not a viable option in the light of increasing human disturbances. Further, species
may decline and go extinct in the wild due to genetic drift and inbreeding, environmental and demographic
variation, deteriorating habitat quality, competition from exotic species, disease or over-exploitation. Under
such circumstances, the only possible way a species can be prevented from going extinct is to maintain
individuals in artificial conditions under human care. This strategy of conservation of biodiversity is termed as
‘ex-situ or off-site preservation’. In ex-situ conservation, the endangered species of animals are collected and
bred under controlled conditions in zoos, game farms, aquaria, etc., while plant species are maintained in
botanical gardens, arboreta and seed banks.
The advantages of ex-situ conservation are:
The organism is assured of food, shelter and security, and hence can have longer life-span and breeding
activity. Thus, increasing the possibility of having more number of off springs.
Under human care and secure conditions, the chances of survival increase.
Ex-situ conservation also provides the possibility of using genetic techniques to improve the concerned
species.
Captive breeding can provide animals for possible reintroduction to the wild at a later stage or for
supplementing current populations with new stock.
However, there are certain limitations and disadvantages of ex-situ conservation:
Ex-situ conservation can be adopted only for a few selected species because of limitations of space,
finances and facilities in the institutions that undertake captive breeding. This limitation, however, can
be solved to a certain extent by having more mini zoos and deer parks which can act as a sink for the
surplus, hybrid, aged and infirm animals while the larger zoos can focus on serious captive breeding of
endangered species.
Ex-situ conservation, under a set of favourable environmental conditions, deprives the organism the
opportunity to adopt to the ever changing natural environment. As a result, new life-forms cannot evolve
and the gene-pool gets stagnant.
16.3 National Parks and Sanctuaries
A National Park (Table 16.2) is an area dedicated to conserve the scenery (or environment) and natural objects
and the wildlife therein. In national parks, all private rights are non-existent and all forestry operations and
other usages such as grazing of domestic animals are prohibited. However, the general public may enter it for
the purpose of observation and study.
A national park is a relatively large area
1. where one or several ecosystems are not maternally altered by human exploitation and occupation,
where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educative
and recreative interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty and
2. where the highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or eliminate as soon as
possible exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively the respect of ecological,
geomorphological or aesthetic features which have led to its establishment and
3. where visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, cultural and recreative
purposes.
A Wildlife Sanctuary, similar to national park, is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but it considers the
conservations of species only and also the boundary of it is not limited by a state legislation. Further, in the
sanctuary, killing hunting or capturing of any species of birds and mammals’ is prohibited except by or under
the control of highest authority in the department responsible for management of that sanctuary. Private
ownership may be allowed to continue in a sanctuary, and forestry and other usages permitted to the extent
that they do not adversely affect wildlife.
Table 16.1 A comparison of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves

Table 16.2 Important national park/ wildlife sanctuary in India


16.3 Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves (Table 16.3) have been described as undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as well
as areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control. They have been set aside for ecological research
and habitant preservation. These are used as the means to protect ecosystems, whether natural or modified by
human activity, in order to preserve ecological ‘evidence’ for the purpose of scientific research.
Table 16.3 Biosphere reserves in India

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 17. INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF POLLUTION
Module 5. Environmental pollution
Lesson 17
INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTION
17.1 Introduction
Pollution is defined as ‘an undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of air, water and land that may be harmful to living organisms. The Pollution Control Board,
defined pollution as unfavorable alteration of our surrounding, largely as a by-product of human
activities.
17.1.1 Pollutant
Pollutant is a substance which causes pollution. Unlimited exploitation of nature has disturbed the
ecological balance between living and non living components in the biosphere. The major
environment pollutants are deposited matter, gases, metals, fluorides, acid droplets, agro
chemicals, photo chemical accidents, radioactive waste and solid waste.
17.1.2 Classification of Pollutants
Environment pollution is of many types like air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil
pollution, marine pollution, etc. In developing countries major source of environment pollutions
are air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.
1. On the Basis of Nature
Depending upon the nature of the pollutants and their interaction with environment process, the
pollution caused by different agents can be classified into the following categories:
1. Solid pollutants.
2. Liquid pollutants
3. Gaseous pollutants
4. Pollution from Waste without Weight: This type of pollution is also known as pollution by
energy waste; Wastes without weight may be of the following types:
Radio-active Substance: Despite of all possible precautions in the functioning and

maintenance of nuclear reactors, it is seen that minute quantity of radio-active waste
escapes out into the environment.
Heat
Noise
2. On the Basis of Decomposition
1. Non-Degradable Pollutants: These are not broken down by the natural processes like action
of microbes.
2. Degradable Pollutants or Bio-degradable Pollutants: These are natural organic substances
which can be decomposed, removed or consumed and thus, reduced to acceptable levels
either by natural processes like biological or microbial action or by some engineered
systems, like sewage treatment plants.
17.2 Air Pollution
Air pollution is the resultant of direct or indirect change in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of atmosphere, which mainly results from gases emission from industry, thermal
power station, auto mobile and domestic combustions, etc.
17.2.1 Air pollutants
“Air Pollutant” can be defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in high concentration more than prescribed limits that may be harmful to the
living creatures.
Pollutants can be classified as primary and secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide
and CFC.
Secondary pollutants are acid rain and ozone.
17.2.2 Sources of air pollution
The sources of Air pollution are natural and man-made (anthropogenic).
17.2.2.1 Natural sources
The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, thunder storms, cyclones,
typhoons, fog, biological decay, photochemical oxidation, deposition of dead matters, vegetation
and animals etc. Radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity in
the atmosphere.
17.2.2.2 Man-made sources
Man made sources include industry, thermal power stations, industrial units, vehicular emissions,
automobiles, farming practises, domestic equipments, nuclear weapons and test, etc.
17.2.3 Indoor air pollution
The most important indoor air pollution is radon gas. This is responsible for a large number of
lung cancer deaths each year. These could be emitted from building materials like bricks,
concrete, tiles etc. Many houses in the underdeveloped countries including India use fuels like
coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene in their kitchens.
17.2.4 Air pollutants criteria
Major pollutants responsible for air pollution are: Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO2 and
NO) , carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), solid or liquid particulates (smaller than
10 µm).
17.2.5 Gaseous pollutants
Major gaseous pollutants are
1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

2. Nitrogen oxides
3. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
17.2.6 Ozone, photochemical smog hydrocarbon and fluorocarbons
Ozone (O3) is outcome of chemical reaction between nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic
components. Ozone layer in stratosphere protects from harmful UV rays via absorbs ultra
violet radiation. Ozone is the key component of photochemical smog.
Fig. 17.1 Photochemical smog (courtesy: users.rcn.com)
Nitric oxide in the atmosphere with ozone causes elimination of ozone layer. Thinning or
hole of ozone layer can cause skin cancer .It is estimated that 1% reduction in ozone
increases UV radiation by 2%.
The main hydrocarbon are benzene, venzbyrene and methane and it emerges from motor
vehicles. Hydrocarbons combine with nitrites under UV radiation and form other pollutants
known as photochemical products such as Aldehydes, Ozone Pans, Olifins, etc.
On the other hand fluorocarbons at higher level are toxic and creates problem of fluorosis,
the source of fluoride in the environment are industrial process of phosphate fertilizers,
aluminum, fluorinated plastics, uranium and other metals
17.2.7 Ozone layer depletion
Earth's stratospheric ozone layer, which contains about 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere,
makes the planet habitable by absorbing harmful solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation before it reaches
the planet's surface. UV radiation at higher levels it can cause skin cancer and immune system
suppression.depletion of ozone layer was identified during 1970’s.this is mainly happened due to
more release of manmade industrial chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which at the
time were widely used as refrigerants, in aerosol sprays, and in manufacturing plastic foams. CFC
molecules are inert in the troposphere, so they are transported to the stratosphere, where they
photolyze and release chlorine (Cl) atoms. Chlorine atoms cause catalytic ozone loss by cycling
with ClO (Fig. 17.2).

FIg. 17.2 Chlorine-catalyzed ozone depletion mechanism (courtesy : learner.org)
17.2.8 Particulate matters
Discrete mass of any material which exist as a solid or liquid droplets and microscopic, sub
microscopic dimension is known as particulate matter(PM).The main source of particulate
matter are fuel combustions and industrial operations like mining, smelting ,polishing
,pesticides, fertilizer and chemical fertilizers,
Particulate matters can have adverse effect on human health and are generally less than 10
µm size.
17.2.9 Effects of air pollution
Nitrogen dioxide has more harmful effect as compare to nitric oxide. Exposure to NO2
causes resistance in air movement in lungs.
Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide can combine haemoglobin to reduce oxygen caring
capacity of blood.
These pollutants affect plants by entering through stomata. Particulate pollutants affect the
photo synthetic activity which may damage the plants and can affect productivity. Air
pollutants can enhance the acidity of water resources therefore can adversely affect aquatic
life. Material can be damaged due to effect of pollutants when exposed to the environment
17.2.10 Prevention and control of air pollution
Steps to control and prevention of air pollution
Engineers should consider the possibility by changing the manufacturing process. For
example to minimise the high level of lead in air simple solution is to eliminate lead in
gasoline (supply of unleaded petrol)
Use CNG (compressed natural gas) as an alternative fuel .
Use gas additives to improve combustions.
Control devices: The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by
industry or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them
from an exhaust stream before they are emitted into the atmosphere.
1. Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)

2. Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas
(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.
3. Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower,
dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system.
4. Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of
devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams.
17.3 Noise Pollution
Noise can be defined as wrong sound in wrong place at wrong time. Sound at undesirable level
creates pollution because it cause discomfort to the people. There are two basic properties of
sound i.e. loudness and frequency. Loudness is strength of sensation of sound perceived by
individual and is measured in terms of decibel, where as frequency of sound defined as number of
vibrations per second and measured as hertz (Hz).
Human ear is sensitive to frequency between 20-20000 Hz. whereas best range of hearing is
2000-10000 Hz
17.3.1 Sources of noise pollution
Major sources of noise pollution are industries, transportation, and community, religious and
cultural activities. Loudspeaker and amplifiers used in different occasions is another source of
noise pollution
17.3.2 Effects of noise pollution
Noise pollution is harmful to body and mind. It causes irritation and headache. It may cause
number of physiological disorder like neurosis anxiety, insomnia, hipper tension, behaviour
and emotional stress.
Fig. 17.2 Effects of Noise pollution
17.3.4 Control of noise pollution

Eliminate the noise at source by use of silencing devises.
Control the noise transmission level using sound absorbers and acoustic tiles.
Using self precaution measures such as ear plugs and earmuffs.
Creating buffer zone between high noise level zone and residential areas by afforestation.
Taking strict statuary measure to govern the noise level in sensitive areas like schools,
hospitals, etc
17.4 Water Pollution
Water pollution is referred as a presence of foreign substances or impurities which can contribute
to health hazards by lowering water qualities and making it unfit for use.
17.4.1 Sources of water pollution
Main sources of water pollution are
Pollution due to decaying of plants ,animals and organic matter in water bodies
Addition of soil-silt washings, insecticides, herbicide and fungicides are agricultural sources
can be water pollution.
Ore washing, inert suspended solid and soluble toxic materials.
Sewage obtained from domestic promises, institutions and industrial buildings are main
sources of pollution of water in cities.
Industrial Effluents are one of the important agents of water pollution.
Accidental spillage of chemical or petroleum products also contributes towards water
pollution.
Ground water pollution with arsenic, fluorides and nitrites which are poisonous in nature are
posing serious health problems.
Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants, underground coalmines,
offshore oil wells etc.
17.4.2 Water pollutants
Major water pollutants are
1. Organic pollutants: Water carrying organic pollutants have decreased level of oxygen and
such organic pollutants promote disease causing agent.
2. Inorganic pollutants: Inorganic pollutants include inorganic salts, metallic compounds, trace
elements and organ metallic compounds.
3. Thermal pollutants: Main source of thermal pollutants are coal water plants, nuclear water
plants and other industrial process.
4. Sediments
5. Radioactive materials
17.4.3 Effects of water pollution
Sewage is an excellent medium for growth of pathogens which are responsible for spread of
many diseases.
Water pollution makes the drinking water unfit for domestic use. Industrial effluents have
harmful effect on living organism and can lead to death.
Radioactive substances present in the water may cause cancer, eye, cataract and DNA
breakage; it may also destroy biological immune system.
Residual toxic compounds of pesticides may cause many health problems.
Sediments reduce the light penetration in water which lowers the photosynthetic activity of
aquatic plants.
Toxic substances observed into tissues from polluted water can cause injuries leading death
of the plant.
Eutrophication: It is the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural
substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic
system. One example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a
response to increased levels of nutrients. Negative environmental effects include hypoxia,
the depletion of oxygen in the water, which induces reductions in specific fish and other
animal populations. Eutrophication can be human-caused or natural. Untreated sewage
effluent and agricultural run-off carrying fertilizers are examples of human-caused
eutrophication. However, it also occurs naturally in situations where nutrients accumulate
(e.g. depositional environments), or where they flow into systems on an ephemeral basis.
17.4.4 Prevention and control of water pollution
It is said that prevention is better than cure. Strict legislation can help to reduce water pollution
and policy maker should formulate strategies to prevent water pollution sources.
Following measures can help to control water pollution
Prevent generation of pollutants at first place. Control the pollutants to minimise its effects
on water pollution.
Domestic and industrial waste water should be disposed off only after treatment.
Enforce pollution control laws strictly.
Use treatment plants to clean discharged industrial waste water and utilise it for irrigation
purpose.
Discourage excess use of pesticide and insecticide.
Water bodies should be regularly cleaned of aquatic weed and wild plants
Create public awareness regarding water pollution
Afforestation will help to reduce the pollution and water erosion
Use methods of biological nitrogen fixation to improve soil health and adopt integrated pest
management to minimise chemical contamination in water.
17.5 Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution, also known as heat pollution, is releasing of heat in air or water causing
undesired changes to environment .It can be both natural as in case of forest fires and heat
emanating from volcanoes, or it can be from manmade sources.
17.5.1 Sources of thermal pollution
There are several discrete sources of Thermal Pollution
1. Thermal Power Plants

2. Industries
3. Release of domestic sewerage
4. Nuclear Sources
17.5.2 Effects of thermal pollution
Solubility of oxygen has inverse proportionality relationship with temperature. That is, with
increase in temperature of water bodies, oxygen content of water decreases. Dissolved
oxygen is essential component for survival for aquatic life.
High surface water temperature also has detrimental effect on penetration of oxygen in deep
cold water. Thus, it also affects on deep sea species.

Increase in water temperature has harmful effect on population of aquatic species who are
sensitive to temperature changes .On the other hand it propagates temperature change
tolerant species. Thus, adversely affecting balance of the aquatic ecosystem.
17.5.3 Control of thermal pollution
17.5.3.1 Cooling towers
Water from water body affected is directed pumped towards the cooling tower having condensers,
usually with temperature control. After bringing water temperature to desire level, it is returned to
the source. Use of condenser makes this method expensive.
17.5.3.2 Cooling ponds
These are the most cost effective way to tackle thermal pollution. In this method, heat of heating
effluents on surface of the water is dissipated in atmosphere.
17.5.3.3 Artificial lake
These are the man made bodies of water .Effluents are discharged into the lake and heat is
gradually lost to the atmosphere through evaporation.
17.6 Marine Pollution
Marine Pollution refers to degradation of marine ecosystem by discharge of pollutants in large

water bodies, in particular the sea and the oceans.
17.6.1 Sources of marine pollution
Major concern for Marine ecosystem is Oil Spills. Origin of oil spills can be attributed to
natural phenomenon and also due to human activities. Natural sources are oil seeps at
geographical fault lines in the ocean floors .Human activities leading to oil spills include
leaking of oil tankers, well blowouts, drilling oil rigs, etc.
Addition of pollutants to sea by rivers flowing into seas.
Addition of pollutants due to human activities such as industrial activities, agriculture
practices and tourism along coastline.
Over exploitation of aquatic resources such as excessive fishing in particular region can
adversely affect marine ecology.
Mining of minerals at coast and sea-bed near coast results in defiling the marine ecological
system.
17.6.2 Control of marine pollution
Reducing the cases of oil spills due to leaking of tankers and well blowouts.
Use of effective measures to control oil spills such as use of sinking material such as chalk
and dispersants.
Developing no fishing zones in areas where aquatic life has been adversely affected due to
excessive fishing.
Checking addition of toxic waste to rivers flowing into seas.
Banning mining activities in and around coastal regions and on sea bed.
Minimizing human activities in coastal regions adjoining areas sensitive marine ecosystem
such as coral reefs.
17.7 Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is contamination of upper layer of earth’s crust by chemicals or other toxic
substances that lead to either reduction in fertility of soil in terms of crop production or whose
addition results in detrimental effects to soil microorganism, insects, plant life and organism who
consume those plants.
17.7.1 Sources of soil pollution
Industrial Wastes.
Improper Use of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, etc.
Urban waste consisting of solid waste and sludge also contribute heavily towards soil
pollution.
Radioactive Pollutants
17.7.2 Effects of soil pollution
Industrial effluents containing toxic chemicals dumped on land cause soil pollution and
enter in food chain, which has adverse effect on human health .
Solid waste dumped on land cause disruption in everyday life and destroys natural beauty of
the landscape.
Dumped waste and organic waste give rise to foul odour.
Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases like cholera.
Biomagnification: Biological magnification also known as bioamplification, is the increase
in concentration of a substance that occurs in a food chain. Biological magnification refers
to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the
food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as
fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or humans. Bioaccumulants are
substances that increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated
air, water, or food because the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted. There is
good evidence that DDT, DDE, PCBs, toxaphene, and the organic forms of mercury and
arsenic do biomagnify in nature. e.g endosulphon banned in some states due to overuse on
cashewnut plantations.
17.7.3 Control measures of soil pollution
Industries should be banned from dumping toxic chemicals on agricultural land and proper
disposal methods should be used.
Government should provide subsidies, concessions and tax exemption to companies that use
recycled raw materials.
Application of organic manures and pesticides should be encouraged in agriculture.
Plastic carry bags should be replaced by jute bags.
Public awareness campaigns should be organized.
Solid waste from urban and industrial areas should be disposed of using proper techniques.
Trees and grass should be grown to check soil erosion.
17.8 Nuclear Hazards
Radioactive (nuclear) pollution is a special form of physical pollution related to all major life-
supporting systems – air, water and soil. It is always convenient to discuss radioactive pollution
separately because its nature of contamination is different from other types of pollution. Its effects
are also of special kinds.
17.8.1 Sources of nuclear pollution

1. Source of energy of Sun and other stars is nuclear energy (nuclear fusion reaction taking
place in the core), therefore the cosmic rays emanating from sun and other stars are primary
source of nuclear hazards.
2. Use and testing of nuclear weapons leads unprecedented loss to life and property as was the
case in Second World War.
3. Natural emission of radiation from radioactive isotopes, such as Uranium present in earth’s
crust.
4. Mining, processing and extraction of radioactive ores.
5. Use of radioactive isotopes in nuclear reactors.
6. Problem associated disposal of nuclear waste from nuclear reactors.
7. Accidental leakages in nuclear power plants and other nuclear facilities.
17.8.2 Effects of nuclear hazards
Effects of nuclear hazards are prolonged and can haunt civilizations for year and can have
adverse effect on generations to come.
Exposure to nuclear radiations can affect genetic make-up by breaking the chemical bonds
that hold the DNA together. Thus the effect can be transferred to future generations.
Nuclear explosion and nuclear weapons can cause mass destruction to life and property of a
scale unprecedented in history of mankind.
Nuclear hazards are transferred in food chains from bottom to top with transfer of nuclear
elements from prey to the predator.
Continuous exposure to radiation can lead to cancer.
17.8.3 Nuclear disaster
Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombing in World War-II(1945) & Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant Disaster (1986) and meltdown of nuclear reactors in Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant in
March 2011 are examples of nuclear disaster that can be cited from history that have caused mass
destruction to life and property.
17.8.4 Nuclear hazard control
Nuclear Power plants and research facilities should be set up after careful evaluation in less
inhabited areas.
Nuclear Power Plants must be carefully designed to minimize risks of leakage.
Strict vigilance bodies should be constituted and laws should be enforced to ensure nuclear
safety.
Summits and conferences must be organized to facilitate the evolution and exchange of new
research and ideas in field of nuclear safety.
Efficient nuclear waste disposal mechanism should be evolved.
Preventive measures must be taken to minimize risks associated with occupation connected
to processing of nuclear material.
Disarmament of nuclear weapons must be strongly advocated in International Diplomacy

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 18.SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Lesson 18
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
18.1 Introduction
Solid waste includes all discarded solid and semi-solid materials arising from various human
activities. Municipal solid waste (MSW), consist mainly of refuse and trash. It predominantly
includes food wastes, yard wastes, containers and product packaging, other miscellaneous
inorganic wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources.
Trash refers to the bulky waste such as TV, refrigeration goods, broken furniture, etc. Refuse
comprises of two components mainly garbage and rubbish. Garbage includes putrescible
waste such as vegetables, meats, food wastes and other readily degradable organic wastes.
Rubbish consists of the non-degradable material such as glass, rubber, metals, plastics, etc
and slowly degradable material such as paper products, textiles etc.
18.2 Sources of Solid Waste
Residential sources: Waste arising from day to day household activities is a important
constituent to the solid waste. Proportion from this source is increasing day by day with
rapid increase in population. Household waste includes variety of things such as food
wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, etc
Industrial Waste: Solid waste resulting from industries typically includes construction
and demolition waste, rubbish, ashes and special waste.
Community Services: community services such as street cleaning, landscaping,
recreational activities, water and waste water treatment plants give rise to solid waste
such as wood, dirt, plastic and other general wastes.
Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities generate spoiled food wastes, agricultural
wastes such as straw and sugarcane trash, hazardous wastes such as pesticides and
insecticides.
Construction and demolition activities such as construction sites, road repair, renovation
sites, and demolition of buildings generate solid waste like wood, steel, concrete, dirt,
etc.
nstitutions such as schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers generate solid waste
like paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, etc.
18.3 Effects of Solid Waste Pollution
Diseases such as diarrhea and dysentery are spread by carriers especially fly which
breed on garbage.
Rubbish and trash can block the drains thus making breeding grounds for mosquitoes,
that spread diseases like malaria and dengue.
Rotting garbage gives out foul smell that can render a locality inhospitable.

Dumping places are usually also home to stray animals such as abandoned cows that
frequently block traffic on roads and occasionally lead to road accidents.
Seeping of toxic chemicals from factories and garbage waste underground, can render
underground water unfit for human consumption.
Accumulation of construction and demolition waste at places lessens the aesthetic
beauty of surroundings.
Intake of solid non-biodegradable waste such as plastic by scavengers and stray animals
like pigs and abandoned cows can choke their windpipes and lead to death.
18.4 Need for Reducing, Reusing and Recycling of Waste
Waste management is necessary because if it is not done the waste may lead to environmental
and health problems harmful for mankind. Our planet is going to be filled with waste soon if
we don't manage our garbage and trash properly.
It cuts back on global warming.

It makes us more energy-efficient. It often takes a great deal more energy to create
something from scratch than to recycle it.
It keeps our landfills from overflowing. We’re fast running out of space for landfills—
especially near cities. Seaside cities have been dumping trash into their oceans for
decades to circumvent the problem
It improves the quality of our groundwater.
It reduces air pollution. Many factories that produce plastics, metals, and paper products
release toxins into the air. Recycle these materials, and there will be less need for
companies to manufacture new materials—saving on the amount of pollution dumped
into our atmosphere.
It creates jobs. From manufacturing to processing, from collection to invention—it’s no
secret that recycling is a growth industry, earning billions of dollars annually.
It adds to property value. It’s obvious that a landfill near your home can decrease your
property values significantly. Recycling reduces the amount of land needed for landfills.
This reduces the number of houses near landfills, keeping property values up and
homeowners happy.
18.5 Management of Solid Waste
Best way to manage the problems associated with solid waste is by to reduce wastage
itself. With higher standards of living especially in urban areas there is tendency to
declare goods outdated and obsolete. This leads to solid waste. Thus, the problem can be
checked by promoting efficient utilization and reuse.
Recycling the trash and refuse greatly reduces the non-biodegradable component of
solid waste. Items made up of plastic, glass, paper, metal, etc. can be recycled to form
other products, thus saving raw materials and also reducing solid waste.
Disposing off the solid waste with techniques such as land filling, incineration,
pulverization, etc.
18.6 Methods of Solid Waste Disposal
Land Filling: This is simple and economical method that requires no skilled labour.
Method involves dumping the solid waste collected into a low lying area usually at the
outskirts of the settlement in layers. The layers are usually 1.5 to 2 meters thick are
covered with a thin layer of good earth, before filling another layer of solid waste over
it. The layer of solid waste is thus sandwiched between thin layers of good earth. Over
time, solid waste breaks and is stabilized. After the site reaches certain height, it can be
developed as parks by landscaping and planting trees.
Incineration: In this method, solid waste is burned in specially designed furnaces.
Combustible waste is separated from non-combustible and fed into the furnace.
Temperature conditions in furnace are carefully adjusted to burn all organic matter and
oxidize all foul smell. If moisture content of solid content is high, some auxiliary fuel
such as coal or wood can be added to support burning. Since, this method involves high
temperature; all pathogens and pest are destroyed, though, smoke coming from furnace
causes air pollution.
Pulverization: In this method, collected solid waste is powdered by grinding machines,
thereby changing its volume and physical characteristics. This pulverized solid waste is
further disposed-off by land filling. This is costly technique.
Composting: This method involves digesting organic matter by anaerobic process,
converting it into organic manure and other stable compounds. It solves twin purpose of
solid waste disposal and providing manure for farms .Composting by trenching, open
window composting and mechanical composting are three widely used composting
techniques.
Disposal into the sea: This method involves dumping the solid waste at sea floor. It can
only be applied in coastal areas with strong currents .It is cheap method but tides can
bring back some portion of solid waste dumped back to beaches.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 19. ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN

PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
Lesson 19
ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION
19.1 Introduction
Environment protection has been burning issue in last half century. In order to tackle the
menace of pollution, urgent steps have to be taken at not only global or country level, but also
at local level. In fact, the role of individuals in prevention of pollution is of critical
importance, because it is the individuals that make a community or country. Effort by each
individual at his or her level can have a significant effect on global level. It has been aptly
said “charity begins at home”.
Aware and inspired individuals are strongest tool to tackle pollution. This is because an aware
individual not only lessens the burden on state but also he/she can tackle problem of pollution
more effectively as he/she is more familiar with problems persisting at local level and he
himself/herself deals with them in his/her day to day life. It is better and more viable to
prevent pollution by educating individuals than controlling pollution. Individuals should
encourage to modify their lifestyle and living habits if that are not healthy for environment.
19.2 Ways in Which a Individual can Help in Prevention of Pollution
Individuals should minimize wastage of resources such as electricity. Every unit of

electricity saved is equivalent unit of electricity produced as it not only saves the fuel
that would be used to produce that electricity, but also help to prevent pollution that is
accompanied by burning of that fuel. Therefore, person should always switch off
appliances when not in use.
Individuals should prefer walking or use cycles instead of using motor vehicles,
especially when distances to be travelled are small.
Individuals can make considerable contribution by using mass transport (buses, trains,
etc) instead of using personal vehicles.
When going to workplace, colleagues from nearby localities should pool vehicles
instead of going in individual personal vehicles.
Taking personal vehicles for periodic pollution checks at centres approved by
authorities.
Individuals should reuse items whenever possible.
Products that are made of recycled material should be given preference.
Use gunny bags made of jute instead of plastic bags.
Take part in environment conservation drives such as tree planting drives.
Use water resources efficiently.
Use renewable resources by installing equipment such as solar heaters and using solar
cookers.

Dispose potentially harmful products such as cells, batteries, pesticide containers, etc
properly.
Use of refrigerators should be minimised wherever possible as they are main source of
CFC, which is responsible for Ozone layer depletion.
Follow and promote family planning, as more population means more resources utilized
and more resources utilized imply more pollution.
Avoid making noise producing activities such as listening to loud music.
Use handkerchiefs instead of paper tissues.
Organize drives to clean streets and clean drains with help of other people of locality.
Spread awareness and inspire other people to prevent pollution. Individuals should be
encouraged to acquire information and innovations from world over and implement
them locally.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 20. POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
Lesson 20
POLLUTION CASE STUDIES
20.1 London Smog Disaster
Smog has been part of London life. But the effect of the Great Smog of '52 was
unprecedented. A period of cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless
conditions, collected airborne pollutants (mostly from the use of coal), to form a thick layer of
smog over the city. It lasted from Friday 5 to Tuesday 9 December 1952. It is considered the
worst air pollution event in the history of the United Kingdom. Medical reports estimated that
4,000 people had died prematurely and 100,000 more were made ill because of the smog's
effects on the human respiratory tract. More recent research suggests that the number of
fatalities was considerably greater at about 12,000.
The weather in November and early December 1952 had been very cold, with heavy
snowfalls across the region. To warm homes, people burned coal in their homes. Also, it was
primary fuel in industries. In normal conditions, smoke would rise into the atmosphere and
disperse, but due to anticyclone, inversion was created, which pushed air downwards. As a
result, smoke from the chimneys was trapped.
The fog finally cleared on December 9, but it had already taken a heavy toll.
A series of laws were brought in to avoid a repeat of the situation. This included the Clean
Air Acts of 1956 and 1968. These acts banned emissions of black smoke.
Fig. 20.1 Nelson column during Great Smog of 1952
20.2 Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Bhopal gas tragedy accounts for most infamous incidents of industrial pollutions. On
December 3 1984, more than 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant
in Bhopal, India, immediately killing at least 3,800 people and causing significant morbidity
and premature death for many thousands more. At around 1.00 AM, December 3, loud
rumbling reverberated around the plant as a safety valve gave away, sending a plume of MIC
gas into the early morning air. Within hours, air was full of toxic contents. Gas circulated
through the blood streams of victims, carrying toxins and causing damage to the eyes, lungs,
kidneys, liver, intestines, muscles, brain, reproductive and immune systems.
Soon Bhopal was full of corpse of humans and animals. Immediate loss was around 3800
human lives, with death toll increasing to 10000 in that week. As a result of aftermath, region
has reported 15000 to 20000 premature deaths. These numbers can be assumed to be
understated. In l985 the Indian Government sued Union Carbide for 3.3 billion dollars and in
l989, case settled for a mere $470 million. This money, later deposited with RBI, has now
swelled up to Rs 1,503 crore. UCC got away by paying a compensation of mere $470 million,
although actual compensation was accounted to less than $10 billion as calculated by some
agencies.
UCC ceased its operations at Bhopal plant, but did not take responsibility to clean the mess
either. The plant continues to leak several toxic chemicals and heavy metals that have
percolated into underground water. Reports suggest that underground water of the region still
contain heavy metals even after around three decades. When it rains, especially in the
monsoon season, rainwater washes these chemicals into puddles, streams and eventually into
the ground water.
Despite the horror of “that night” and the chemical terror that its survivors have endured, the
people of Bhopal continue their struggle for justice, for corporate accountability, and for their
basic human right to an environment free of chemical poisons.
Fig. 20.2 Union Carbide MIC plant
20.3 Fukushima Disaster
On March 11, 2011, a powerful, 9.0 magnitude quake hit north-eastern Japan, triggering a
tsunami with 10-meter-high waves that reached the U.S. west coast. It was triggered by an
earthquake near Honshu off eastern coast of Japan. It was followed by horrors of tsunami,
followed by after-shock of 6.7 magnitudes. Duel punch of earthquake and tsunami caused
damage that led to explosions and partial meltdowns at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant in
Japan.
Three out of six reactors failed. Radiation levels from Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant were
reported as high as 1,000 mSv/h (milli sievert per hour). These were 20 times acceptable
levels of nuclear radiations allowed in the US. The high levels of radiation in and around the
plants hampered efforts to cool the reactors. The evacuation area around the plant was 20
kilometres (12.4 miles), while people living up to 30 kilometres (18.6 miles) from the plant
have been advised to stay indoors. Other countries were even more cautious. On 3 April 2011,
two bodies were discovered in the basement turbine room most likely because the workers ran
there during the tsunami.
It will take decades for complete clean-up of pollutants from this disaster. A permanent
exclusion zone could end up stretching beyond the plant’s perimeter. Seriously exposed
workers may be at increased risk of cancers for the rest of their lives. More importantly it
hindered much needed rescue work for the victims of earthquake and tsunami required. Some
of the areas in the temporary 19 km (12 miles) radius evacuation zone around Fukushima
were found to be heavily contaminated with radio-nuclides According to a new reports
released by the Japanese Ministry of Science and Education, the town of Okuma was reported
as being over 25 times above the safe limit of 20 millesievers per year. Marine life around
Japanese eastern coast will be adversely affected for years. Radionuclides in seawater were
reported from the Fukushima plant's discharge canals, from coastal waters five to 10
kilometres south of the plant, and from 30 kilometres offshore, even months after the disaster.
It can be expected that the marine dispersion of seawater tagged with radionuclides released
from Fukushima will take years to reach other riparian Pacific countries. Although the
immediate direct losses to life in this incident were less than other disasters the history has
witnessed, long term hazards of this incident are immense.
Fig. 20.3 LEFT: Fumes coming out from three damaged nuclear reactors in Fukushima
Nuclear Power Plant. RIGHT: Evacuation Zone

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 21.DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Lesson 21
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
21.1 Disaster Management
Disaster management refers to effective management of counter measures that are taken in
order to mitigate the effect natural calamities that lead to desperate situations after calamities
such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, tsunamis, etc. Although these sudden calamities are
natural geographical processes that have been taking place from beginning and have played
important role in shaping of earth, these geographical activities are wreck havoc and bring
misfortune to people in region affected. Among the 36 states and Union territories in the
country, 22 are prone to disasters. Among all the disasters that occur in the country, floods are
the most frequently occurring natural disasters, due to the irregularities of the Indian
monsoon. About 75 percent of the annual rainfall in India is concentrated in three to four
months of the monsoon season. As a result there is a very heavy discharge from the rivers
during this period causing widespread floods. Approximately 40 million hectares of land in
the country has been identified as being prone to floods. Major floods are mainly caused in
the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin which carries 60 percent of the total river flow of our
country.These processes inflict huge losses to life and property and it can take years for life to
take normal shape.
Every region of the world will confront disaster in some way or other. As these disasters are
sudden and rarely predictable, best way to mitigate their effect is to be prepared to them. This
requires preplanning and professional approach.
Disaster management pivots around preplanning, which includes
Organizing general disaster management teams to respond to any general disaster and in
any terrain.
Organizing special quick response teams that are highly specific to nature and region of
disaster.
Most important part is indentifying threats that a particular region is most venerable to.
This involves setting up of research stations that study the terrain, climate and
underground seismic activities of the region.
Following diagram is self explanatory regarding steps involved in Disaster management at

authority level.

Fig 21.1 self explanatory regarding steps involved in Disaster management at authority
level
21.2 Major Causes for Disasters
1. Anthropogenic activities such as Impoundment of huge quantities of water in the lake

behind a big dam e.g. Koyna Dam in Maharashtra have created few incidence of minor and
major earthquakes., under ground nuclear testing e.g.Pokharan II testing at desert of
Rajasthan, Deep well disposal of liquid waste.
2. Due to heavy rainfalls or sudden snow melt can swell the rivers disproportionately- causes
a great economic loss and health related problems.
3. Landslides occur when coherent rock of soil masses move down slope due to gravitational
pull. Water and vegetation influence landslides. Chemical action of water gradually causes
chemical weathering of rocks making them prone to landslides.
Here are some control measures that are disaster-type specific.
21.3 Earthquake
In order to abate the effect of earthquakes, these precautionary measures must be taken.
People should evacuate buildings and stay in open until the time, tremors have ceased.
In case people are unable to get out of the buildings, they should try and stay in corners
of the rooms.
People using transport should stop vehicles and wait for tremors to subside.
Buildings should be made by using construction material that is recommended by
authorities.
Design of the houses and buildings must be approved by authorities. Rectangular
building design is most effective design that can withstand earthquake.
People should help each other and provide first aid to the victims and not just wait for
disaster management teams to arrive.
Temporary relief camps and rehabilitation centres should be provided to people who
have been affected.
Compensation should be given to people who lost their house and livelihood.
People should be made aware and trained through campaigns to tackle adversities as it is
not possible for disaster management teams to reach everywhere.

21.4 Cyclones
In order to abate the effect of cyclones, following measures are advised.
With help of technology, advent and paths cyclones can be predicted to some extent.
First and foremost measure is to vacate the region that is predicted to be affected.
People should be warned about cyclones through weather news, internet, newspapers,
radio broadcast, etc.
People should take to shelter in safe buildings during cyclones. Storm shelter should be
constructed by authorities.
Fisherman should be warned not to go to sea.
Electricity supply should be cut off to the region that is affected.
Temporary relief camps and rehabilitation centres should be provided to people who
have been affected.
Compensation should be given to people who lost their house and livelihood.
21.5 Floods
In order to pacify the effects of flood disaster, following steps must be taken.
Floods in general are caused by heavy and concentrated rains. Therefore best defence is
to study and predict weather developments and issue early warnings through broadcast
and print media.
People should be evacuated to safer places and relief camps should be provided.
People who could not be evacuated should move to relatively higher places.
Dams and embankments must be constructed by the government to check the flow in
regions frequently affected by flood disasters.
Floods often result in breaching of canal embankments and river embankments. Strength
of these embankments must be periodically evaluated by authorities so that they can
withstand deluge.
Sand bangs must be used to repair temporary breaches in canals during floods.
21.6 Landslides
In general the chief mitigatory measures to be adopted for landslide areas are
Drainage correction,
Proper land use measures,
Reforestation for the areas occupied by degraded vegetation
Creation of awareness among local population.
The most important triggering mechanism for mass movements is the water infiltrating into
the overburden during heavy rains and consequent increase in pore pressure within that
overburden. When this happens in steep slopes, the safety factor of the slope material gets
considerably reduced causing it to move down. Hence, the natural way of preventing this
situation is by reducing infiltration and allowing excess water to move down without
hindrance. As such, the first and foremost mitigation measure is drainage correction. This
involves maintenance of natural drainage channels both micro and macro in vulnerable
slopes.
The universal use of contour bunding for all types of terrain without consideration of the
slope, overburden thickness and texture or drainage set-up needs to be controlled especially in
the plateau edge regions. It is time to think about alternative and innovations, which are
suitable for the terrain, to be set up. It need not be emphasized the governmental agencies
have a lot to contribute in this field.
21.7 Agencies Working on Disaster Management
21.7.1 National disaster management authority (NDMA)
NMDA is headed by the Prime Minister of India, is the Apex Body for Disaster Management
in India. The setting up of the NDMA and the creation of an enabling environment for
institutional mechanisms at the State and District levels is mandated by the Disaster
Management Act, 2005. NDMA as the apex body is mandated to lay down the policies, plans
and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure timely and effective response to disasters.
21.7.2 International association of emergency managers (IAEM)
IAEM is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to promoting the goals of saving

lives and protecting property during emergencies and disasters. The mission of IAEM is to
serve its members by providing information, networking and professional opportunities, and
to advance the emergency management profession. It currently has seven Councils around the
World: Asia, Canada, Europa,International, Oceania, Student and USA.
21.7.3 Red cross/Red crescent
National Red Cross/Red Crescent societies often have pivotal roles in responding to
emergencies. Additionally, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
Societies (IFRC, or "The Federation") may deploy assessment teams, e.g.Field Assessment
and Coordination Team – (FACT) to the affected country if requested by the national Red
Cross or Red Crescent Society. After having assessed the needs Emergency Response Units
(ERUs) may be deployed to the affected country or region. They are specialized in the
response component of the emergency management framework.
21.7.4 United nations
Within the United Nations system responsibility for emergency response rests with the
Resident Coordinator within the affected country. However, in practice international response
will be coordinated, if requested by the affected country’s government, by the UN Office for
the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), by deploying a UN Disaster
Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 22.SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Module 6. Social issues and the environment
Lesson 22
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Strategies for Sustainable Development
The Rio Summit established sustainable development as the guiding vision for the
development efforts of all countries. At Rio, and in later commitments, all governments
undertook to establish and implement national sustainable development strategies. The
strategies for sustainable development called for at Rio are foreseen as highly participatory
instruments intended “to ensure socially responsible economic development while protecting
the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future generations”. The Rio Agenda
21 was reaffirmed most recently in the Millennium Summit Declaration. The International
Development Goals call specifically for the “establishment of sustainable development
strategies by 2005”. In the run up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD),
in Johannesburg in 2002, it is appropriate that we review progress towards achieving this
commitment and to agree how the international community can best assist developing
countries in meeting this goal. Thus, it is particularly timely that the High Level Meeting of
the Development Assistance Committee (of the OECD) DAC on 25-26 April 2001 endorses
the DAC Guidelines: “Strategies for Sustainable Development: Guidance for Development
Co-operation”. We are committed to provide support for sound nationally-owned sustainable
development strategies where conditions for effective partnership are in place. In simple
terms, sustainable development means integrating the economic, social and environmental
objectives of society, in order to maximise human well-being in the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. This requires seeking
mutually supportive approaches whenever possible, and making trade-offs where necessary.
For developing countries, and for development co-operation, reducing poverty and meeting
the International Development Goals are imperatives — within the broad context of
sustainable development — for this generation.
As the nineties unfold, the world is entering a new era, one in which it is far more difficult to
expand food output. Many knew that this time would eventually come, that at some point the
limits of the earth’s natural systems, the cumulative effects of environmental degradation on
cropland productivity, and the shrinking backlog of yield-raising technologies would slow the
record growth in food production of recent decades. But because no one knew exactly when
or how this would happen, the food prospect was widely debated. Now we can see that
several constraints are emerging simultaneously to slow the growth in food production.
After nearly four decades of unprecedented expansion in both land-based and oceanic food
supplies, the world is experiencing a massive loss of momentum. Between 1950 and 1984,
world grain production expanded 2.6-fold, outstripping population growth by a wide margin
and raising the grain harvested per person by 40%. Growth in the world fish catch was even
more spectacular- a 4.6-fold increase between 1950 and 1989, which doubled seafood
consumption per person. Together, these developments reduced hunger and mal-nutrition
throughout the world, offering hope that these biblical scourges would one day be eliminated.
The world’s rangelands, a major source of animal protein, are also under excessive pressure.
The language used to describe them is similar to that used for fisheries: they are being grazed
at or beyond capacity on every continent. This means that rangeland production of beef and
mutton may not increase much, if at all, in the future. Here, too, availability per person will
decline indefinitely as population grows.
With both fisheries and rangelands being pressed to the limits of their carrying capacity,
future growth in food demand can be satisfied only by expanding output from croplands. The
growth in demand for food that until recently was satisfied by three food systems must now
all be satisfied by one.
From mid-century until recently, grain output projections were for the most part simple
extrapolations of trends. The past was a reliable guide to the future. But in a world of limits,
this is changing. In projecting food supply trends now, at least six new constraints need to be
taken into account:
1. Constraints, the backlog of unused agricultural technology is shrinking, leaving the

more progressive farmers fewer agronomic options for expanding food output.
2. Growing human demands are pressing against the limits of fisheries to supply seafood
and of range-lands to supply beef, mutton, and milk.
3. Demands for water are pressing against the limits of the hydrological cycle to supply
irrigation water in key food-growing regions.
4. In many countries, the use of additional fertilizer on currently available crop varieties
has little or no effect on yields.
5. Countries that are already densely populated when they begin to industrialize risk losing
cropland at a rate that exceeds the rise in land productivity, initiating a long-term decline
in food production.
6. Social disintegration, often fed by rapid population growth and environment
degradation, is undermining many national governments and their efforts to expand food
production.
The six limits or constraints briefly discussed here have emerged rather recently. In many
cases, they were not anticipated. All available projections of world fertilizer use made during
the eighties, for example, showed growth continuing smoothly through the remainder of the
century and in to the next. Few analysts anticipated the scale of water scarcity that is
unfolding in large parts of the world. Many assumed that the agricultural research
establishment could continue to churn out new technologies that would rapidly raise crop
yields for the indefinite future. And few have even asked the question of what happens if
China starts losing cropland as fast as Japan has during the last few decades.
At the international level, the population-driven environmental deterioration/political

disintegration scenario described by Robert Kaplan is not only possible; indeed, it is likely in
a business-as usual world. But it is not inevitable. This future can be averted if security is
redefined, recognizing that food scarcity, not military aggression, is the principal threat to our
future. This would lead to a massive reordering of priorities- giving top place to filling the
family planning gap; to attacking the underlying causes of high fertility, such as illiteracy and
poverty; to protecting soil and water resources; and to raising investment in agriculture.
Any form of alternative development strategy for the agricultural sector must explicitly
consider its environmental and social impacts. While much lip-service is given to the
environmental implications of the agricultural sector, not much is done about them in most
countries. The emphasis has too often been on short-term gains that may not be sustainable
over a longer period of time.
The Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations, FAO, has already stressed that
‘the major environmental problems facing agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, were not only
avoidance of environmental pollution, but also the ensuring, in the development process, of
the maintenance of the productive capacity of basic natural resources for food and agriculture
through rational management and conservation measures’ (FAO, 1974). It also ‘recognized
that agricultural development and world food security depended on careful husbandry of
living resources, on their biological laws and ecological balances, as well as on the
adjustments of production, supply, and reserves, to demands.’
There are many environmental implications of any new developmental policies for the
agricultural sector, but only one will be discussed here-pesticides. It is now evident that
continued heavy reliance on pesticides to protect vast areas of monocultures is ultimately
bound to be self-defeating. For such a practice kills many useful insects that could help
naturally to keep the pest population down, and commonly requires repeated increase in the
doses of application that are needed to counter the continual development of new strains of
pesticide-resistant forms. Thus, the number of applications of pesticide to cotton in recent
years has risen from 8 to 40 yearly in some Central American countries (FAO, 1974), and
evolution of new strains of cotton pests necessitates the use of new forms of pesticides every
three or so years in Egypt.
There are several similar examples of eventual reduction in crop production owing to heavy
reliance on chemical pesticides. Thus, an alternative approach to development will have to
depend on new concepts of integrated pest-management, which can be broadly defined as an
ecological approach to pest control by optimal combinations of biological and chemical
control-technologies. This would be based upon information about individual pests, their
environment, and their natural enemies, whereupon farming practices could be modified to
control the pest and aid its natural enemies.
Realistic economies injury-levels of crops would be used to determine the need for
suppressive measures. For example, during the first 30 days, and for stages after 100 days,
following planting, cotton can withstand up to 50% defoliation. During the period of fruit
formation (taking 30-100 days), the economic level for defoliation drops to about 20%.
Integrated pest management takes advantage of these types of sensitivities, and the measures
undertaken might include releasing biological control agents or pest-specific diseases or,
when necessary, applying pesticides in limited amounts. The use of biological control against
Fungi and weeds has so far been little exploited. Release of sterile males or artificially-reared
natural enemies of the pest have, however, proven successful to control a number of insect
pests.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 23. URBAN PROBLEMS
Lesson 23
URBAN PROBLEMS
23.1 Introduction
Developments in the four target sectors of transport, tourism, energy and industry, and action
in the priority themes of air, noise, water and waste have a significant impact on the quality of
the urban environment. Activities are importance to develop co-operation between cities in
the promotion of local Agenda plans. The local Agenda process by assisting local authorities
in developing policy tools and instruments and through awareness rising.
The Sustainable Cities project in 1993, as a follow-up to the discussion that flowed from the
1990 Green Paper on the urban environment. The main aims of the project are to:
Promote new ideas on sustainability in European urban settings,

Foster a wide exchange of experience,
Disseminate good practices on sustainability at the urban level, and
Formulate recommendations aimed at influencing policy at the EU, Member State, and
regional and local level.
Essentially it consists of
Policy reports and recommendations for institutions,

Networking activities that are run by the Sustainable Cities campaign launched. The
charter calls for increased inter-local authority co-operation and commits its signatories
to drawing up long-term action plans for sustainable development with those involved at
the local level.
A wide range of human activities affect water availability and quality especially in areas with
a high population density, concentrated industrial activity and intensive agriculture.
Only a small fraction of the world's population has access to tap water that is suitable for
drinking. In the European Union, this service is taken for granted, and it is forgotten that this
is not the case everywhere. The indicators selected by the panels of water experts will give a
comprehensive description of the pressures imposed on quality and availability of water
resources and of the success of environmental policy to reduce them.
The prevention of over-exploitation of ground water and surface water for drinking
water or industrial or other purposes;
The prevention of pollution of ground water from diffuse sources; and
A better ecological quality of surface and marine water.
The indicators formulated by the Scientific Advisory Groups for the policy field Water
Pollution & Water Resources go into more detail: nutrients, overuse of ground water
resources, pesticides, heavy metals and organic matter are listed as the most important
pressures on water. A more general indicator "wastewater treated" is also included as a
measure of the efforts invested in the protection of water quality.
23.2 Related to Air Pollution
The term "air pollution" is used to describe substances that are artificially introduced into the
air. Air pollution stems from gases and airborne particles which, in excess, are harmful to
human health, buildings and ecosystems.
Four major impacts determine the classification of pollutants under the traditional policy field
23.2.1 Air pollution
The acidification of soil and water by pollutants such as sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides
and ammonia;
The damage to buildings sensitive to the same acidifying substances;
The formation of troposphere ozone from so-called ozone precursors, e.g. Volatile
organic compounds, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide which indirectly affect
human and animal health and vegetation;
Direct effects on human health and ecosystems e.g. through high atmospheric
concentrations of particles, and vocs.
Excluded from this chapter are emissions of CO2, N2O, CH4 and CFCs, which are covered in
the policy fields Climate Change and Ozone Layer Depletion. Emissions of highly toxic
substances are given special consideration under the heading Dispersion of Toxic Substances
Although some of these pollutants are also produced by nature, the main environmental
problems result from human activities. Air pollutants are often transported over considerable
distances, affecting air quality, ecosystems, lakes and other surface water, groundwater, soils
and buildings in adjacent and distant countries.
The following list of indicators selected by the Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) "Air
Pollution" comprises four indicators of pressure. The two "background" or "driving force"
indicators Consumption of petrol & diesel oil by road vehicles and Primary energy
consumption represent the major causes of these pressures.
23.2.2 Water conservation
Water conservation can be defined as:
1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water
quality.
2. A reduction in water use accomplished by implementation of water conservation or
water efficiency measures; or,
3. Improved water management practices that reduce or enhance the beneficial use of
water. A water conservation measure is an action, behavioral change, device,
technology, or improved design or process implemented to reduce water loss, waste, or
use. Water efficiency is a tool of water conservation. That results in more efficient water
use and thus reduces water demand. The value and cost-effectiveness of a water
efficiency measure must be evaluated in relation to its effects on the use and cost of
other natural resources (e.g. energy or chemicals).
The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:

Sustainability. To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh
water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery, and waste water treatment facilities
consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of total
electricity consumption is devoted to water management.
Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water
habitats for local wildlife and migrating water flow, as well as reducing the need to build
new dams and other water diversion infrastructure.
23.2.3 Rain water harvesting
Rain water harvesting is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it reaches
the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for
irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and
local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It
can supplement the subsoil water level and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the
ground, sometimes from areas which are especially prepared for this purpose, is called Storm
water harvesting. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water
source. Rainwater harvesting systems can be simple to construct from inexpensive local
materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater may not
be potable and may require treatment before consumption. As rainwater rushes from your
roof it may carry pollutants, such as mercury from coal burning buildings, or bird faeces.
Although some rooftop materials may produce rainwater that would be harmful to human
health as drinking water, it can be useful in flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the
garden and washing cars; these uses alone halve the amount of water used by a typical home.
Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater
than 200 mm (7.9 in) per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton,
1992). Overflow from rainwater harvesting tank systems can be used to refill aquifers in a
process called groundwater recharge; though this is a related process, it must not be confused
with rainwater harvesting.
There are several types of systems to harvest rainwater, ranging from very simple home
systems to complex industrial systems. The rate at which water can be collected from either
system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall
(i.e., annual precipitation (mm per annum) x square meter of catchment area = liters per
annum yield ex, ... a 200 square meter roof catchment catching 1,000mm PA yields 200
KLPA.)
23.2.4 Watershed management
Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the
sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans,
programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant,
animal, and human communities within a watershed boundary. Features of a watershed that
agencies seek to manage include water supply, water quality, drainage, storm water runoff,
water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use
agencies, storm water management experts, environmental specialists, water use purveyors
and communities all play an integral part in the management of a watershed.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 24. RESETTLEMENT AND

REHABILITATION
Lesson 24
RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION
Development projects that displace people involuntarily generally give rise to severe
economic, social, and environmental problems: production systems are dismantled;
productive assets and income sources are lost; people are relocated to environments where
their productive skills may be less applicable and the competition for resources greater;
community structures and social networks are weakened; kin groups are dispersed; and
cultural identity, traditional authority, and the potential for mutual help are diminished.
Involuntary resettlement may cause severe long-term hardship, impoverishment, and
environmental damage unless appropriate measures are carefully planned and carried out.
The World Bank was the first multilateral lending agency to adopt a policy for Resettlement
and Rehabilitation (R&R).
The treatment of resettlement issues beyond hydropower and irrigation projects to all types of
investment operations. It emphasizes the need for:
Minimizing involuntary resettlement;

Providing people displaced by a project with the means to improve, or at least restore,
their former living standards, earning capacity, and production levels;
Involving both resettles and hosts in resettlement activities;
A time-bound resettlement plan; and
Valuation and compensation principles for land and other assets affected by the project.
A full EA is required if a project is likely to have significant adverse impacts that may be
sensitive, irreversible, and diverse. The impacts are likely to be comprehensive, broad, sector-
wide, or precedent-setting. Impacts generally result from a major component of the project
and affect the area as a whole or an entire sector.
Dams and reservoirs; Forestry production projects;

Industrial plants (large-scale) and industrial estates;
Irrigation, drainage, and flood control (large-scale);
Land clearance and leveling;
Mineral development (including oil and gas);
Port and harbor development;
Reclamation and new land development;
Resettlement and all projects with potentially major impacts on people;
River basin development;
Thermal and hydropower development; and
Manufacture, transportation, and use of pesticides or other hazardous and/or toxic
materials.

The impacts are not as sensitive, numerous, major, or diverse as category A impacts; remedial
measures can be more easily designed. Preparation of a mitigation plan suffices for many
category B projects. Few category B projects would have a separate environmental report.
Examples of Category B projects are:
Agro-industries (small-scale);
Electrical transmission;
Aquaculture and mariculture;
Irrigation and drainage (small-scale);
Renewable energy;
Rural electrification;
Tourism;
Rural water supply and sanitation;
Watershed projects (management or rehabilitation); and
Rehabilitation, maintenance, and upgrading projects (small-scale).
An EA or environmental analysis is normally not required for Category C projects because

the project is unlikely to have adverse impacts. Professional judgment finds the project to
have negligible, insignificant, or minimal environmental impacts. Category C projects might
be:
Education,
Family planning,
Health,
Nutrition,
Institutional development,
Technical assistance, and
Most human resource projects.
Social analysis is a part of the EA process, and resettlement is one of five topics that are
required, where they are relevant, be explicitly addressed in an EA. The five topics are:
involuntary resettlement,
new land settlement,
induced development,
indigenous peoples,
and cultural property
The objective of the resettlement policy is to ensure that the population displaced by a project
receives benefits from it. Involuntary resettlement is an integral part of project design and
should be dealt with from the earliest stages of project preparation, taking into account the
following policy considerations:
Involuntary resettlement should be avoided or minimized where feasible, exploring all

viable alternative project designs. For example, realignment of roads or reductions in
dam height may significantly reduce resettlement needs.
Where displacement is unavoidable, resettlement plans should be developed. All
involuntary resettlement should be conceived and executed as development programs,
with resettles provided sufficient investment resources and opportunities to share in
project benefits. Displaced persons should be (i) compensated for their losses at full
replacement cost prior to the actual move; (ii) assisted with the move and supported
during the transition period in the resettlement site; and (iii) assisted in their efforts to
improve their former living standards, income earning capacity, and production levels,
or at least to restore them. Particular attention should be paid to the needs of the poorest
groups to be resettled.
Community participation in planning and implementing resettlement should be
encouraged. Appropriate patterns of social organization should be established, and
existing social and cultural institutions of resettles and their hosts should be supported
and used to the greatest extent possible.
Resettles should be integrated socially and economically into host communities so that
adverse impacts on host communities are minimized. The best way of achieving this
integration is for resettlement to be planned in areas benefiting from the project and
through consultation with the future hosts.
Land, housing, infrastructure, and other compensation should be provided to the
adversely affected population, indigenous groups, ethnic minorities, and pastoralists
who may have usufruct or customary rights to the land or other resources taken for the
project. The absence of legal title to land by such groups should not be a bar to
compensation.
Resettlement and outlines of the main point’s planners should consider when preparing a
resettlement plan. Depending on the magnitude of displacement and other factors, the
resettlement plan will normally contain a statement of objectives and policies, an executive
summary, a budget, a timetable coordinated with the physical works of the main investment
project, and provision for:
Organizational responsibilities;
Community participation and integration with host populations;
Socioeconomic survey;
Legal framework;
Alternative sites and selection;
Valuation of and compensation for lost assets;
Land tenure, acquisition, and transfer ;
Access to training, employment, and credit;
Shelter, infrastructure, and social services;
Environmental protection and management ; and
Implementation schedule, monitoring, and evaluation.
The foregoing is meant to be an indicative, not authoritative, discussion of the World Bank's
involuntary resettlement policy. For more information, visit the World Bank's Public
Information Center or the Environmental Management for Power Development page
supported by the World Bank and other sponsors.
Case studies:
The Case study of a village to be affected by the indira sagar pariyojana
Indira Sagar Pariyojana (ISP) has been under planning and construction since decades. Work
on the project has gained momentum in the last decade. Since then, the construction has been
on and off depending on the availability of funds. On 24 April, 2002, an announcement was
published both in Nai Duniya and Dainik Bhaskar1 stating that the village Jabgaon would be
inundated with water in the coming monsoons owing to the increase in the height of the dam.
The village was being asked to evacuate the area by 20 May, 2002. In March 2002, with the
release of funds from the Center to the Narmada Hydro Development Corporation, a decision
was taken to increase the height of the dam to 212 m by June 2002. In fact since October
2001, there was a sudden spurt in announcements of the Section 4 notices of land acquisition
in the regional Hindi newspapers making it evident that the project would soon be underway
again. Meanwhile there had also been reports in the press that the rehabilitation had been
lagging behind.
Manthan Adhyayan Kendra, which had been following the events in the history of the
construction of this dam, decided to attempt to bring to fore the ground realities regarding the
status of resettlement and rehabilitation of villages affected by this project. It was thought that
the situation would be analysed at 3 points in time: pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-
monsoon. Accordingly, 2 visits to this village had been undertaken: the first in the first week
of May and the second in the third week of August. There have been less than normal
monsoons this year and therefore while the village has not been submerged, some farms had
been flooded.
The Kendra is a centre set up to monitor, analyse and research water and energy related
issues, with a special focus on the latest developments resulting from the liberalisation,
globalisation and privatisation of the economy. The Centre is located at Badwani, a district
town in Madhya Pradesh five kilometers from the banks of Narmada. While the focus of the
work is on water and energy issues, this will be in the larger context of equitable, just and
sustainable development.
Uttaranchal's disaster management
Uttaranchal's location and geographical features render it vulnerable to minor changes. Hence
any activity disapproved by mountain ecosystem triggers a disaster. One cannot stop disaster
happening but can certainly take some steps to reduce its effects. If disasters cannot be
averted, then reduction of losses of any type caused by disaster becomes a focal point of the
policy for disaster management. To devise Uttaranchal's disaster management mechanism for
reduction of effects of disaster, i.e. damage to property and loss of life and the rapid and
effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation of the victims.
The study reveals that 83 villages in Uttaranchal need rehabilitation but, to date, Uttaranchal
has no resettlement and rehabilitation policy. In India only three States, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Punjab, have state-wide resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) policies. Other
States have issued Government Orders or Resolutions, sometimes sector-wide but more often
for specific projects. The study is based on secondary data; however, sufficient care has been
taken to consider all important factors while suggesting Rehabilitation Policy for Uttaranchal
State. A disaster of rare severity requires a high level of resettlement and rehabilitation
assistance from the State. Sound Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy helps the
Government to tackle the problem immediately and efficiently.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 25. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Lesson 25
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
25.1 Introduction
In recent times, the environment has emerged as a major area of concern worldwide. Pollution
in particular is perceived as a serious threat in the industrialized countries, where the quality
of life had hitherto been measured mainly in terms of growth in material output. Meanwhile,
natural resource degradation is becoming a serious impediment to economic development and
the alleviation of poverty in the developing world.
Mankind’s relationship with the environment has gone through several stages, starting with
primitive times in which human beings lived in a stage of symbiosis with nature, followed by
a period of increasing mastery over nature up to the industrial age, culminating in the rapid
material-intensive growth pattern of the twentieth century which resulted in many adverse
impacts on natural resources. The initial reaction to such environmental damage was a
reactive approach characterized by increased clean-up activities. In recent decades, mankind’s
attitude towards the environment has evolved to encompass the more proactive design of
projects and policies that help anticipate and avoid environmental degradation. The world is
currently exploring the concept of sustainable development an approach that will permit
continuing improvements in the present quality of life with a lower enhanced stock of natural
resources and other assets.
It is useful to recall here that the environmental assets that we seek to protect, provide three
main types of services to human society – and the consequences of the degradation of all
these functions must be incorporated in to the decision-making process. First, the
environment is a source of essential raw materials and inputs that support human activities.
Second, the environment serves as a sink which absorbs and recycles (normally at little or no
cost to society) the waste products of economic activity. Finally, the environment provides
irreplaceable life support functions (like the stratospheric ozone layer that filters out harmful
ultraviolet rays), without which living organisms would cease to exist, at least in their present
condition.
25.2 Role of Environmental Economics
Environmental economics facilitates the efficient use of natural resources (both mineral and
biological), as well as manmade capital and human resources – an objective which is a vital
prerequisite for sustainable development. Special attention is paid to the key role of
environmental economics in helping value environmental and natural resources in to the
conventional calculus of economic decision-making. More generally, the identification of
sustainable development options requires:
Good understanding of the physical, biological and social impacts of human activities;

Improved estimates of the economic value of damage of the environment, to improve
the design of policies and projects, and to arrive at environmentally sound investment
decisions; and
Development of policies tools and strengthening of human resources and institutions to
implement viable strategies and manage natural resources on a sustainable basis.
25.3 Linking Economics and Environment
Environmental economics plays a key role in identifying efficient natural resource

management options that facilitate sustainable development. It is an essential bridge between
the traditional techniques of decision-making and the emerging more environmentally
sensitive approach. Environmental economics helps us incorporate ecological concerns in to
the conventional framework of human society.
Various economic sectors (such as energy, industry, agriculture, transport, etc.) exist within
each country. Finally, each sector consists of different subsectors, projects and local schemes.
Unfortunately, the analysis of the environment cannot be carried out readily using the above
socioeconomic structuring
A holistic environmental analysis would seek to study a physical or ecological system in its
entirety. Complications arise because such natural systems tend to cut across the decision-
making structure of human society. For example, a forest ecosystem (like the Amazon) could
span several countries, and also interact with many different economic sectors within each
country.
The causes of environmental degradation arise from human activity (ignoring natural
disasters and other events of non-human origin). The physical (including biological and
social) effects of socioeconomic decisions on the environment must then be traced through to
the left side. The techniques of environmental assessment (EA) have been developed to
facilitate this difficult analysis. For example, deforestation of a primary moist tropical forest
may be caused by hydroelectric dams (energy sector policy), roads (transport sector policy),
land clearing encouraged by land-tax incentives (fiscal policy), and so on. Disentangling and
prioritizing these multiple causes (right side) and their impacts (left side) will involve a
complex EA exercise.
Meanwhile, the usual decision-making process relies on techno-engineering, financial and

economic analyses of projects and policies. In particular, we note that conventional economic
analysis has been well developed over the past several decades, and uses techniques including
project evaluation/cost-benefit analysis (CBA), sectoral/regional studies, multi sectoral
macroeconomic analysis, and international economic analysis (finance, trade, etc.) at the
various hierarchic levels.
Environmental economics plays its bridging role, by mapping the EA results onto the
framework of conventional economic analysis. Once again, a variety of environmental
economic techniques including economic valuation of environmental impacts (at the
local/project level), integrated resource management (at the sector/regional level),
environmental macroeconomic analysis and environmental accounting (at the economy wide,
multi sector level), and global/transnational environmental economic analysis (at the
international level), facilitate this process of incorporating environmental issues in to
traditional decision making. We note that there is considerable overlap among the analytical
techniques described above, and therefore this conceptual categorization should not be
interpreted too rigidly.
Once the foregoing steps are completed, projects and policies must be redesigned to reduce
their environmental impacts and shift the development process towards a more sustainable
path. Clearly, the formulation and implementation of such policies is itself a difficult task. In
the deforestation example described earlier, the decision makers who wish to protect this
single ecosystem are likely to face problems in coordinating policies in a large number of
disparate and (usually) non-cooperating ministries and line institutions (i.e., energy, transport,
agriculture, industry, finance, forestry, etc.).
25.4 Climate Change
The term, climate, is generally used to connote a complex natural phenomenon comprising
such variables as air temperature and humidity, wind, and precipitation. Although the climate
remains fairly stable on the human time scale of decades or centuries, it fluctuates
continuously over thousands or millions of years and is affected by a large number of
variables (Cunningham et al., 1999: 195). There have been perceptible changes in the climate
all over the world, particularly in the last two decades or so. The climate change and its
adverse impacts on the environment, human health and the economy have recently risen to
the top of economic and political agenda in various national and international forums and
meetings on environment.
As some of the climatic changes are attributable to human activities and therefore change in
human behavior can be an important instrument of minimizing the extent of those changes in
the climate which have harmful effects. The most important climatic changes that have come
to the fore recently and that are harmful include acid rain, global warming, and depletion of
stratospheric ozone shield or layer. Besides, such climatic aberrations as floods, droughts,
cyclones, and tsunamis also cause serious damage to humans and have adverse effects on
local, regional and global climate.
The Earth’s atmosphere keeps the planet warm. Without the warming cover of natural
greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour, life could not exist on
Earth. Through the release of greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane, CFCs and N2O caused
by human activities, our climate will change. How fast and where exactly, is still
controversial, but there is consensus in the scientific community that the consequences may
be serious:
the expected rise in sea levels may threaten islands and nations with low coast lines;
changes in rainfall levels and patterns may affect natural vegetation, agriculture and
forestry;
the loss of biodiversity may be accelerated if climate zones move so fast that species
(e.g. in rain forests) cannot follow them;
weather anomalies such as hurricanes may occur more frequently, causing immense
damage to humans and their property, and to nature.
Not all possible consequences are fully understood. For example, it is very uncertain:
to what extent greenhouse gas-induced disturbances of the ocean-atmosphere
equilibrium contribute to altered global circulation patterns such as the El Niño
phenomenon;
whether the gulf stream, Europe’s central heating, could change its direction and/or
intensity, thus leading to a drastic cooling of Europe’s climate;
25.5 Global Warming
According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Earth's surface temperature has risen by
about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the past century, with accelerated warming during the past two
decades. In 1980, the mean global temperature was 15.18oC; is increased to 15.38oC in 1990,
15.39oC in 1995 and 16.04oC in 2005. In fact in the northern hemisphere, 2005 is likely to go
down as the warmest year ever recorded with an increase in the mean global temperature of
the order of + 0.6.5oC. Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are likely to accelerate
the rate of climate change. Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could
rise 0.6-2.5°C in the next fifty years, and 1.4 - 5.8°C in the next century, with significant
regional variations. Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will increase
average global precipitation. Soil moisture is likely to decline in many regions, and intense
rainstorms are likely to become more frequent (http://www.epa.gov/ozone/intpol/index.html).
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature
increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F) with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just
the last three decades. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more
than 90% certain most of it is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
produced by human activities such as deforestation and burning fossil fuels. These findings
are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized countries.
Climate model projections are summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st
century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 °C (2 to 5.2 °F) for
their lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 °C (4.3 to 11.5 °F) for their highest. The ranges
of these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas
concentrations.
An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and
pattern of precipitation, and a probable expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected
to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers,
permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include more frequent occurrence
of extreme weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall events, species
extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming
and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, with projections being
more robust in some areas than others. The limits for human adaptation are likely to be
exceeded in many parts of the world, while the limits for adaptation for natural systems would
largely be exceeded throughout the world. Hence, the ecosystem services upon which human
livelihoods depend would not be preserved.
Proposed responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation to

the effects of global warming, and geo engineering to remove greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere or reflect incoming solar radiation back to space. The primary international effort
to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change ("mitigation") is coordinated by the 194-
nation UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol is their only legally binding emissions agreement and
only limits emissions through the year 2012. Afghanistan and the USA are the only nations in
the UNFCCC that have not ratified the original protocol and several others have refused to
extend the emissions limits beyond 2012. Nonetheless, in the 2010 Cancun Agreements,
member nations agreed that urgent action is needed to limit global warming to no more than
2.0 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels. Current scientific evidence, however, suggests that
2°C is the "threshold between ‘dangerous’ and ‘extremely dangerous’ climate change”, that
this much warming is possible during the lifetimes of people living today.
25.6 Acid Rain
The acid rain adversely affects plants, fishes and birds and corrodes metals and building
materials. The effects of aid rain have been recorded in parts of the United States, the
erstwhile Federal Republic of Germany, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Switzerland,
Australia, Yugoslavia and elsewhere. It is also becoming a significant problem in Japan and
China and in Southeast Asia. Rain with a pH of 4.5 and below has been reported in many
Chinese cities. Sulphur dioxide emissions were reported in 1979 to have nearly tripled in
India since the early 1960s, making them only slightly less than the then-current emissions
from the Federal Republic of Germany (http://www.geocities.com/narilily/acidrain.html).
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to
produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur
dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced
naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The
chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges,
and erosion of stone statues.
25.7 Ozone Layer Depletion
Global warming has several adverse effects on human health, and agricultural production. It
leads to increase in heat-related diseases and deaths. Besides, it also indirectly affects human
health due to higher incidence of malaria, dengue, yellow fever and viral encephalitis caused
by expansion of mosquitoes and other disease carriers to warm areas. Adverse effect on
agricultural production is due to droughts and increased incidence of pests, causing shortage
of food.
Within the stratosphere, a concentration of ozone molecules makes up the ozone layer.
Around 90% of the ozone is within the ozone layer. The ozone layer could be thought of as
Earth's sunglasses, protecting life on the surface from the harmful glare of the sun's strongest
ultraviolet rays, which can cause skin cancer and other maladies. The stratospheric ozone
layer filters ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. As the ozone layer is depleted, more
ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth's surface (Raven et al.,1998: 471-75). There are reports
of large ozone holes opening over Antarctica, allowing dangerous UV rays through to Earth's
surface. Indeed, the 2005 ozone hole was one of the biggest ever, spanning 25 million sq km
in area, nearly the size of North America. While the ozone hole over Antarctica continues to
open wide, the ozone layer around the rest of the planet seems to be on the mend (Source:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060527093645.htm). Over-exposure to UV
rays may cause several health hazards for humans. Skin cancer is the most widely known. In
addition, over-exposure to UV rays can also cause cataracts.
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s:
a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere
(the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's
polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these
well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone
depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the
most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main
source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made
halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed
to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet
light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected
decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal
Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such
as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological
consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of
plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure
due to ozone depletion.
25.8 Nuclear Accidents & Holocaust
A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an
event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility.
Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment,
or reactor core melt." The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a
reactor core is damaged and large amounts of radiation are released, such as in the Chernobyl
Disaster in 1986.
The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear
reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear
facilities. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount
of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such
measures, "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and
incidents.
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of
this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface and the lower
atmosphere. As a result, the average surface temperature is higher than it would be if direct
heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.
Solar radiation at the high frequencies of visible light passes through the atmosphere to warm
the planetary surface, which then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared
thermal radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, which in turn re-radiate
much of the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism is named after the
effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse, but the way it
retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow, isolating
the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.

The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The
argument and the evidence was further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838, and
definitively proved experimentally by John Tyndall in 1859, and more fully quantified by
Svante Arrhenius in 1896.
If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody was the same distance from the Sun as the Earth
is, it would have a temperature of about 5.3°C. However, since the Earth reflects about 30%
(or 28%) of the incoming sunlight, the planet's effective temperature (the temperature of a
blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) is about −18 or −19°C, about 33°C
below the actual surface temperature of about 14°C or 15°C. The mechanism that produces
this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to
the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect. Earth’s natural greenhouse effect
makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities, primarily the burning of fossil
fuels and clearing of forests, have greatly intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing
global warming.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 26. WASTELAND RECLAMATION
Lesson 26
WASTELAND RECLAMATION
26.1 Introduction
Reclaiming lands that have been laid waste in an extraction or industrial process is "wasteland
reclamation." Strip-mining coal produces wastelands. Using chemicals in an industrial
process, then dumping the used chemicals either on the land or into a stream creates
wastelands or releasing chemicals into the air in an industrial process can create waste lands.
When there is no regulation of wastes disposal by the industry can create wastelands. And
finally, nuclear accidents can create wastelands.
Environment keeps changing over time naturally and it is also amenable to changes by human
beings. Thanks to scientific and technological developments, our ability to alter the
environment has increased tremendously, whereas the capacity of environment to cope with
those alterations is limited. Nature's bounty and abundance are disappearing at a rapid rate
now in many regions of the world including India due to the human alterations of the
environment. All this has brought to the fore the need for protection and preservation of
environment and the urgency of developing sound environmental policies and programmes.
Without them, development would not only be unsustainable but would be tantamount to
retrogression. The challenge of creating and maintaining a sustainable environment is
probably the single most pressing issue confronting us today and will remain so in the
foreseeable future.
The Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development and Government of

India has identified different types of degraded wastelands and has prepared a Wasteland
Atlas of India for the year 2000, with the help of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites. According
to their estimates, the degraded wastelands accounted for about 20.16 % of India’s total
geographical area. The degraded lands include several types of land such as gullied and /or
ravinous land, water-logged and marshy land, land affected by salinity and / or alkalinity,
degraded pastures / grazing land, degraded notified forest land, mining industrial wastelands,
eroded steep slopping land, sandy and desertic lands, and barren rocky /stony wastelands.
Whatever the type of degradation, a common characteristic of degraded lands is that their
productivity is almost negligible but it could be restored through proper reclamation measures
and management.
It is estimated that in India in 1994, about 188 million ha of land, which is 57 per cent of the
country’s total geographical area of about 329 million ha, was degraded. Of the 188 million
ha of degraded land, about 149 million ha was affected by water erosion, 13.5 million ha by
wind erosion, about 14 million ha by chemical deterioration and 11.6 million ha by water-
logging (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994). A recent survey by the National Bureau of Soil Survey and
Land Use Planning revealed that 66 per cent of India’s total geographical area (around 192 m
ha) was at varying stages of degradation (quoted in Haque, 1997).
Land degradation has significant adverse impacts on crop productivity and the environment.
Joshi and Jha (1991) in a study of four villages in Uttar Pradesh found that a 50 per cent
decline in crop yields over a period of eight years was due to salinity and water -logging
caused by the irrigation system.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 27. ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
Lesson 27
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT
27.1 Introduction
The essential purpose of National Environment Protection Act (NEPA) is to ensure that
environmental factors are weighted equally when compared to other factors in the decision
making process undertaken by the Government. The act establishes the national
environmental policy, including a multidisciplinary approach to considering environmental
effects in democratic government agency decision making. The effectiveness of NEPA
originates in its requirement of state agencies to prepare an environmental statement to
accompany reports and recommendations for funding from Government. This document is
called an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). NEPA is an action-forcing piece of
legislation, meaning that the act itself does not carry any criminal or civil sanctions. All
enforcement of NEPA was to be obtained through the process of the court system. In practice,
a project is required to meet NEPA guidelines when a Government agency provides any
portion of the financing for the project. Sometimes, however, review of a project by a state
employee can be viewed as a federal action and would then, therefore, require NEPA-
compliant analysis be performed.
NEPA covers a vast array of federal agency actions, but not all actions are necessarily
covered under NEPA. The act does not apply to purely private or purely public state action.
This means that there is a complete absence of government influence or funding concerning
that specific action. Exemptions and exclusions are also present within NEPA's guidelines.
Exemptions from NEPA include specific federal projects detailed in legislation, EPA
exemptions and functional equivalent exemptions. Functional Equivalent exemptions apply
where compliance with other environmental laws requires environmental analysis similar to
NEPA. These other environmental laws can include but are not limited to the Clean Air Act,
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Federal
Insecticide.
27.2 Conclusion
The use of the term Environmental Science may imply a single subject, but the essence of
environmental science is its multi-disciplinary nature. Environmental Science is the
systematic study of our environment and our proper place in it. However, to the present and to
all the generations still to come, how we affect our environment is important. Environmental
problems are in part the result of the large number of human beings on the planet. Therefore,
individual actions, summed over large number of people, can influence the environment
greatly. So we must do more than simply identify and discuss environmental problems and
solutions. We must think critically about them. It has to be recognized that the basis of human
power and superiority lies in his knowledge of the environment. Individuals can involve
themselves in many ways in the process of improving the environment. Similar to any social
and political movement, environmentalism (a range of moral codes directed at achieving
better environmental management) too encompasses a wide range of approaches. At the one
end, there is the conservative style of the nature conservancy whose major function has been
to help purchase lands that are important for conservation and to ensure that these lands are
maintained as nature preserves; while at the other opposite extreme end is the radical activism
of organizations such as Greenpeace whose activities have included maneuvering small boats
between whaling ships and whales in an attempt to prevent and draw attention to the practice
of whaling. We should not forget that we have a special environmental responsibility to
ourselves and to other follow living beings. We have to conserve the environment not merely
for the preservation of the rich biological diversity, natural resources or aesthetic value, but
for sheer survival.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 28. ISSUES INVOLVED IN

ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Lesson 28
ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
28.1 Introduction
In India, more than three-quarters its population depends directly for their livelihoods on
activities based on natural resources and the remainder of the population relies on these
resources indirectly for food, fuel, industrial output and recreation. Their economic well-
being is inextricably tied to the productivity of natural resources and quality of environment.
Sadly, most of the natural resources including environment in India are in a serious state of
degradation. For example, agricultural lands suffer from soil erosion, water-logging, salinity
and general loss of fertility, making them less productive, and water for drinking and
irrigation is increasingly getting scarce and polluted. Fishery yields are falling, and air quality
is deteriorating. Increasing levels of air, water and land pollution pose a serious threat to
human health and longevity. Good management of natural resources and environment is
essential to attain and sustain economic growth and development. It is not, as is sometimes
mistakenly asserted, just a luxury for wealthy countries concerned with aesthetics.
A characteristic feature of environment is the preponderance of common pool resources

(CPRs), i.e., the resources which are used in common by identifiable groups of people
irrespective of whether they are owned by them or not, and open access resources (OARs),
i.e. the resources that are accessible to everyone without any restrictions; they are nobody’s
property. Examples of CPRs include village grazing lands, public lands along highways and
railways, ponds, rivers, groundwater basins, community inland fisheries and marine fisheries
within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of nations. The OARs include air sheds, solar
radiation and high sea marine fisheries beyond the EEZs, space, ozone layer, and biodiversity.
All CPRs and OARs suffer from what Hardin (1968) called, "the tragedy of the commons".
The logic of the ‘tragedy’ is purely economic and can be stated as: unregulated access to a
CPR or OAR creates a decision-making environment in which incremental private benefits to
an in¬dividual from the increased use of the resource markedly exceed the incremental
private costs associated with the increased use. Under these circumstances, each rational
consumer or user of the resource is motivated to consume or use more and more of the
resource till the resource is completely destroyed or degraded as a result of collective and
uncoordinated use by all the individuals in the community. Thus, individual rationality leads
to collective ir¬rationality. The calculus of incremental or marginal private benefits markedly
exceeding the incremental private costs follows from the fact that, in the case of a CPR or
OAR, whereas an individual can appropriate all the benefits resulting from his increased use
of the resource, he bears only a small fraction of the incremental costs associated with his
increased use; the incremental costs are shared by all the members of the community (Singh,
1994 a: 12-14). This means that there exists an externality in the use of the CPR in question
as evident from the difference between the incremental private cost and the incremental social
cost; the former being less than the latter. Thus, the common pool problem is basically one of
the existences of exter¬nality - a divergence between private cost and social cost of
exploitation which eventually leads to either depletion or over¬crowding or congestion
(Friedman, 1971: 855). The problem is a manifestation of either the absence of exclusive
private property rights or the breakdown of the structure of property rights (Randall, 1975:
734).
Hardin’s thesis of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ has since become the dominant paradigm of
the exploitation of CPRs and OARs. It has formed the basis of numerous policies seeking to
privatize or nationalize natural CPRs in many developed and developing countries of the
world. It is now widely agreed that co-users of CPRs and OARs usually fail to cooperate in
using the resource optimally under the following three conditions:
1. When the perceived private costs to individuals of co-operat¬ing may exceed the
perceived private benefits of cooperating;
2. When individuals feel that their own contribution to the collective goal is minuscule and
would not be missed if withheld because others will continue contributing, enabling
them easily to free ride on the contributions of others; and
3. When individuals have no assurance or certainty that the other members of the group
will make their contributions (or cooperate) and that their lone contribution to the effort
would be sufficient to produce the desired outcome.
When an externality is present, the competitive equilibrium use of the resource (CPR and
OAR) is socially inefficient .This is illustrated in Figure 28.1 As shown in the figure, the
competitive equilibrium level of grazing (X) in a community pasture is attained when the
level of grazing is X2 where the private marginal cost is equal to the marginal revenue
whereas the socially optimum level of grazing is X1, where the social marginal cost is equal
to the marginal revenue. Thus, the open access equilibrium is attained at a higher level of
grazing and hence a higher level of exploitation than the socially optimum level of
exploitation, i.e., .X2 > X1.
The problem of non-cooperation of users of CPRs and OARs could also be illustrated through
the Prisoners’ dilemma (PD) game.

Fig. 28.1 Competitive (open access) equilibrium level and socially optimal level of
grazing in a village pasture
Besides the pure economic logic, there are several other socio-economic factors such as
population pressure, poverty, unemployment, ignorance, and lack of incentives for using the
environment in a socially optimum manner on sustainable basis. So long as the human and
animal population was within the carrying capacity of locally available natural resources and
local environment, there was no environmental degradation due to human actions. But as the
population increased and local economies got integrated with external economies through
trade, the process of degradation of natural resources and environment started. Further, the
fact that many communities who depend directly on natural resources for their livelihood are
very poor, ignorant, and have no alternative employment opportunities means that they are
compelled by their circumstances to over-exploit and degrade the natural resources accessible
to them. Illicit felling of trees from forests, hunting, encroachment of forest land, and
poaching are some of the activities resorted to by the communities, partly driven by their
basic needs and partly by greed. This might happen even if it is to the long-term detriment of
the communities’ own well being.
Another important economic reason for environmental degradation is the fact that protection
and conservation of environment has a high opportunity cost, especially in developing
countries like India. For instance, in the case of forests, the opportunity cost is the value that
could be derived by clear-cutting the timber and using the forest land for agricultural purpose,
or as a site for a hydropower project. Likewise, the opportunity cost of conservation of a
marine ecosystem is the value that could be derived from depleting the entire fish stock to
extinction. In view of this, local resource users do not have any incentive to protect and
conserve the environment.
Another major reason of environmental degradation in India is the fact that began in the mid
1960s, there have been many technological breakthroughs in the agricultural sector, which
ushered in Green Revolution. For example, there has been widespread adoption of high
yielding varieties of crops of a few of the major food grains crops such as rice and wheat in
conjunction with increased use of water, chemical fertilizers and plant protection chemicals.
This has led to the increasing uniformity within those species and varieties of crops and hence
the loss of biodiversity and increased levels of degradation of land due to excessive irrigation
and pollution of water bodies due to leaching of harmful chemicals. Besides, development
and wide-spread use of water extracting devices such as drilling machines and power-
operated pump sets has led to over-exploitation of groundwater basins and development of
mechanized trawlers to over-fishing of marine fisheries and pollution of sea water.
The measures that could be used for mitigating the problems of environmental degradation
could broadly be classified into four categories, namely, institutional changes, direct controls,
and economic / market-based instruments and technological measures. When identifying
alternatives for mitigating the problems of environmental degradation, we should aim at
minimizing it, or at least restricting it to a level consistent with society’s objectives, rather
than trying to prevent or eliminate it altogether. A simple rule of thumb for choosing a
particular measure is that its estimated social benefits must markedly exceed its estimated
social costs.
Creation of new institu¬tions, modification of existing institutions, changes in existing
systems of property rights, enacting new laws, imposing new taxes, and provision of newly
introduced subsidies belong in the category of institutional changes.
28.2 Institutional Instruments
Article 48-A of the Constitution of India provides that the state shall endeavor to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country. Article 51-A
imposes as one of the fundamental duties on every citizen the duty to protect and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for
living creatures.
The present legislative framework for environment management in India is broadly contained
in the umbrella Environment Protection Act 1986, the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, the Water Cess Act 1977 and the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981. The laws in respect of management of forests and biodiversity are
contained iin the Indian Forest Act 1928, the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, the Wild Life
(Protection) Act 1972 and the Bio-diversity Act 2003. There are several other enactments,
which complement the provisions of these basic enactments.
Now, India has a large number of environmental acts and regulations. Pollution limits for
various industries have been prescribed in the Environmental Protection Rules 1986.
Environmental clearance from the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests is mandatory
for setting up new industries in many sectors. A list of major environmental acts and rules
now in force in India can be found in the website: http:// www.envfor.nic.in).
As we know, most of the problems of environmental degradation arise because of the open
access or common pool nature of the environment. In view of this, where technically feasible
and economically viable, transforming the open access and common pool environmental
resources into some sort of state or private property through the creation of property rights
could resolve the problems of environmental degradation. An example of use of this measure
is the privatization of degraded revenue lands (state property) and village common lands
(CPRs) in West Bengal through granting of land pattas (leases) to individuals. This helped
resolve the problem of their degradation and transformed those lands into productive private
property (Singh, 1994 a: 149-163 and Singh and Shishodia, 2007: 221).

28.3 Direct Controls and Regulation
Conventionally, direct controls, or regulations are given effect through governmental orders,
or pronouncements by judiciary. In certain cases, laws also are enacted which stipulate that,
for instance, you are not allowed to pollute the air above a certain level and if you do, you
will be fined, or imprisoned, or both. This form of intervention has high costs of
administration and compliance, is often inflexible and provides little incentive for innovation
to reduce environmental degradation. For all these reasons, the use of regulatory instruments
in isolation from other measures is unlikely to be the least-cost method of achieving
environmental objectives in many cases. Control and regulation compares unfavorably with
the use of market-based approaches such as taxes and emission charges. Despite its
weaknesses, control and regulation is still the predominant instrument for addressing
environmental problems in most countries, including India.
28.4 Environmental Standards
Environmental standards refer both to the acceptable levels of specified environmental quality
parameters at different categories of locations (ambient standards), as well as permissible
levels of discharges of specified wastes into streams by different classes of activities
(emission standards).
The NEP 2006 advocates the following three specific measures to improve the effectiveness
of environmental standards:
1. Set up a permanent machinery comprising experts in all relevant disciplines to review

notified ambient and emissions standards in the light of new scientific and technological
information as they become available, and changing national circumstances, ensuring
adequate participation by potentially impacted communities, and industry association;
2. Strengthen the network for monitoring ambient environmental quality, including
monitoring through participation by local communities, and public -private partnerships;
and
3. Progressively ensure real -time, and on-line availability of the monitoring data.
28.5 Economic Instruments
This set of instruments affect costs and benefits of alternative actions open to economic
agents, and thereby influence the behaviour of decision makers in such a way that alternatives
are chosen that lead to an environmentally more desirable situation than in the absence of the
instrument. Economic instruments aim to bridge the gap between the private and social costs
by internalizing all external costs to their sources, namely, the producers and consumers of
resource depleting and polluting commodities. Such instruments are often referred to as
market-based instruments, as they work by using market signals such as prices, emission
charges / taxes, and subsidies to encourage socially better decisions.
Pollution of water bodies and degradation of land due to excessive use of chemicals in
agriculture could be mitigated through the use of organic manures, and organic pesticides and
the problem of soil salinity and water-logging created by excessive irrigation could be
resolved by the use of micro irrigation technologies such as sprinklers and drips. Similarly the
problem of air pollution engendered by the increased use of fossil fuels could be solved
through the use of renewable sources of energy such as animal power, solar energy,
hydropower, and biogas. But to motivate the farmer to adopt the new eco-friendly
technologies, it is necessary for policy makers to ensure that the new eco-friendly
technologies are financially superior to the old environment -depleting ones and that the
farmer has access to the requisite credit facilities and technical information and guidance.
Viable and sustainable conservation of the environment requires the participation of multiple
stakeholders’, particularly local people's participation in planning, implementation, and
monitoring of environmental projects. In seeking to realize partnerships among the diverse
stakeholders, it is essential on the part of the government agencies involved to eschew the
confrontational posturing adopted in many cases in the past. While it is not possible that the
interests and perceptions of all stakeholders will converge on each case, nevertheless, it is
necessary to realize that progress will be seriously impeded if the motives of other partners
are called into question during public discourse. It is also essential that all partnerships are
realized through, and are carried out in terms of the principles of good governance, in
particular, transparency, accountability, cost effectiveness, and efficiency.
The NEP- 2006 identifies a number of specific themes for partnerships, a few of which are
stated below:
1. Public -Community Partnership: This is intended to seek the cooperation of public

agencies and local communities in the management of a given environmental resource,
each partner bringing agreed resources, assuming specified responsibilities, and with
defined entitlements. The Joint Forest Management programme is an example of this
kind of partnership.
2. Public-Private Partnerships: In this arrangement, specified public functions with respect
to environment management are contracted out competitively to private providers, e.g.,
monitoring of environment quality.
3. Public -Community-Private Partnerships: In this system, the partners assume joint
responsibility for a particular environmental function, with defined obligations and
entitlements for each, with competitive selection of the private sector partner, e.g.,
afforestation of degraded forests.
4. Public -Voluntary Organization Partnerships: This is similar to public -private
partnerships, in respect of functions in which voluntary organizations may have a
comparative advantage over others, the voluntary organizations, in turn, being selected
competitively, e.g. environmental awareness raising.
5. Public-Private-Voluntary Organization Partnerships: In this arrangement, the provision
of specified public responsibilities is accomplished on competitive basis by the private
sector, and the provision is monitored by competitively selected voluntary organizations,
e.g. “Build, Own, Operate” sewage and effluent treatment plants.
To sum up, we could say that we now have the requisite knowledge of tools, techniques and
instruments of environment management available in India and we also have a National
Environment Policy in vogue. What we need is a strong political will at the national and state
levels and a congenial political and economic environment to use appropriate measures to
mitigate the problems of environmental degradation in the large interest of society as a whole.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 29. POPULATION GROWTH AND
VARIATIONS AMONG NATIONS
Lesson 29
POPULATION GROWTH AND VARIATIONS AMONG NATIONS
There are 5 main concepts that our students struggle with when learning about population
growth and the relationship of population to geological resource use:
1. overpopulation is a leading environmental problem,

2. exponential population growth and development leads to faster depletion of resources,
3. population grows exponentially,
4. why population prediction is difficult,
5. population is not evenly distributed throughout the world.
A leading environmental problem: Overpopulation
Students do not understand that overpopulation is the cause of many other environmental
problems. To help students understand this, one of my colleagues asks her students to list
three important local and global environmental issues as part of a survey on the first day of
class. During this lecture, we will present overpopulation as the top environmental problem:
1. Pollution (unspecified):14.7%
2. Global warming:14.5%
3. Air pollution:13.5%
4. Habitat destruction:13.1%
5. Resource depletion/degradation:11.8%
6. Population growth/Overpopulation:7.9%
7. Natural disasters:6.2%
8. Water pollution:6.6%
9. fossil fuels (oil spills/ANWR):6.0%
10. Waste management:3.5%
11. Miscellaneous (famine, poverty, ignorance, etc):2.3%
How many of these problems are the direct or indirect result of overpopulation? Would we
have such a problem with the top three – pollution, global warming and habitat- if world
population was not so large? Other than some of the natural disasters, most of these other
environmental problems are due to overpopulation.
More people = More babies
Students may have a hard time understanding that population growth is controlled not only by
birth and death rates but also by the present population. The mathematics of exponential
growth govern the prediction of population growth. In some cases, you may want to point out
that students may have heard of exponential growth in other contexts, such as compound
interest or the spread of viral disease. The rate of population growth at any given time can be
written:
where
N0 is the starting population;N is the population after a certain time, t , has elapsed,
r is the rate of natural increase expressed as a percentage (birth rate - death rate) and e is the
constant 2.71828... (the base of natural logarithms).
A plot of this equation looks something like the plot on the right. Population grows
exponentially - if the rate of natural increase (r) doesn't change. The variable r is controlled by
human behavior as described below.
Essential to understanding the mathematics of population growth is the concept of doubling

time. Doubling time is the time it takes for population to double and it is related to the rate of
growth. When the population doubles, N = 2N0. Thus the equation becomes

ln 2/r = t
or 0.69/r = t; where r is the rate and t is the doubling time.
In many ways, it is similar to half-life. But instead of the time it takes for half the isotopes to
decay, it is the time it takes for a known quantity to double.
"Birth control" was advanced as alternative to the then-fashionable terms "family limitation"
and "voluntary motherhood." Family limitation referred to deliberate attempts by couples to
end childbearing after the desired number of children had been born. Voluntary motherhood
had been coined by feminists in the 1870s as a political critique of "involuntary motherhood"
and expressing a desire for women's emancipation. Advocates for voluntary motherhood
disapproved of contraception, arguing that women should only engage in sex for the purpose
of procreation and advocated for periodic or permanent abstinence. In contrast the birth
control movement advocated for contraception so as to permit sexual intercourse as desired
without the risk of pregnancy. By emphasising "control" the birth control movement argued
that women should have control over their reproduction and the movement had close ties to
the feminist movement. Slogans such as "control over our own bodies" criticised male
domination and demanded women's liberation, a connotation that is absent from family
planning, population control and eugenics. Though in the 1980s birth control and population
control organisations co-operated in demanding rights to contraception and abortion, with an
increasing emphasis on "choice."
The societal acceptance of birth control required the separation of sex from procreation,
making birth control a highly controversial subject in the 20th Century. Birth control has
become a major theme in feminist politics who cited reproduction issues as examples of
women's powerlessness to exercise their rights. In the 1960s and 1970s the birth control
movement advocated for the legalisation of abortion and large scale education campaigns
about contraception by governments. In a broader context birth control has become an arena
for conflict between liberal and conservative values, raising questions about family, personal
freedom, state intervention, religion in politics, sexual morality and social welfare.
The effectiveness of a birth control method is generally expressed by how many women
become pregnant using the method in the first year of use. Thus, if 100 women use a method
that has a 0 percent first-year failure rate, then 0 of the women should become pregnant
during the first year of use. This equals 0 pregnancies per 100 woman-years, an alternative
unit. Sometimes the effectiveness is expressed in lifetime failure rate, more commonly among
methods with high effectiveness, such as vasectomy after the appropriate negative semen
analysis.
The most effective methods in typical use are those that do not depend upon regular user
action. Surgical sterilization, Depo-Provera, implants, and intrauterine devices (IUDs) all
have first-year failure rates of less than one percent for perfect use. In reality, however,
perfect use may not be the case, but still, sterilization, implants, and IUDs also have typical
failure rates under one percent. The typical failure rate of Depo-Provera is disagreed upon,
with figures ranging from less than one percent up to three percent.
Other methods may be highly effective if used consistently and correctly, but can have typical
use first-year failure rates that are considerably higher due to incorrect or ineffective usage by
the user. Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or rings, fertility awareness methods, and the
lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if used strictly, have first-year (or for LAM, first-6-
month) failure rates of less than 1%. In one survey, typical use first-year failure rates of
hormonal contraceptive pills (and by extrapolation, patches or rings) were as high as five
percent per year. Fertility awareness methods as a whole have typical use first-year failure
rates as high as 25 percent per year; however, as stated above, perfect use of these methods
reduces the first-year failure rate to less than 1%. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) were once
associated with health risks, but most recent models of the IUD, including the ParaGard and
Mirena, are both extremely safe and effective, and require very little maintenance. Condoms
and cervical barriers such as the diaphragm have similar typical use first-year failure rates (14
and 20 percent, respectively), but perfect usage of the condom is more effective (three percent
first-year failure vs six percent) and condoms have the additional feature of helping to prevent
the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as the HIV virus. The withdrawal method, if
used consistently and correctly, has a first-year failure rate of four percent. Due to the
difficulty of consistently using withdrawal correctly, it has a typical use first-year failure rate
of 19 percent, and is not recommended by some medical professionals. Combining two birth
control methods, can increase their effectiveness to 95% or more for less effective methods.
Using condoms with another birth control method is also one of the recommended methods of
reducing risk of getting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. This approach is one
of the dual protection strategies
Fig 29.1 The Growth of Human Population can be Viewed in the Following Four Major
Periods or Stages
Stage 1. An early period of hunters and gatherers

This period ranges between the first evolutions of humans on this planet to the beginning of
agriculture. During this period, it is estimated that the total population was probably less than
a million, population density was about 1person per 130-260 sq km in the most habitable
areas, and the average rate of growth was perhaps less than 0.00011% per year.
Stage 2. Early, per-industrial agriculture
This period began sometime between 9,000 BC and 6,000 BC and lasted approximately until
the 16th century AD. The first major increase in population came during this period. The total
human population of the world was approximately 100 million by 1AD that further increased
to about 500 million by 1600 AD. The population density increased greatly to about 1 or 2
people per sq km or even more. The average rate of growth was probably about 0.03%.
Stage 3. The age of industrial revolution
The second and much more rapid increase in population started about 400 years ago with the
industrial revolution associated with the advances in medicines and health care. Experts are of
the opinion that Renaissance in Europe, (beginning about 1600 AD) marks the transition from
agricultural to liberate societies, when medical care and sanitation were factors responsible in
reducing the death rate. The total human population of about 900 million in 1800 AD almost
doubled in the next century and again doubled to approximately 3 billion by 1960. The
average rate of growth by 1600 AD was about 0.1% per year, which increased about one-
tenth of a percent every 50 years until 1950. The main reasons of this rapid increase in
population were discovery of the causes of diseases, invention of vaccines, improvement in
sanitation, and advances in agriculture that led to a great increase in the production of food,
shelter and clothing.
Stage 4. The modern era
Though the rate of population growth has slowed down in developed countries, but
population still continues to increase rapidly in many parts of the world, particularly
developing countries. At mid 2002, the world population stood at 6.215 billion. The average
rate of growth reached 2% in the middle of the 20th century and has declined to 1.3% in 2002
AD. According to projections, the global population will be Approximately 8 billion by 2025
and 10 billion by 2050 AD.
According to World Bank projections, the world population may stabilize between 10.1 to
12.5 billions. Developed countries would only increase from 1.2 billion today to 1.9 billion,
but developing countries would increase from 5 billion to 9.6 billion. In these projections, the
developing countries using by 95%
29.2 Variation of Population Among Nations
The distribution of world population densities show that while the great majority of the land
surface is sparsely or moderately populated, but some limited areas are densely populated.
The densely populated areas include Western Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the plains and
river valleys of China, and north-eastern USA. High concentrations of people are also found
in some relatively smaller areas, for example—the Nile valley of Egypt, the Islands of Java in
Indonesia and the Southern part of Japan.
In terms of continents and countries, the world’s population is very ill-balanced. More than
half of the world’s people live in Asia (approximately 3.7 billion), which accounts for only
one-fifth of the world’s land area; while North, Central and South America together
occupying more than a quarter of the land surface, have only one-fifth of the population (1.3
billion). The African continent also accounts for a quarter of the land surface but has just over
one-eighth (840 million) of the world population. On the other hand, Europe whose area is
only one twenty-fifth of the total has about one-ninth (729 million) of the world’s people.
The distribution within the continents is also uneven. In Asia, China alone, with about 1.29
billion people, accounts for one-third Asian and one-fifth of the world population. The Indian
subcontinent has a further 1.3 billion people—India, 1.05 billion; Pakistan, 143.5 million;
Bangladesh, 133.6 million; Nepal , 23.9 million; Sri Lanka , 18.9 million; Bhutan, 0.9
million; and Maldives, 0.3 million. In Europe too, the population is an evenly distributed. Far
less people live in Northern European countries than in other European countries .The most
populous European countries are Russia (143.5 million), Germany (82.4 million), United
Kingdom (60.2 million), France (59.5 million); Italy (58.1 million), Ukraine (48.2 million),
Spain (41.3 million) and Poland (38.6 million). In Africa and Americas people are for the
most part spread very thinly across the land, leaving large sections such as Northern Canada,
Southwest USA, the Sahara desert and the Amazon forest practically uninhabited.
29.2.1 Factors discouraging settlement
They are usually climatic or relief factors. The main factors are—cold, altitude, heat, drought,
poor soils, inaccessibility, etc.
29.2.2 Factors encouraging settlements
They are –good land, flat or undulating terrain, the existence of mineral resources, a good
climate suitable for a wide range of crops or a less equable climate suitable to the cultivation
of specialized crops which have a good market, etc. Other factors include extension of roads,
railways and other modes of transportation.
29.3 Population Explosion
The rapid growth of population is perhaps the most obvious factor affecting the present and
future national and regional development, but it is by no means the only population problem
in the world today. The main problem is that of ‘Population Explosion’.
Population explosion doesn’t mean overpopulation or population density. Infact,

overpopulation or population density is not the major problem. The problem arises when the
economic developments fails to maintain pace with population growth. So the most important
factors regarding population are how fast population is growing; and most important is where
it is growing. For example, Japan has a high population density but it ranked first on the
human development index formulated by U.N.D.P. On the other hand low population density
areas of Africa or S. America are unable to support the existing population. Thus, the size,
distribution and structure of the population within a country must be viewed in relation to its
natural resources and the techniques of production used by its population. The extent to which
they are used and the way in which they are utilized determine whether an area/country is
under-or over-populated and hence witnessing population explosion or not. A country is said
to have an “optimum population” so long as the number of people is in balance with the
available resources of the country. If in a country the process of industrialization accompanied
by urbanization is not fast and education is not widespread, then this is really a grave situation
called as Population Explosion.
29.3.1 Effects of population explosion
The effect of population explosion is numerous with far reaching consequences. Some of
them are enumerated as under:
Unemployment,
Low living standard of people,
Hindrance in the process of development of economy
Pressure on agriculture land,
Low per capital income,
Lack of basic amenities like water supply and sanitation, education, health, etc.,
High crime rate
Environmental damage,
Migration to urban area in search of job,
Energy crisis,
Overcrowding of cities leading to development of slums.
29.3.2 Population explosion in Indian context
The population explosion, though a worldwide phenomenon, poses a serious threat to India as
it has to maintain 16.9% of world’s population on only 2.4%of the world’s area. The present
growth rate of 1.7% is much higher than the world population growth rate of 1.3%, which is
of great concern.
In order to overcome this problem of population explosion, a sound Population Policy is
required with the following objectives:
1. Quick economic development and raising the per capital income.

2. Significant reduction in birth rate, which is more fundamental and important than the
first, by providing legal and fiscal motivations like raising age of marriage, legalization
abortion etc.
3. The planning of population must not aim merely at controlling the rate of multiplication
but it should also include the improvement of the quality of the population as well by
providing better facilities in education, health, etc.
4. (iv) The death rate should be brought down further, as high death rate results in waste of
human energy and resources.
5. Integrating population planning with economic planning.
We are thus facing a population explosion of crisis dimensions which has largely diluted the
fruits of the remarkable economic progress that we have made over the last few decades. It is
clear that simply to wait for education and economic development to bring about a desirable
drop in fertility is not a practical solution. The time factor is so pressing and the population
growth so formidable that we have to get out of this vicious circle through a direct assault
upon the population problem as a national commitment.
29.3.3 Methods of birth control
The effectiveness of a birth control method is generally expressed by how many women
become pregnant using the method in the first year of use. Thus, if 100 women use a method
that has a 0 percent first-year failure rate, then 0 of the women should become pregnant
during the first year of use. This equals 0 pregnancies per 100 woman-years, an alternative
unit.
The most effective methods in typical use are those that do not depend upon regular user
action.
a) Surgical sterilization, Depo-Provera, implants, and intrauterine devices (IUDs) all have
first-year failure rates of less than one percent for perfect use. In reality, however, perfect use
may not be the case, but still, sterilization, implants, and IUDs also have typical failure rates
under one percent. The typical failure rate of Depo-Provera is disagreed upon, with figures
ranging from less than one percent up to three percent.
b) Other methods may be highly effective if used consistently and correctly, but can have
typical use first-year failure rates that are considerably higher due to incorrect or ineffective
usage by the user. Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or rings, fertility awareness methods,
and the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if used strictly, have first-year (or for LAM,
first-6-month) failure rates of less than 1%. In one survey, typical use first-year failure rates
of hormonal contraceptive pills (and by extrapolation, patches or rings) were as high as five
percent per year. Fertility awareness methods as a whole have typical use first-year failure
rates as high as 25 percent per year; however, as stated above, perfect use of these methods
reduces the first-year failure rate to less than 1%. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) were once
associated with health risks, but most recent models of the IUD, including the ParaGard and
Mirena, are both extremely safe and effective, and require very little maintenance.
c) Condoms and cervical barriers such as the diaphragm have similar typical use first-year
failure rates (14 and 20 percent, respectively), but perfect usage of the condom is more
effective (three percent first-year failure vs six percent) and condoms have the additional
feature of helping to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as the HIV
virus. The withdrawal method, if used consistently and correctly, has a first-year failure rate
of four percent. Due to the difficulty of consistently using withdrawal correctly, it has a
typical use first-year failure rate of 19 percent, and is not recommended by some medical
professionals.
d) Combining two birth control methods, can increase their effectiveness to 95% or more for
less effective methods. Using condoms with another birth control method is also one of the
recommended methods of reducing risk of getting sexually transmitted infections, including
HIV. This approach is one of the dual protection strategies.
29.4 Aim of ‘Family Welfare Programme’
In the year 1952, India launched a nation-wide family planning programme making it the first
country in the world to do so. Unfortunately, family planning in India is associated with
numerous misconceptions—one of them is its strong association in the minds of people with
sterilization, while others equate it with birth control. The recognisation of its ‘welfare
concept’ came only when the family planning programme was named as ‘Family Welfare
Programme’ in the year 1977. The concept of welfare is very comprehensive and is basically
related to quality of life. The Family Welfare Programme aims at achieving a higher end- that
is, to improve the quality of life of the people.
Although the performance of the programme was low during 1977-78, but it was a good year
in the sense that it moved into new healthier directions. The 42nd Amendment of the
Constitution has made “Population Control and Family Planning” a concurrent subject. The
acceptance of the programme is now purely on voluntary basis. The launching of the Rural
Health Scheme in 1977 and the involvement of the local people (e.g., trained Dais and
Opinion leaders) in the family welfare programmes at the gross-root level were aimed at
accelerating the pace of progress of the programme. India was a signatory to the Alma Ata
Declaration, 1978. The acceptance of the primary health care approach to the achievement of
‘Health For All by 2000 AD’ led to the formulation of a ‘National Health Policy’ in 1982.
The policy laid down the long-term demographic goal of Net Reproduction Rate (NRR)=1 by
the year 2000-which implies a 2-child family norm-through the attainment of a birth rate of
21 and a death rate of 9 per thousand population, and a couple protection rate of 60% by the
year 2000. The successive Five Year Plans were accordingly set to achieve these goals. The
Government of India envolved a more detailed and comprehensive National Population
Policy in 1986, to promote it on a voluntary basis as a ‘movement of the people, by the
people, for the people’. It has given family planning the broadest possible dimensions which
include not only health and family welfare but also child survival, women’s status and
employment, literacy and education, socio-economic development and anti-poverty
programmes.
The current approach in favour today is one of involvement and integration. The idea is to
value those who stand to benefit from the programme and integrate the various attempts to
propagate the same. Family Welfare Programme with such an approach can reduce the
population growth to more manageable levels. Presently, the Family Welfare Programme
seeks to promote on a voluntary basis, responsible and Planned Parenthood with one child
norm, male or female, through independent choice of family welfare methods best suited to
acceptors.
29.4.1 Problems of family welfare programme
The two major problem of Family Welfare Programme are:
1. Generally women are the major targets of family planning programmes .according to
National Family Health Survey, the most widely used method of family planning in India is
female sterilization. This shows that family planning has largely remained a women-centered
programme. Due to reluctance of men to use permanent methods, women are forced to accept
family planning methods. Gender specificity or gender subordination has to be eliminated in
the approach in the family planning programmes as far as possible.
2. The imbalance in the sex ratio (female/1000 male) across the nation, which is 933, is
another worrisome factor. In states like Haryana (SR=861), Punjab (SR=874), U.P.
(S.R=898), Delhi (SR=821), Sikkim (SR=875) and others, the girl-child is being
discriminated against even before birth. The instance of female infanticide in these and other
states has brought down the sex ratio to an all time low. Though there is a law banning the
determination of the sex of the child in the womb, unscrupulous medical practitioners and
short-sighted parents connive to prevent the birth of female children. There is, thus, an urgent
need to prevent the misuse of technology through education and awareness.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 30. ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN
HEALTH
Lesson 30
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
30.1 Introduction
It is an established fact that environment has a direct impact on the physical, mental and
social well-being of those living in it. The environmental factors range from housing, water
supply and sanitation, psychosocial stress and family structure through social and economic
support systems, to the organization of health and social welfare services in the community.
In fact the occurrence, prevention and control of disease lies in the environment. If the
environment is favourable to the individual, he or she can make full use of his or her physical
and mental capabilities. On the contrary, if the environment is polluted it can affect the human
health and his susceptibility to illness.
Thus, protection and promotion of ‘environment health’ is one of the major global issues
today. It includes the issues of urban environmental health, water quality and health, air
quality and health, industry and health, and energy and health.
30.2 Urban Environment Health
Environmental degradation is especially serious around crowded urban centers. In cities

around the world, the living conditions of hundreds of millions of people (especially poor
people in developing nations) threaten their health, impose misery, have potentially
catastrophic social consequences and contribute to illness, accidents and crime. The crises in
the urban environment are causing more immediate effects on human health than the current
changes in the natural environment.
In the developing nations, the current rural exodus has led to a rapid increase in the pre-urban
populations living in overcrowded conditions with inadequate provisions of infrastructure and
services. Though average rate of disease and death for many cities are lower than those of
surrounding rural areas because of the presence of a high proportion of the nation’s middle-
and upper-income classes who enjoy a relatively good standard of health; but, in contrast, the
poor in urban areas usually suffer the same or even high rates of disease and death as their
rural counterparts.
Good housing and suitable physical and social environments promote good mental and
physical health. The most serious psychosocial health problems are depression, alcohol and
drug abuse, suicide, child and spouse abuse, delinquency and target violence (e.g. rape,
teacher assault, etc.). However, strong social networks and a sense of community organization
can have a mitigating effect on the level of psychosocial health problems. Studies have shown
a higher prevalence of mental illness in low-income, rundown areas. Deteriorating inner city
areas or urban area with declining economies are characterized by social disorganization and
disintegration. They are inhabited by high- risk populations such as migrants, the homeless
and street children. It has now been recognized that the environment plays an important role
in violent behavior and that the public health sector has a legitimate role within the justice,
social and education sectors in reducing the problem or urban environmental health.
30.2.1 Effect of water quality on human health
Water quality can have a significant effect on public health as a result of waterborne diseases.
Inadequate supplies of water increase the problem of maintaining water quality, especially
when there are multiple sources of water pollution such as sewage, industrial effluents, urban
and agricultural runoff. According to an estimate about 170 million urban inhabitants and 770
million rural inhabitants lack access to safe and adequate water supplies. Most urban centers
in Africa and Asia have no sewerage system at all; even where there is sewage disposal
system, the system rarely serves more than a small proportion of the population. This means
that human excrement and household wastes end up untreated in water sources. The problem
of maintaining water quality is particularly acute in the more urbanized areas in developing
countries due to two main reasons-failures to enforce pollution control and inadequacy of
sanitation system and garbage collection and disposal system.
Waterborne diseases are the largest single category of communicable diseases contributing to
infant mortality in developing countries (about 1500 million cases of diarrhea and some 4
million deaths per year). It is estimated that safe and sufficient water supplies can reduce
infant and child mortality by more than 50 per cent.
30.2.2 Effect of air pollution on human health
Air pollution is a growing menace to health throughout the world. The problem of air
pollution was first brought to sharp focus when air pollution epidemics took place in Los
Angeles (1948), Donora (1948) and London (1952).In the London epidemic of 1952,
thousands of people became ill and some 4000 people died within 12 hours. According to an
estimate more than 1000 million urban residents worldwide are exposed to outdoor air
pollution levels higher than those recommended by WHO. In many cities, the concentrations
of air pollutants are already high enough to cause morbidity in susceptible individuals and
premature mortality in the aged, particularly in those with respiratory problems.
Fossil fuels are the largest source of air pollution. The major sources of urban air pollution are
overwhelmingly coal-fired (or oil-fired) power stations, motor vehicles, domestic cooking and
heating (particularly when coal or biomass fuel is used) and industries. The symptoms are
usually referable to the respiratory system. Health may be affected if acidified water (due to
Acid Rains) is used untreated in water supplies. Depletion of ozone layer, due to the release
of specific air pollutants, increases the incidence of skin cancer and cataracts. The indirect
health effects, however, are likely to be more significant, such as changes in rainfall that may
decrease agricultural production and the spread of diseases such as malaria to currently
unaffected areas.
30.2.3 Effect of industrialization on human health
Industrialization has made many positive contributions to health. By and large, as countries
move towards industrialization and generate wealth and employment, improved health should
follow for their people. However, there are two exceptions to the general correlation between
industrialization and human health. One exception is in some developing countries where
there has been remarkable success in reducing mortality and improving the health of the poor.
The second exception is where industrialization has itself led to significant adverse health
effects through failure to properly plan for, and prevent the release of chemical, physical or
biological pollutants into the environment. A number of major accidents in developing
countries due to release of chemicals or to explosions have caused adverse health effects.
Industrial effluents have polluted many rivers, lakes and coastal environments, especially in
developing countries where pollution control is seldom enforced. Furthermore, hazardous
wastes are sometimes exported from developed countries to developing countries because the
cost of export is lower than the cost of disposal in the country of origin. Usually, there is little
concern for the health of the local populations.
Some of the common occupation diseases are silicosis, pneumoconiosis, lead and mercury
poisoning, and skin diseases. Continued and frequent exposure to noise, especially in
industry, give rise to serious health problems.
30.2.4 Impact of energy on human health
Energy is a pre-requisite for socio-economic development and has direct and indirect benefits
for health. The WHO Commission on Health and Environment’s Panel of Energy has
identified four major environmental health issues related to energy:
Urban air pollution resulting from fossil fuel combustion and vehicular exhausts;
Indoor air pollution resulting from domestic use of coal and biomass fuels for cooking
and heating;
Accident prevention and control; and
Possible consequences of climate change.
People in developed countries use about ten times more commercial energy than those in
developing countries and burn approximately 70% of all the fossil fuel used globally. The
combustion of fossil fuels, accounting for about 90% of global commercial energy
production, is the largest source of greenhouse gases and atmospheric pollution. Vehicle
emissions also contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone, photochemical smog and
acid rain. Though it is possible to mitigate the environmental health effects of fossil fuel
combustion, but the technologies are expensive.
Indoor air pollution from the combustion of coal or unprocessed biomass fuels represents the
biggest energy-related cause respiratory disease with long-term cardiovascular effects,
particularly among women and children especially in developing countries.
In case of nuclear power plants, there are risks to health for present and future generations
from accidents and unsafe disposal of nuclear wastes.
Indirect health effects from climatic changes result from increased levels of greenhouse gases
produced by the combustion of fossil fuels.
30.3 Value Education
The field of value education is as broad as life itself. It touches every aspect of human life,
personality and education. Value education, in its full range of meaning, includes developing
the appropriate sensibilities-moral, cultural, spiritual and the ability to make proper value

judgments and internalize them in one’s life. Simply stated, value education is an education
which teaches:
How to live life well?

How to find happiness?
How to make others happy?
How to behave and communicate with others?
How to manage all kinds of people as well as happenings?
How to grow and succeed in the right manner?
Value education, thus, is essentially ‘Man Making’ and ‘Character Building’
The question then arises:”Which is more important-academic or value education?” The

answer is simple, both are equally important. Without formal education, a person will not be
able to read or write; and thus, without these skills to read or write, he/she cannot get a good
job or manage even the simple things of daily living. Value education is equally important
because if a highly qualified, well-employed person does not know how to behave properly,
then all that he/she does has little meaning and will not serve him/her well. Therefore, fruitful
education is the kind used for our welfare as well as that of others. And this can only happen
when a person has both academic and value education.
Take the examples of two brilliant and very highly qualified scientists-one invents a life-
saving drug, while the other invents a bomb. Though, both have a great deal of academic
education but the scientist with character, a love for mankind and certain values, creates
something that can save hundreds and thousands of lives; whereas, on the contrary, the other
scientist creates something that can take hundreds and thousands of lives and cause pain and
deformities even in future generations.
Emperor Asoka “The Great” had his early successes based on much violence. He became the
King of Magadha only after killing nearly 90 of his kinsmen. One day, in the middle of the
battle of Kalinga, he realised that there were no true victors in war because so many people
died on both sides. He immediately renounced war and violence, and became a follower of
Buddha and thus changed his entire life. He, then, served his people in wonderful ways. Even
today, he is honoured and remembered. On the contrary, many leaders who gave up good
values just to gain power met with failure and death in the end. Adolf Hitler, at one time the
most powerful man on Earth, misused his power to confiscate land and money of others,
tortured and killed millions of people, and caused the Second World War. But when defeat
neared, he didn’t face it bravely-he killed himself. His power deserted him when he needed it
most because he had gained that power by throwing away all the good values from his life.
His power is just an external show, it was not inner strength.
30.3.1 Methods and strategies of imparting value education
The methods and strategies of imparting value education are many and varied. The selection
depends much upon the value chosen, sources of development of these values and other
limiting factors. The following approaches can be used for teaching values in character
building activities:
1. Telling: It is a process for developing values to enable a pupil to have a clear picture of a
value- laden situation by means of his own narration of the situation.
2. Inculcating: It is an approach geared towards instilling and internalizing norms into
person’s own value systems.
3. Persuading: it is the process of convincing the learner to accept certain values and
behave in accordance with what is acceptable.
4. Modeling: Modeling is a strategy in which a certain individual perceived as epitomizing
desirable/ ideal values is presented to the learners as a model.
5. Role playing: acting out the true feelings of the actor/ actors by taking the role of
another person but without the risk of reprisals.
6. Simulating: It is a strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend to be in a certain
situation called for by the lesson and then to portray the events and also by imitating the
character’s personality.
7. Problem solving: It is an approach wherein a dilemma is presented to the learners asking
them what decision they are going to take.
8. Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc: This technique asks the learners to deliberate
on and explain the details in the lesson.
9. Studying biographies of great men: This is an approach that makes use of the lives of
the great men as the subject-matter for trying to elicit their good deeds and thoughts
worthy for emulation.
10. Moralizing: It is the process of working out a sense of morality through active
structuring and restructuring of one’s social experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and
analysis).
11. Value clarification: It may be considered as learner-centered. It relies mainly on the
pupil’s ability to process his beliefs and behave according to his beliefs, and also, to
make a decision whenever confronted with the value dilemma.
30.4 What is AIDS? What are the Sources and Mode of Transmission of HIV Infection?
AIDS, the Acquired immune-Deficiency Syndrome is a fatal illness caused by a retrovirus

known as the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIV) which breaks down the body’s
immune system, leaving the victim vulnerable to a host of life-threatening opportunistic
infections, neurological disorders or unusual malignancies. Once a person is infected with
HIV, it is probable that the person will be infected for life. Strictly speaking, AIDS refers only
to the last stage of the HIV infection. There are two types of HIV- the most common HIV 1
and HIV 2 (commonly found in West Africa). The high risk groups include male homosexuals
and bisexuals, hetero-sexual partners (including prostitutes), clients of STD, intravenous drug
abusers, transfusion recipients of blood and blood products, haemophiliacs, and medical and
paramedical staff. Since the first clinical evidence of AIDS in USA in 1981, the disease has
become a more devastating disease than any other disease humankind has ever faced. It has
acquired epidemic like proportion as more than 60 million people all over the world have
been infected with the HIV (Africa-13.2%, Americans-13.6%, Asia-60.7%, Europe-12.0%
and Oceania-0.5%).
Estimates of HIV infection cases in India are about 3.5 million. HIV sentinel surveillance data
shows Maharashtra as the most affected state followed by Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Manipur.
30.5 Sources of HIV Infection
The greatest concentration of HIV has been found in blood, semen and CSF (cerebo-spinal-
fluid). Further, lower concentrations have been detected in tears, saliva, breast-milk, urine,
and cervical and vaginal secretions. But, till date, only blood and semen have been
conclusively shown to transmit the virus.

30.5.1 Mode of transmission
30.5.1.1 Sexual transmission
AIDS is first and foremost a sexually transmitted disease. Recent researchers have found that
deep kissing where saliva is exchanged can also infect the partner.
30.5.1.2 Blood contact
AIDS is also transmitted by transfusion of contaminated blood. Intravenous drug users are at
a high risk because they often share needles and syringes. Any skin piercing (including
injections, ear-piercing, tattooing or acupuncture) can also transmit the virus via infected
instruments.
30.5.1.3 Maternal-foetal transmission
An AIDS-infected mother can transmit virus to her child during pregnancy (through the
placenta) or during birth or via breast-feeding.
30.5.2 HIV/AIDS is not spread by
Drinking water or eating food from the same utensils (glasses, cups, plates, etc.) used by
infected person.
Shaking hands.
Hugging or facial kissing.
Working with people who are HIV infected.
Swimming in pools used by infected people.
Sharing toilets.
Mosquitoes or any other insects.
Casual social contact with infected persons even within households. That is, HIV is not
spread by sitting next to someone who is infected, coughing or sneezing; but if person
has any cuts or sores on his/her hands then make sure they are covered with plasters
(band-aids or bandages).
30.5.3 Major precautions to avoid AIDS

The three major precautions to avoid AIDS are:
Use condoms
Use disposable syringes.
Avoid multiple partners.
30.5.4 Control of AIDS
There are four basic approaches to control AIDS
30.5.4.1 Health education
Until a vaccine or cure for AIDS is found, the only means available at present is health
education so as to enable people to make life-saving choices (for example, avoiding
indiscriminate sex, using condoms). However, there is no guarantee that the use of condoms
will give full protection. People should also avoid the use of shared razors and tooth brushes.
Women suffering from AIDS or who are at high risk of infection should avoid becoming
pregnant since infection can be transmitted to the unborn or new born. Intravenous drug users
should avoid sharing of needles and syringes. Educational material and guidelines for
prevention should be made widely available. All mass media channels should participate in
educating the people on AIDS, its nature, transmission and prevention.
30.5.4.2 Prevention of blood borne HIV transmission
People in high-risk group should be asked to refrain themselves from donating blood, body
organs, sperm and other tissues. All donated blood should be screened for AIDS before
transfusion. Strict sterilization practices should be ensured in hospitals and clinics. Pre-
sterilized disposable syringes and needles should be used as far as possible.
30.5.4.3 Treatment
There is no vaccine or cure for AIDS. However, there are certain medicines like ‘Zidovudine
(Azt), Lamivudine (3TC) and Saquinavir (SQR) which can delay the onset of AIDS after HIV
infection. Strictly speaking-these medicines cannot cure; they can only control/delay the onset
of AIDS.
30.5.4.4 Integration of AIDS control programmes
Due to its wide-ranging health implications, AIDS touches all aspects of primary health care,
including mother and child health, family planning and education. Therefore, it is essential to
integrate AIDS control programmes into country’s primary health care system. AIDS control
programmes will be of no use if they are developed in isolation.
30.6 ‘Human Rights’?
The term ‘Human Rights’ refers to those basic rights which are essential for the development
of human personality such as the right to life, liberty, property and security of an individual.
The ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ adopted by the United Nations on
December10, 1948, states that-“the inherent dignity of all members of the human family is the
foundation of freedom , justice and peace in the world”. This is possible only when each and
every human being enjoys fundamental rights, which include:
The right to life, liberty and security of persons;

The right to own property;
The right to freedom of opinion and expression;
The right to an adequate standard of living;
The right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
The right to education, freedom of thought, conscience and religion; and
The right to freedom from torture and degrading treatment, etc.
Some of the important Articles of the Declaration are:
Article 1: deals with reason and conscience in the common spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2: deals with rights and freedoms irrespective of caste, sex, religion, etc.
Article3: deals with right to life, liberty and security of human beings.
Article4: deals with prohibition with slavery.
Article5: deals with prohibition of inhuman tortures and punishment.
Article6: deals with human recognition before law.
Article7: deals with equal protection against any discrimination in violation of human rights.
Article8: deals with the right to a remedy for acts violating the fundamental rights given by
constitution.
Article9: deals with the protection against arbitrary arrest, detention and exile.
Article 12: says that none should be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy,
family, home or correspondence, etc.
Article 13: deals with right to freedom of movement.
Article 12: says that men and women of full age without any limitation due to race,
nationality or religion, have the right to marry.
Article 18: deals with the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Article 19: deals with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.
Article 20: deals with the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
Article 23: deals with the right to work without any discrimination.
Article 26: deals with the right to education.
30.6.1 Problem of human rights
Alarmed by the horrors of the holocausts, the United Nations had adopted ‘Universal
Declaration on Human Rights’ in 1948, motivated by the desire to recognize that the same
rights belong to all people and every individual. And since then, the UN has been actively
monitoring human rights violations in various parts of the world.
But many countries have protested against the UN declaration saying that it is discriminatory
in nature as it is used to condemn underdeveloped countries. Many of the developing
countries have even accused the West of practicing double-standards. For instance, the US is
quite willing to forget China’s human rights violations (e.g., political dissidents are detained,
and freedom of speech and expression are kept under considerable restraint in China) in
return for a lucrative market. The US has even given China the status of ‘Most Favoured
Nation’.
The Malaysian former Prime minister, Dr. Mahathir Mohammad, has even launched a
campaign for a review of the ‘Universal Declaration on Human Rights’. He is of the opinion
that the Declaration should take into account the Asian cultures in which the interests of the
nation and society take precedence over those of the individuals.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 31. WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE
Lesson 31
WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE
31.1 Various Problems Affecting the Women and Welfare
31.1.1 Malnutrition
Pregnant women, nursing mothers and children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of
malnutrition. The adverse effects of malnutrition on women are-maternal depletion, low birth
weight, anaemia, toxemias of pregnancy, post-partum haemorrhage, all leading to high
mortality and morbidity. Measures to improve the nutritional status of women and children
may be broadly divided into two-direct and indirect nutrition interventions. Direct
interventions cover a wide range of activities, such as, supplementary feeding programmes,
distribution of iron and folic acid tablets, fortification and enrichment of foods, nutrition
education, etc. indirect interventions include control of communicable diseases through
immunization, improvement of environmental sanitation, provision of clean drinking water,
family planning, food hygiene, education and primary health care.
31.1.2 Infections
Women or maternal infections can cause a variety of adverse effects such as threatened
abortions, foetal growth retardation, low birth weight, embryopathy and puerperal sepsis.
Women of under-developed nations are at high risk. Infections in the child may begin with
labour and delivery and increase as the child grows older. Children may be ill with
debilitating diarrhoeal, respiratory and skin infections, or the situation is further aggravated
by the chronic infections, such as, malaria and tuberculosis. The children also suffer from the
severe protein-energy malnutrition and anemia. Prevention and treatment of infections in
women and children is being done by adopting the WHO Expanded Programme on
Immunization. The children in the developing countries are being immunized against
tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertusis (whooping cough), tetanus, measles and polio.
31.1.3 Uncontrolled reproduction
The severe health hazards for the women and children resulting from the
unregulated/uncontrolled reproduction have been well recognized, viz., increased prevalence
of low birth weight babies, severe infections and a high maternal and perinatal mortality.
Statistics have shown that in most countries, a birth rate is associated with a high infant
mortality rate and child death rate.
31.1.4 Education and socio-economic status
The dropout rate (from schools) of girls is much higher than the boys. In under-developed
nations the educational preference, both at the primary level and at secondary level, is given
to the male child as compared to the female child. This also indirectly affects the socio-
economic status of the women. This problem is very much under control by making the
female education free at the primary level by the several under-developed nations. In India
too, the female literacy rate has gone upto 50% from 39.3%.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 32. ROLE OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY (IT) IN ENVIRONMENT
Lesson 32
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) IN ENVIRONMENT
32.1 Introduction
Some of the areas in which information technology is playing a vital role in environmental
management are briefly discussed as under:
32.1.1 Biodiversity conservation
Use of GIS (Geographic Information System) and Remote Sensing can help in determining
the rates, causes and scale of biodiversity loss. Information on deforestation and land use
change can be integrated with data on the distribution of biodiversity and existing information
on climate, topography, soil, etc. to obtain a comprehensive picture.
32.1.2 Species monitoring
Not only the existence of flora and fauna can be detected, even counting of animals like
elephants, tigers, etc. can be done with the help of GIS. The IUCN (International Union for
Conservation of Nature) Red Database acts as an aid in appreciating the degree of danger that
a species is in.
32.1.3 Site selection
GIS can help in the selection of optimum highway or railway routes, dam or reservoir sites,
waste disposal sites, major industrial sites, etc. that can cause minimal disturbance to
ecosystems.
32.1.4 Disaster management
Remote sensing data can be effectively used for obtaining near real time information on areas
affected by earthquakes, cyclones, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, forest fires and other
such disasters. Disaster prone areas can be identified where appropriate action can be taken
up to reduce the losses and also disasters like cyclones, floods, etc. can be predicted well in
advance.
32.1.5 Soil resources
Satellite data depict the nature of problem, degree of salinity, sodicity and spatial extent of the
problem in each mapping unit. The information is extensively used to plan for the reclamation
of salt affected soils and for adopting post-reclamation production technology.

32.1.6 Water resources
Remote sensing data proved effective in inventorying, monitoring and managing both surface
and ground water resources to augment the water use efficiency. Satellite data serves as a
unique tool for extracting information on geology, geomorphology, drainage, land use and
soils, which are essential in identifying not only the potential segments of agricultural
resources, but also the sites suitable for site selection of recharge structures.
32.2 Role of Information Technology in Human Health
Its various applications include:
Bioinformatics and osteoporosis
The application of bioinformatics is in the emerging possibility for the cure of

osteoporosis-a crippling disease caused by the breakdown of bone, caused by a class of
molecules called Cathepsin K. Now the pharmaceutical companies have to find a drug
that blocks the Cathepsin K gene only.
Role in genome sequencing
Bioinformatics played a key role in the final stages of the Human Genome Project. In
just four weeks, James kent (a Ph.D student of California University) produced a
computer programmers that helped the public consortium to complete the sequencing in
time and to present the draft sequence along with Celera Genomics on June26, 2000.
DNA databases or data banks having genetic information about populations together
with their personal physical characteristics (eye colour, height, weight, etc.), finger
prints, dental records, medical records, financial records, etc. are used by the
Government Departments to identify missing persons, by the investigating agencies
(e.g., FBI, CBI, RAW, etc.) to identify criminals, and also by the insurance companies to
prevent insurance fraud.
Many organizations, such as WHO, maintain their web sites with information about
endemic, epidemic and communicable diseases to inform people about dangers
involving populations.
Information about new drug release, their mode of action, indications and risk are also
available on web sites.
Any new development in the field of surgery is also available on net to be referred by
the doctors of any country at any time.
Telemedicine and distance medicine is now far-reaching along with documentation and
display of human anatomy with the help of internet.

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Barrow, C.J. 1999. Environmental Management. Routledge, N.Y.
Boubel, R.W. 1991. Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Academic Press, N.Y.
Botbin, D., and Keller, E.1995. Enironmental Science. John Wiley and Sons, USA.
Chadha, K.L. and Swaminathan, M.S. 2006. Environment and Agriculture. Malhotra Publishing House,
New Delhi.
Clark, R.S. 2001. Marine Pollution. Clanderson Press, Oxford.
Cunningham, W.P. and Saigo, B.W. 1997. Environment Science. McGraw-Hill, USA.
Deswal, S. and Deswal, A., 2003, Energy, ecology, Environment and Society, Dhanpat Rai&co ltd.,
Delhi.
Deswal, S. and Deswal, A. 2005. A Basic Course in Environmental Studies. Dhanpat Rai & Co ltd.,
Delhi.
Dhruva Narayana,V.V. 1993. Soil and Water Conservation Research in India. Indian Council of
Agriculture Research, New Delhi.
Lal, R. and Stewart, B.A. 1992. Advances in Science: Soil Restoration Springer Verlag, New York.
Manual on Sewerage & Sewage Treatment. 1993. Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India.
Manual on Water Supply and Treatment. 2000. Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India ,
New Delhi.
Miller, T.G. 2000. Environment Science.Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont.
Sharma, P.D. 1994. Ecology and Environment. Ashish Publications, Wagner, K.D. 1998. Environment
Management. W.B. Saunders Co, Philidelphia, USA.
Singh, G.B. and Sharma, B.R. 1998. Fifty Years of Natural Resource Management Research, Indian
Council of Agriculture Research, New Delhi.
Singh, N. and Sontakke, N.A. 2002. On Climatic fluctuations and Environment changes on Indo-
Gangetic Plains, India.
Websites
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Smog
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/teens/case-studies/great-smog
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1142333/
http://environmentalartilces.wordpress.com/bhopal-gas-tragedy-20-years-after/
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental science
http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001281.pdf
http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/nadharaiya-287003-environmental-studies-sciences-overview-
science-technology-ppt-powerpoint/
http://india.gov.in/sectors/environment/environmental_education.php

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B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 1.DEFINITION, SCOPE, AND

Module 1. Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Environment consists of surroundings which includes abiotic and biotic environment.

1.2.2 Environmental science

Environmental science is a systematic study of our environment under different micro

1.3 Environmental Science As a Multi Disciplinary Field

Environmental Science is interconnected to many branches of sciences. Some of these are:

1.3.1 Environmental science and biology

1.3.2 Environmental science v/s chemistry

1.3.3 Relationship between environment and economics

Economic environment refers to all factors or forces, which contribute to economic

1.3.4 Social system and environment

1.3.5 Impact of population on environment

Work force is a major factor to fasten the role of individual in socio-economic

1.3.6 Political climate and environment

Earth’s living components establish equilibrium with their environment. Environmental

An environmental study is the subject in which we examine important issues relating to

1.5 Objectives of Environment Education

The objectives of Environmental Education are classified as follows:

1.7 Need for Awareness

Fig. 1.1 Montreal protocol meeting

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 2. FOREST RESOURCES

Module 2. Natural resources

2.1 Introduction to Natural Resources

2.1.1 Classification of natural resources

Resources can also be classified as biotic or abiotic.

2.1.2 Problems associated with natural resources

1. The unequal consumption of natural resources

2. Planning land use

3. The need for sustainable lifestyles

2.2 Forest Resources

2.2.1 Significance of forests

Fig. 2.2 Uses of the forest

2.2.1.1 Commercial values

2.2.1.2 Life and economy of tribal

2.2.1.3 Ecological uses

2.2.1.4 Aesthetic values

2.2.2 Over exploitation of forests

2.2.3.1 Causes of deforestation

Fig. 2.3 Causes of deforestation

a) Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation

c) Need for fuel wood

d) Expansion for agribusiness

e) Development projects and growing need for food

f) Raw materials for industrial use

2.2.3.2 Major effects of deforestation

Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility

Fig 2.4 Effects of deforestation (courtesy :tutorvista)

2.2.4 Case studies

3.Western himalayan region.

2.2.5 Timber extraction

Major effects of mining operations on forest and tribal people are:

2.2.7 Effects of dams on forests and tribal people

2.2.8 Forest conservation and management

1. Conservation of forest is a national problem, thus it should be tackled with perfect

B. Tech. (Dairy Technology) ► EN-1 ► Resources ► Lesson 3. WATER RESOURCES

Module 2. Natural resources

'Water is the driver of Nature' - Leonardo daVinci