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Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit
(also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of
electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of
semiconductor material, usually silicon. Large numbers of tiny
MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors)
integrate into a small chip. This results in circuits that are orders
of magnitude smaller, faster, and less expensive than those
constructed of discrete electronic components. The IC's mass
production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to
integrated circuit design has ensured the rapid adoption of Erasable programmable read-only
standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. ICs memory (EPROM) integrated
are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have circuits in dual in-line packages.
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile These packages have a transparent
phones, and other digital home appliances are now inextricable window that shows the die inside.
parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the The window is used to erase the
small size and low cost of ICs such as modern computer memory by exposing the chip to
processors and microcontrollers. ultraviolet light.

Integrated circuits were made practical by technological

advancements in metal–oxide–silicon (MOS) semiconductor
device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size,
speed, and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven
by technical advances that fit more and more MOS transistors on
chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of
MOS transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail. These
advances, roughly following Moore's law, make computer chips of
today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of
times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s. Integrated circuit from an EPROM
memory microchip showing the
ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits:  cost and memory blocks, the supporting
performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their circuitry and the fine silver wires
components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather which connect the integrated circuit
than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, die to the legs of the packaging
packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits.
Performance is high because the IC's components switch quickly
and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and proximity. The main
disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high
initial cost means ICs are only commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.

Contents
Terminology
History
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First integrated circuits

TTL integrated circuits
MOS integrated circuits
Design
Types
Manufacturing
Fabrication
Packaging Virtual detail of an integrated circuit
through four layers of planarized
Intellectual property
copper interconnect, down to the
Generations polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish),
Small-scale integration (SSI) and substrate (green)
Medium-scale integration (MSI)
Large-scale integration (LSI)
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC
Silicon labeling and graffiti
ICs and IC families
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Terminology
An integrated circuit is defined as:[1]

A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and
electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of
construction and commerce.

Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-
film transistors, thick-film technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits. However, in general usage
integrated circuit has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a
monolithic integrated circuit, often built on a single piece of silicon.[2][3]

History
An early attempt at combining several components in one device (like modern ICs) was the Loewe
3NF vacuum tube from the 1920s. Unlike ICs, it was designed with the purpose of tax avoidance, as in
Germany, radio receivers had a tax that was levied depending on how many tube holders a radio
receiver had. It allowed radio receivers to have a single tube holder.

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Early concepts of an integrated circuit go back to 1949, when

German engineer Werner Jacobi[4] (Siemens AG)[5] filed a patent
for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device[6]
showing five transistors on a common substrate in a three-stage
amplifier arrangement. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing
aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. An immediate
commercial use of his patent has not been reported.

Another early proponent of the concept was Geoffrey Dummer Jack Kilby's original hybrid
(1909–2002), a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar integrated circuit from 1958. This
Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence. Dummer was the first integrated circuit, and
presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in was made from germanium.
Quality Electronic Components in Washington,  D.C. on 7 May
1952.[7] He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas
and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Between 1953 and 1957, Sidney
Darlington and Yasuo Tarui (Electrotechnical Laboratory) proposed similar chip designs where
several transistors could share a common active area, but there was no electrical isolation to separate
them from each other.[4]

The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar process by Jean
Hoerni and p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was built on Mohamed M.
Atalla's work on surface passivation, as well as Fuller and Ditzenberger's work on the diffusion of
boron and phosphorus impurities into silicon, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick's work on surface
protection, and Chih-Tang Sah's work on diffusion masking by the oxide.[8]

First integrated circuits

A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic substrates

(so-called micromodules),[9] each containing a single
miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated
and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid.
This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to
the US Army by Jack Kilby[9] and led to the short-lived
Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Robert Noyce invented the first
Tinkertoy). [9][10][11] However, as the project was gaining monolithic integrated circuit in 1959.
momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: The chip was made from silicon.
the IC.

Newly employed by Texas Instruments, Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated
circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working example of an integrated circuit on
12 September 1958.[12] In his patent application of 6 February 1959,[13] Kilby described his new device
as "a body of semiconductor material … wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are
completely integrated."[14] The first customer for the new invention was the US Air Force.[15] Kilby
won the 2000 Nobel Prize in physics for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit.[16]
However, Kilby's invention was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC), rather than a monolithic
integrated circuit (monolithic IC) chip.[17] Kilby's IC had external wire connections, which made it
difficult to mass-produce.[18]

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Half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC
chip.[19][18] It was a new variety of integrated circuit, more practical than Kilby's implementation.
Noyce's design was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Noyce's monolithic
IC put all components on a chip of silicon and connected them with copper lines.[18] Noyce's
monolithic IC was fabricated using the planar process, developed in early 1959 by his colleague Jean
Hoerni. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic IC,[19][18] rather than Kilby's hybrid IC.[17]

NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961 and
1965.[20]

TTL integrated circuits

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW Inc. TTL
became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[21]

Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the processors of
minicomputers and mainframe computers. Computers such as IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11
minicomputers and the desktop Datapoint 2200 were built from bipolar integrated circuits,[22] either
TTL or the even faster emitter-coupled logic (ECL).

MOS integrated circuits

Nearly all modern IC chips are metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuits, built from
MOSFETs (metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistors).[23] The MOSFET (also known as the MOS
transistor), which was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[24]
made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits.[25] In contrast to bipolar transistors which
required a number of steps for the p–n junction isolation of transistors on a chip, MOSFETs required
no such steps but could be easily isolated from each other.[26] Its advantage for integrated circuits was
pointed out by Dawon Kahng in 1961.[27] The list of IEEE milestones includes the first integrated
circuit by Kilby in 1958,[28] Hoerni's planar process and Noyce's planar IC in 1959, and the MOSFET
by Atalla and Kahng in 1959.[29]

The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and
Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[30] General Microelectronics later introduced the first commercial
MOS integrated circuit in 1964,[31] a 120-transistor shift register developed by Robert Norman.[30] By
1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar
chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-
scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.[32]

Following the development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET by Robert Kerwin, Donald
Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967,[33] the first silicon-gate MOS IC technology with self-
aligned gates, the basis of all modern CMOS integrated circuits, was developed at Fairchild
Semiconductor by Federico Faggin in 1968.[34] The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was
the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer
processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. This led to the inventions of the
microprocessor and the microcontroller by the early 1970s.[32] During the early 1970s, MOS
integrated circuit technology enabled the very large-scale integration (VLSI) of more than 10,000
transistors on a single chip.[35]

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At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as aerospace
and pocket calculators. Computers built entirely from TTL, such as the 1970 Datapoint 2200, were
much faster and more powerful than single-chip MOS microprocessors such as the 1972 Intel 8008
until the early 1980s.[22]

Advances in IC technology, primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the number of
MOS transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as Moore's law.
Moore originally stated it would double every year, but he went on to change the claim to every two
years in 1975.[36] This increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and increase functionality. In
general, as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's operation improves. The cost per
transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor goes down, while the memory capacity
and speed go up, through the relationships defined by Dennard scaling (MOSFET scaling).[37]
Because speed, capacity, and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce
competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. Over the years, transistor sizes have
decreased from 10s of microns in the early 1970s to 10 nanometers in 2017[38] with a corresponding
million-fold increase in transistors per unit area. As of 2016, typical chip areas range from a few
square millimeters to around 600 mm2, with up to 25 million transistors per mm2.[39]

The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for
many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final ITRS was
issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems.[40]

Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of other
technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost. These
technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.

Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active-pixel sensors, are chips that are sensitive
to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical, and consumer
applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications such as
cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the Nobel Prize in 2009.[41]
Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a technology
known as microelectromechanical systems. These devices were developed in the late 1980s[42]
and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Examples include DLP
projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers and MEMS gyroscopes used to deploy automobile
airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon chips
has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful
commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices
(modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.[43] Photonic integrated circuits that
use light are also being developed, using the emerging field of physics known as photonics.
Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or other
bioelectronic devices.[44] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic
environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials.[45]

As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one side of
a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced prototypes of
several promising alternatives, such as:

various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional

integrated circuit (3DIC), such as through-silicon via, "monolithic 3D",[46] stacked wire bonding,[47]
and other methodologies.
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transistors built from other materials: graphene transistors, molybdenite transistors, carbon
nanotube field-effect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like nanowire electronic
devices, organic field-effect transistor, etc.
fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.[48][49]
modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible display or other
flexible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away computer.

As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using multi-chip
modules, three-dimensional integrated circuits, package on package, High Bandwidth Memory and
through-silicon vias with die stacking to increase performance and reduce size, without having to
reduce the size of the transistors. Such techniques are collectively known as advanced packaging.[50]
Advanced packaging is mainly divided into 2.5D and 3D packaging. 2.5D describes approaches such
as multi-chip modules while 3D describes approaches where dies are stacked in one way or another,
such as package on package and high bandwidth memory. All approaches involve 2 or more dies in a
single package.[51][52][53][54][55] Alternatively, approaches such as 3D NAND stack multiple layers on
a single die.

Design
The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the
multiple tens of millions of dollars.[56][57] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce
integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering (NRE)
costs are spread across typically millions of production units.

Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are too complex to be designed by
hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential. Electronic Design Automation (EDA), also
referred to as Electronic Computer-Aided Design (ECAD),[58] is a category of software tools for
designing electronic systems, including integrated circuits. The tools work together in a design flow
that engineers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips.

Types
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog,[59] digital[60] and
mixed signal,[61] consisting of analog and digital signaling on the
same IC.

Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[39] of logic gates,

flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square
millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low
power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared
with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically
microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, use boolean A-to-D converter IC in a DIP
algebra to process "one" and "zero" signals.

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the

microprocessors or "cores", used in personal computers, cell-phones, microwave ovens, etc. Digital
memory chips and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are examples of other families of
integrated circuits.

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In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed. These

devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity
can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the
integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a chip to be
programmed to do various LSI-type functions such as logic gates,
adders and registers. Programmability comes in various forms –
devices that can be programmed only once, devices that can be
erased and then re-programmed using UV light, devices that can
be (re)programmed using flash memory, and field-programmable
gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be programmed at any time,
The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit
including during operation. Current FPGAs can (as of 2016)
NMOS microcontroller that includes
implement the equivalent of millions of gates and operate at
a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128
frequencies up to 1 GHz.[62]
bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of
EPROM, and I/O in the same chip
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and
operational amplifiers (op-amps), process continuous signals,
and perform analog functions such as amplification, active
filtering, demodulation, and mixing.

ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as analog-to-digital
converters and digital-to-analog converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower
cost, but must account for signal interference. Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be fabricated in
the same low-cost CMOS processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, radio chips have been
developed using RF CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or 802.11 (Wi-
Fi) chips created by Atheros and other companies.[63]

Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:

Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs (such as microprocessors and microcontrollers), memory
chips (such as MOS memory and floating-gate memory), interface ICs (level shifters,
serializer/deserializer, etc.), power management ICs, and programmable devices.
Analog ICs are categorized as linear integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio frequency circuits).
Mixed-signal integrated circuits are categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D converters,
D/A converters, digital potentiometers), clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor (SC) circuits, and RF
CMOS circuits.
Three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) are categorized into through-silicon via (TSV) ICs
and Cu-Cu connection ICs.

Manufacturing

Fabrication

The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely
materials for a solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then
silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, monocrystalline
silicon is the main substrate used for ICs although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as
gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-
speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals with minimal defects
in semiconducting materials' crystal structure.

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Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process which

includes three key process steps  – photolithography, deposition
(such as chemical vapor deposition), and etching. The main
process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. More
recent or high-performance ICs may instead use multi-gate
FinFET or GAAFET transistors instead of planar ones, starting at
the 22 nm node (Intel) or 16/14 nm nodes.[64]

Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for

special applications, other semiconductors such as gallium
arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon.
Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate
to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically
Rendering of a small standard cell
aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them. Dopants are
with three metal layers (dielectric
impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to
has been removed). The sand-
modulate its electronic properties. Doping is the process of
colored structures are metal
adding dopants to a semiconductor material.
interconnect, with the vertical pillars
being contacts, typically plugs of
Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers,
tungsten. The reddish structures are
each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in
polysilicon gates, and the solid at
different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are
the bottom is the crystalline silicon
diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some
define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), bulk.
some define the conductors (doped polysilicon or metal
layers), and some define the connections between the
conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific
combination of these layers.
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or
metal) crosses a diffusion layer.
Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional
electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material
between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs.
Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most
logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its
width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance.
More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators.

Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices
consume much less current than bipolar junction transistor devices.

A random-access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices
are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array
structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which
have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers
of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible
spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features.
Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each
layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer
who might be debugging a fabrication process.

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Each device is tested before packaging using automated test

equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer
probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of
which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is
then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond
wires which are thermosonically bonded[65] to pads, usually
found around the edge of the die. Thermosonic bonding was first
introduced by A. Coucoulas which provided a reliable means of
forming these vital electrical connections to the outside world.
After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same
or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Industrial CT scanning
can also be used. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of
fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-
yielding, larger, or higher-cost devices.

As of 2016, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a

semiconductor fab) can cost over US$8 billion to construct.[66]
The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of
increased complexity of new products; this is known as Rock's Schematic structure of a CMOS
law. Such a facility features: chip, as built in the early 2000s. The
graphic shows LDD-MISFET's on an
The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common SOI substrate with five metallization
dinner plate). layers and solder bump for flip-chip
bonding. It also shows the section
As of 2016, 14 nm transistors.[67]
for FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL
Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum (back-end of line) and first parts of
for interconnects. back-end process.
Low-κ dielectric insulators.
Silicon on insulator (SOI).
Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as Strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI).
Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors.

ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using the
foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that design,
manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry) services to
other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model, fabless companies (like
Nvidia only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure play foundries such as TSMC.
These foundries may offer IC design services.

Packaging

The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the
military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly
moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic, which is commonly
cresol-formaldehyde-novolac. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for
DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface
mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead
pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by the small-outline integrated

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circuit (SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about

30–50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner.
This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long
sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.

In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-
outline package (TSOP) packages became the most common for
high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still used for
high-end microprocessors.

Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip- A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in
chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for a much higher pin 1977, part of a four-chip calculator
count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In set designed in 1970[68]
an FCBGA package, the die is mounted upside-down (flipped)
and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is
similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-
output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the
die periphery. BGA devices have the advantage of not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder
to replace in case of device failure.

Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with the last
PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018, AMD uses PGA packages on
mainstream desktop processors,[69] BGA packages on mobile processors,[70] and high-end desktop
and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[71]

Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die to the
package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads connecting the
package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and structures used in the
path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical properties, compared to those
that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they require special design techniques to
ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more electric power than signals confined to the die
itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a system in package, abbreviated SiP. A
multi-chip module (MCM), is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often made of
ceramic. The distinction between a large MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.

Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four
common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch
number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was manufactured.
Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturer's
lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.

The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week
code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately
in October 1983.

Intellectual property

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The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing
photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the
introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip Protection
Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to produce integrated
circuits.[72]

A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C. in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual Property
in Respect of Integrated Circuits,[73] also called the Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty. The treaty is
currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.[74]

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including
Japan,[75] the EC,[76] the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK enacted the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it initially took the position that its copyright law fully protected
chip topographies. See British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.

Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are
summarized in further chip rights developments.[77]

Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection. Korea passed
the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits.

Generations
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to only a
few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively simple.
Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. As metal–oxide–semiconductor
(MOS) technology progressed, millions and then billions of MOS transistors could be placed on one
chip,[78] and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to the field of electronic design
automation, or EDA.
Some SSI and MSI chips, like discrete transistors, are still mass-produced, both
to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require only a few gates. The 7400 series of
TTL chips, for example, has become a de facto standard and remains in production.

Acronym Name Year Transistor count[79] Logic gates number[80]

SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12
MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99
LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999
VLSI very large-scale integration 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999
ULSI ultra-large-scale integration 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more

Small-scale integration (SSI)

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens of
transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips
TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit has
increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first used by IBM

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scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[81] that term gave rise to the terms
"small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-scale integration"
(VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were SSI.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire
development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight
digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance Computer led
and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[82] it was the Minuteman missile that forced it into
mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States Navy programs
accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government
spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production.

The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell
enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually the consumer market. The
average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968.[83] Integrated
circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the 1970s decade. A typical application
was FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers.

The first application MOS chips were small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[84] Following Mohamed M.
Atalla's proposal of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[85] the earliest experimental MOS chip to
be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[30]
The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for NASA satellites.[84]

Medium-scale integration (MSI)

The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained hundreds
of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).

MOSFET scaling technology made it possible to build high-density chips.[25] By 1964, MOS chips had
reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips.[32]

In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with a then-
incredible 120 MOS transistors on a single chip.[84][86] The same year, General Microelectronics
introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-channel MOS
transistors.[31] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[30] and Frank Wanlass.[87]
MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to chips with
hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[32]

Large-scale integration (LSI)

Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led to
"large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.[88]

The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as the
microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape or
similar.[89] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by
specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team of
engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness and
completeness of each mask.

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Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to
be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors. True LSI
circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main
memories and second-generation microprocessors.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a development started

with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and,
as of 2016, transistor counts continue to grow beyond ten billion
transistors per chip.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased

density. Manufacturers moved to smaller MOSFET design rules
and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process
improvements was summarized by the International Technology
Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), which has since been
succeeded by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems
(IRDS). Electronic design tools improved, making it practical to
Upper interconnect layers on an
finish designs in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient
Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die
CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive
increase in power consumption. The complexity and density of
modern VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to check the
masks or do the original design by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA tools to perform most functional
verification work.[90]

In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more than
one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989 and the
billion-transistor mark in 2005.[91] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in
2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[92]

ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale
integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[93]

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an entire
silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced
packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel
supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of
the art when WSI was being developed.[94]

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a
computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex
and costly, and whilst performance benefits can be had from integrating all needed components on
one die, the cost of licensing and developing a one-die machine still outweigh having separate devices.
With appropriate licensing, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs
and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much
less power is required (see Packaging).[95] Further, signal sources and destinations are physically

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closer on die, reducing the length of wiring and therefore latency, transmission power costs and waste
heat from communication between modules on the same chip. This has led to an exploration of so-
called Network-on-Chip (NoC) devices, which apply system-on-chip design methodologies to digital
communication networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures.

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components
that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between
layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate
circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster
operation.[96]

Silicon labeling and graffiti

To allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner.
It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers
have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are
sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.

ICs and IC families

The 555 timer IC
The Operational amplifier
7400-series integrated circuits
4000-series integrated circuits, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00
series)
Intel 4004, generally regarded as the first commercially available microprocessor, which led to the
famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PC's 8088, 80286, 486 etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the
early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series (used
in some Apple computers and in the 1980s Commodore Amiga series)
The LM-series of analog integrated circuits

See also
Chipset
Integrated injection logic
Ion implantation
Microelectronics
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
Multi-threshold CMOS
Silicon-germanium
Sound chip
SPICE
Chip carrier
Dark silicon
Integrated passive devices
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High-temperature operating life

Thermal simulations for integrated circuits
Heat generation in integrated circuits

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Further reading
Veendrick, H.J.M. (2017). Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs. Springer. ISBN 978-3-
319-47595-0.
Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-IEEE.
ISBN 978-0-470-88132-3.
Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical MMIC design. Artech House. ISBN 978-1-59693-036-0.
Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing Analog Chips (https://web.archive.org/web/2017061205592
4/http://www.designinganalogchips.com/_count/designinganalogchips.pdf) (PDF). Virtual
Bookworm. ISBN 978-1-58939-718-7. Archived from the original (http://www.designinganalogchip

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit 20/21
12/4/21, 12:44 PM Integrated circuit - Wikipedia

s.com/_count/designinganalogchips.pdf) (PDF) on 12 June 2017. "Hans Camenzind invented the

555 timer"
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh, Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated
Circuits. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5.
Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (https://archive.org/
details/agilesoftwaredev00robe) (2nd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-090996-1.
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1980). Introduction to VLSI systems (https://archive.org/details/intro
ductiontovl00mead). Addison Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.

External links
Media related to Integrated circuits at Wikimedia Commons

General

The first monolithic integrated circuits (http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm)

A large chart listing ICs by generic number (http://rtellason.com/ic-generic.html) including access
to most of the datasheets for the parts.
The History of the Integrated Circuit (https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_ci
rcuit/history/) at Nobelprize.org

Patents

US3,138,743 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138743) – Miniaturized electronic circuit –

J.S. Kilby
US3,138,747 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138747) – Integrated semiconductor circuit
device – R.F. Stewart
US3,261,081 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3261081) – Method of making miniaturized
electronic circuits – J.S. Kilby
US3,434,015 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3434015) – Capacitor for miniaturized
electronic circuits or the like – J. . Kilby

Integrated circuit die manufacturing

IC Die Photography (http://diephotos.blogspot.com/) – A gallery of IC die photographs

Zeptobars (http://zeptobars.ru/en) – Yet another gallery of IC die photographs

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