Computer-integrated manufacturing 

(CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using

computers to control the entire production process.[1][2] This integration allows individual
processes to exchange information with each other and initiate actions. Through the
integration of computers, manufacturing can be faster and less error-prone, although
the main advantage is the ability to create automated manufacturing processes.
Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input from
sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing.[citation needed]

The term "computer-integrated manufacturing" is both a method of manufacturing and

the name of a computer-automated system in which individual engineering, production,
marketing, and support functions of a manufacturing enterprise are organized. In a CIM
system functional areas such as design, analysis, planning, purchasing, cost accounting,
inventory control, and distribution are linked through the computer with factory floor
functions such as materials handling and management, providing direct control and
monitoring of all the operations.

As a method of manufacturing, three components distinguish CIM from other

manufacturing methodologies:

 Means for data storage, retrieval, manipulation and presentation;

 Mechanisms for sensing state and modifying processes;
 Algorithms for uniting the data processing component with the
sensor/modification component.
CIM is an example of the implementation of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) in manufacturing.

CIM implies that there are at least two computers exchanging information, e.g. the
controller of an arm robot and a micro-controller of a CNC machine.

Some factors involved when considering a CIM implementation are the production
volume, the experience of the company or personnel to make the integration, the level
of the integration into the product itself and the integration of the production processes.
CIM is most useful where a high level of ICT is used in the company or facility, such as
CAD/CAM systems, the availability of process planning and its data.
Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and
drafting (CADD)[1] , is the use of computer technology for the process of design and
design-documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a
computer. CADD software, or environments, provides the user with input-tools for the
purpose of streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing
processes. CADD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining
operations. The development of CADD-based software is in direct correlation with the
processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing,
etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software
utilizes raster-based (pixelated) environments.

CADD environments often involve more than just shapes. As in the

manual drafting of technicaland engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey
information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to
application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or

curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.[2]

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural
design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer
animation for special effects in movies,advertising and technical manuals. The modern
ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo
dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s.
Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for
research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software),
and discrete differential geometry.[3]

The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally

called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).[4]
Overview

Beginning in the 1980s Computer-Aided Design programs reduced the need of

draftsmen significantly, especially in small to mid-sized companies. Their affordability
and ability to run on personal computers also allowed engineers to do their own drafting
work, eliminating the need for entire departments. In today's world most, if not all,
students in universities do not learn drafting techniques because they are not required
to do so. The days of hand drawing for final drawings are almost obsolete. Universities
no longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create drawings, instead
there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software such as Pro Engineer or
IEAS-MS.

Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting

systems to 3D solid and surface modellers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently
allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any
desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of
dynamic mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD —computer-
aided design and drafting.

CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all
types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and
industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
[5]
 CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of
physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from
conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of
assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to
design objects.

CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided
technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly
shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen,
print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
[edit]Uses

Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is
used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in
question.

CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within
the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) process, and as such is used together with
other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:
  Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)
 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer
Numerical Control (CNC) machines
 Photo realistic rendering

Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in
the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of
intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to
represent what that locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built.
Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed
through the use of CAD..

CAD has also has been proven to be usefull to engineers as well. Using four properties
which are history, features, parameterization, and high level constraints (Zhang). The
construction history can be used to look back into the model's personal features and
work on the single area rather than the whole model (zhang). Parameters and
constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and the different modeling
elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for
measurement such as tensile strength, yeild strength, also its stress and strain and how
the element gets affected in certain temperatures.
[edit]Types

There are several different types of CAD [6] . Each of these different types of CAD
systems require the operator to think differently about how he or she will use them and
he or she must design their virtual components in a different manner for each.

There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and
open source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all
the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting,
since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.

3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line
has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties
associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The
operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D
systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real world objects
(not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders,
spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if assembling
or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated
from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of
components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.

3D parametric solid modeling require the operator to use what is referred to as "design

intent". The objects and features created are adjustable. Any future modifications will be
simple, difficult, or nearly impossible, depending on how the original part was created.
One must think of this as being a "perfect world" representation of the component. If a
feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator needs to
locate it from the center of the model, not, perhaps, from a more convenient edge or an
arbitrary point, as he could when using "dumb" solids. Parametric solids require the
operator to consider the consequences of his actions carefully.

Some software packages provide the ability to edit parametric and non-parametric
geometry without the need to understand or undo the design intent history of the
geometry by use of direct modeling functionality. This ability may also include the
additional ability to infer the correct relationships between selected geometry (e.g.,
tangency, concentricity) which makes the editing process less time and labor intensive
while still freeing the engineer from the burden of understanding the model’s. These
kind of non history based systems are called Explicit Modellers or Direct CAD Modelers.

Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and
ergonomic features into designs. Freeform surface modelling is often combined with
solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual
requirements as well as they interface with the machine.
[edit]Technology
A CAD model of a computer mouse.

Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed with computer
languages such as Fortran, but with the advancement of object-oriented
programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature
based modeler and freeform surfacesystems are built around a number of
key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the
interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary
representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint
engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between
geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.

Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form

of prototypingcalled digital prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail
manufacturing time in the design.

Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac
OS X); some packages even support multiple platforms.

Right now, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD
systems can do graphically and computationally expensive tasks, so a good graphics
card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM are
recommended.

The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a
pen and digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is
also sometimes done with the use of a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also
support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model.
Computer-aided engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nonlinear static analysis of a 3D structure subjected to plastic deformations

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer software to aid

inengineering tasks.[1][2][3] It includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided
analysis(CAA), computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM), material requirements planning (MRP), and computer-aided
planning (CAP).[4][5][6]

Contents
 [hide]

1 Overview
2 CAE fields and phases
3 CAE in the automotive
industry
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
[edit]Overview

Software tools that have been developed to support these activities are considered CAE
tools. CAE tools are being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and performance
of components and assemblies. The term encompasses simulation, validation,
and optimization of products and manufacturing tools. In the future, CAE systems will be
major providers of information to help support design teams in decision making.

In regard to information networks, CAE systems are individually considered a

single node on a total information network and each node may interact with other nodes
on the network.

CAE systems can provide support to businesses. This is achieved by the use of reference
architectures and their ability to place information views on the business process.
Reference architecture is the basis from which information model, especially product and
manufacturing models.

The term CAE has also been used by some in the past to describe the use of computer
technology within engineering in a broader sense than just engineering analysis. It was
in this context that the term was coined by Dr. Jason Lemon, founder of SDRC in the
late 70's. This definition is however better known today by the terms CAx and PLM.

[edit]CAE fields and phases

CAE areas covered include:

 Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element

Analysis);
 Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational fluid dynamics (CFD);
 Kinematics;
 Mechanical event simulation (MES).
 Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such
as casting, molding, and die press forming.
 Optimization of the product or process.
In general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task:

 Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied

to it. (typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also
used)
 Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers)
 Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)
This cycle is iterated, often many times, either manually or with the use of commercial
optimization software.
[edit]CAE in the automotive industry

CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the
safety, comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of
CAE tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done
using computer simulations rather than physical prototype testing. CAE dependability is
based upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical inputs (BJ). Even
though there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in the engineering
field, physical testing is still used as a final confirmation for subsystems due to the fact
that CAE cannot predict all variables in complex assemblies (i.e. metal stretch, thinning)
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer software to
control machine toolsand related machinery in the manufacturing of workpieces.[1][2][3][4]
[5]
 This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the most common;[1] CAM may also
refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant,
including planning, management, transportation and storage.[6][7] Its primary purpose is
to create a faster production process and components and tooling with more precise
dimensions and material consistency, which in some cases, uses only the required
amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while simultaneously reducing energy
consumption.[citation needed]
CAM is a subsequent computer-aided process after computer-aided design (CAD) and
sometimescomputer-aided engineering (CAE), as the model generated in CAD and
verified in CAE can be input into CAM software, which then controls the machine tool.[3]
Overview

Chrome-cobalt disc with crowns fordental implants, manufactured using WorkNCCAM

Traditionally, CAM has been considered as a numerical control (NC) programming tool,

wherein two-dimensional (2-D) or three-dimensional (3-D) models of components
generated in CADsoftware are used to generate G-code to drive computer numerically
controlled (CNC) machine tools. Simple designs such as bolt circles or basic contours do
not necessitate importing a CAD file.

As with other “Computer-Aided” technologies, CAM does not eliminate the need for
skilled professionals such as manufacturing engineers, NC programmers, or machinists.
CAM, in fact, leverages both the value of the most skilled manufacturing professionals
through advanced productivity tools, while building the skills of new professionals
through visualization, simulation and optimization tools.
[edit]History

The first commercial applications of CAM were in large companies in the automotive and
aerospace industries for example UNISURF in 1971 at Renault for car body design and
tooling.[citation needed]

Historically, CAM software was seen to have several shortcomings that necessitated an
overly high level of involvement by skilled CNC machinists. Fallows created the first CAM
software but this had severe shortcomings and was promptly taken back into the
developing stage.[citation needed] CAM software would output code for the least capable
machine, as each machine tool control added on to the standard G-code set for
increased flexibility. In some cases, such as improperly set up CAM software or specific
tools, the CNC machine required manual editing before the program will run properly.
None of these issues were so insurmountable that a thoughtful engineer or skilled
machine operator could not overcome for prototyping or small production runs; G-Code
is a simple language. In high production or high precision shops, a different set of
problems were encountered where an experienced CNC machinist must both hand-code
programs and run CAM software.

Integration of CAD with other components of CAD/CAM/CAE Product lifecycle

management (PLM) environment requires an effective CAD data exchange. Usually it
had been necessary to force the CAD operator to export the data in one of the common
data formats, such asIGES or STL, that are supported by a wide variety of software. The
output from the CAM software is usually a simple text file of G-code, sometimes many
thousands of commands long, that is then transferred to a machine tool using a direct
numerical control (DNC) program.

CAM packages could not, and still cannot, reason as a machinist can. They could not
optimize toolpaths to the extent required of mass production. Users would select the
type of tool, machining process and paths to be used. While an engineer may have a
working knowledge of g-code programming, small optimization and wear issues
compound over time. Mass-produced items that require machining are often initially
created through casting or some other non-machine method. This enables hand-written,
short, and highly optimized g-code that could not be produced in a CAM package.

At least in the United States, there is a shortage of young, skilled machinists entering
the workforce able to perform at the extremes of manufacturing; high precision and
mass production[citation needed]. As CAM software and machines become more complicated,
the skills required of a machinist or machine operator advance to approach that of a
computer programmer and engineer rather than eliminating the CNC machinist from the
workforce.

Typical areas of concern:

 High Speed Machining, including streamlining of tool paths

 Multi-function Machining
 5 Axis Machining
 Feature recognition and machining
 Automation of Machining processes
 Ease of Use
[edit]Overcoming historical shortcomings
Over time, the historical shortcomings of CAM are being attenuated, both by providers of
niche solutions and by providers of high-end solutions. This is occurring primarily in
three arenas:

1. Ease of use
2. Manufacturing complexity
3. Integration with PLM and the extended enterprise
Ease in use
For the user who is just getting started as a CAM user, out-of-the-box capabilities
providing Process Wizards, templates, libraries, machine tool kits, automated feature
based machining and job function specific tailorable user interfaces build user confidence
and speed the learning curve.
User confidence is further built on 3D visualization through a closer integration with the
3D CAD environment, including error-avoiding simulations and optimizations.
Manufacturing complexity
The manufacturing environment is increasingly complex. The need for CAM and PLM
tools by the manufacturing engineer, NC programmer or machinist is similar to the need
for computer assistance by the pilot of modern aircraft systems. The modern machinery
cannot be properly used without this assistance.
Today's CAM systems support the full range of machine tools including: turning, 5 axis
machining and wire EDM. Today’s CAM user can easily generate streamlined tool paths,
optimized tool axis tilt for higher feed rates and optimized Z axis depth cuts as well as
driving non-cutting operations such as the specification of probing motions.
Integration with PLM and the extended enterpriseLM to integrate
manufacturing with enterprise operations from concept through field support
of the finished product.
To ensure ease of use appropriate to user objectives, modern CAM solutions are scalable
from a stand-alone CAM system to a fully integrated multi-CAD 3D solution-set. These
solutions are created to meet the full needs of manufacturing personnel including part
planning, shop documentation, resource management and data management and
exchange.
[edit]Machining process

Most machining progresses through four stages, each of which is implemented by a

variety of basic and sophisticated strategies, depending on the material and the software
available. The stages are:
Roughing
This process begins with raw stock, known as billet, and cuts it very roughly to shape of
the final model. In milling, the result often gives the appearance of terraces, because
the strategy has taken advantage of the ability to cut the model horizontally. Common
strategies are zig-zag clearing, offset clearing, plunge roughing, rest-roughing.
Semi-finishing
This process begins with a roughed part that unevenly approximates the model and cuts
to within a fixed offset distance from the model. The semi-finishing pass must leave a
small amount of material so the tool can cut accurately while finishing, but not so little
that the tool and material deflect instead of shearing. Common strategies are raster
passes, waterline passes, constant step-over passes, pencil milling.
Finishing
Finishing involves a slow pass across the material in very fine steps to produce the
finished part. In finishing, the step between one pass and another is minimal. Feed rates
are low and spindle speeds are raised to produce an accurate surface.
Contour milling
In milling applications on hardware with five or more axes, a separate finishing process
called contouring can be performed. Instead of stepping down in fine-grained increments
to approximate a surface, the workpiece is rotated to make the cutting surfaces of the
tool tangent to the ideal part features. This produces an excellent surface finish with
high dimensional accuracy.
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) is the use of computer technology to aid
in the process planning of a part or product, in manufacturing. CAPP is the link between
CAD and CAM in that it provides for the planning of the process to be used in producing
a designed part. [1]

Introduction
Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of individual
manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or product. The resulting
operation sequence is documented on a form typically referred to as a route sheet
containing a listing of the production operations and associated machine tools for a
workpart or assembly. Process planning in manufacturing also refers to the planning of
use of blanks, spare parts, packaging material, user instructions (manuals) etc.

The term "Computer-Aided Production Planning" is used in different context on different

parts of the production process; to some extent CAPP overlaps with the term "PIC"
(Production and Inventory Control).

Process planning translates design information into the process steps and instructions to
efficiently and effectively manufacture products. As the design process is supported by
many computer-aided tools, computer-aided process planning (CAPP) has evolved to
simplify and improve process planning and achieve more effective use of manufacturing
resources.[2].

Process planning encompasses the activities and functions to prepare a detailed set of
plans and instructions to produce a part. The planning begins with engineering drawings,
specifications, parts or material lists and a forecast of demand. The results of the
planning are:

 Routings which specify operations, operation sequences, work centers,

standards, tooling and fixtures. This routing becomes a major input to the
manufacturing resource planning system to define operations for production activity
control purposes and define required resources for capacity requirements planning
purposes.

 Process plans which typically provide more detailed, step-by-step work

instructions including dimensions related to individual operations, machining
parameters, set-up instructions, and quality assurance checkpoints.
 Fabrication and assembly drawings to support manufacture (as opposed to
engineering drawings to define the part).
Keneth Crow [3] stated that "Manual process planning is based on a manufacturing
engineer's experience and knowledge of production facilities, equipment, their
capabilities, processes, and tooling. Process planning is very time-consuming and the
results vary based on the person doing the planning".

According to Engelke [4], the need for CAPP is greater with an increased number of
different types of parts being manufactured, and with a more complex manufacturing
process.

Computer-aided process planning initially evolved as a means to electronically store a

process plan once it was created, retrieve it, modify it for a new part and print the plan.
Other capabilities were table-driven cost and standard estimating systems, for sales
representatives to create customer quotations and estimate delivery time.
[edit]Future development of CAPP

Generative or dynamic CAPP is the main focus of development, the ability to

automatically generate production plans for new products, or dynamicly update
production plans on the basis of resource availability. Generative CAPP will probably use
iterative methods, where simple production plans are applied to automatic CAD/CAM
development to refine the initial production plan.

Traditional CAPP methods that optimise plans in a linear manner have not been able to
satisfy the need for flexible planning, so new dynamic systems will explore all possible
combinations of production processes, and then generate plans according to available
machining resources. For example, K.S. Lee et al. states that "By considering the multi-
selection tasks simultaneously, a specially designed genetic algorithm searches through
the entire solution space to identify the optimal plan" [5].
Coordinate system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For geographical coordinates on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:WikiProject

Geographical coordinates.

In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or

more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of
apoint or other geometric element.[1][2] The order of the coordinates is
significant and they are sometimes identified by their position in an
ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in 'the x-coordinate'. In
elementary mathematics the coordinates are taken to be real numbers, but
in more advanced applications coordinates can be taken to be complex
numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as acommutative ring.
The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated
into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the bases of analytic
geometry.[3]

An example in everyday use is the system of

assigning longitude and latitude to geographical locations. In physics, a
coordinate system used to describe points in space is called a frame of
reference.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Number line
2 Cartesian coordinate system
3 Polar coordinate system
4 Cylindrical and spherical coordinate
systems
5 Homogeneous coordinate system
6 Coordinates of other elements
7 Transformations between coordinate
systems
 8 Coordinate curves and surfaces
9 Coordinate maps
10 Change of coordinates
11 Transformations
12 Systems commonly used
13 List of orthogonal coordinate systems
14 See also
15 References
16 External links

Number line

Main article: Number line

The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points

on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an
arbitrary point O (the origin) is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a
point P is defined as the signed distance from O to P, where the signed
distance is the distance taken as positive or negative depending on which
side of the line P lies. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each real
number is the coordinate of a unique point.[4]

Cartesian coordinate system

Main article: Cartesian coordinate system

The Cartesian coordinate system in the plane.

The prototypical example of a coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate

system. In theplane, two perpendicular lines are chosen and the coordinates
of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines.

In three dimensions, three perpendicular planes are chosen and the three
coordinates of a point are the signed distances to each of the planes. This
can be generalized to createn coordinates for any point in n-
dimensionalEuclidean space.
Polar coordinate system

Main article: Polar coordinate system

The Polar coordinate system in the plane.

Another common coordinate system for the plane is the Polar coordinate

system. A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as
the polar axis. For a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole
whose angle with the polar axis is θ (measured counterclockwise from the
axis to the line). Then there is a unique point on this line whose signed
distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of
coordinates (r, θ) there is a single point, but any point is represented by
many pairs of coordinates. For example (r, θ), (r, θ+2π) and (−r, θ+π) are
all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by (0, θ) for
any value of θ.

Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems

Main articles: Cylindrical coordinate system and Spherical coordinate

system

There are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system
to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate
with the same meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ
polar coordinates. Spherical coordinates take this a step further by
converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates
(ρ, φ) giving a triple (ρ, θ, φ)

Homogeneous coordinate system

Main article: Homogeneous coordinates

A point in the plane may be represented in homogeneous coordinates by a

triple (x, y, z) where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point.
This introduces an "extra" coordinate since only two are needed to specify a
point on the plane, but this system is useful in that it represents any point
on the projective plane without the use of infinity. In general, a
homogeneous coordinate system is one where only the ratios of the
coordinates are significant and not the actual values.

Coordinates of other elements

Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but
they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such
as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example Plücker coordinates are
used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the
type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate
system, for example the term line coordinates is used for any coordinate
system that specifies the position of a line.

It may occur that systems of coordinates for two different sets of geometric
figures are equivalent in terms of their analysis. An example of this is the
systems of homogeneous coordinates for points and lines in the projective
plane. The two systems in a case like this are said to be dualistic. Dualistic
systems have the property that results from one system can be carried over
to the other since these results are only different interpretations of the same
analytical result; this is known as the principle of duality.[5]

In mathematics, homogeneous coordinates, introduced by August

Ferdinand Möbius in his 1827 work Der barycentrische Calcül,[1][2] are a
system of coordinates used in projective geometrymuch as Cartesian
coordinates are used in Euclidean geometry. They have the advantage that
the coordinates of a point, even those at infinity, can be represented using
finite coordinates. Often formulas involving homogeneous coordinates are
simpler and more symmetric than their Cartesian counterparts.
Homogeneous coordinates have a range of applications, including computer
graphicsand 3D computer vision, where they allow affine
transformations and, in general, projective transformations to be easily
represented by a matrix.

If the homogeneous coordinates of a point are multiplied by a non-zero

scalar then the resulting coordinates represent the same point. An additional
condition must be added on the coordinates to ensure that only one set of
coordinates corresponds to a given point, so the number of coordinates
required is, in general, one more than the dimension of the projective
space being considered. For example, two homogeneous coordinates are
required to specify a point on the projective line and three homogeneous
coordinates are required to specify a point on the projective plane.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Introduction
o 1.1 Notation
2 Homogeneity
3 Other dimensions
4 Alternate definitions
5 Elements other than points
6 Duality
7 Plücker coordinates
8 Application to Bézout's
theorem
9 Circular points
10 Change of coordinate
systems
11 Barycentric coordinates
12 Trilinear coordinates
13 Use in computer graphics
 14 See also
15 References
16 External links

[edit]Introduction

The projective plane can be thought of as the Euclidean plane with additional

points, so called points at infinity, added. There is a point at infinity for each
direction, informally defined as the limit of a point that moves in that
direction away from a fixed point. Parallel lines in the Euclidean plane are
said to intersect at a point at infinity corresponding to their common
direction. A given point (x, y) on the Euclidean plane is identified with two
ratios (X/Z, Y/Z), so the point (x, y) corresponds to the triple (X, Y, Z) =
(xZ, yZ, Z) where Z ≠ 0. Such a triple is a set of homogeneous coordinates
for the point (x, y). Note that, since ratios are used, multiplying the three
homogeneous coordinates by a common, non-zero factor does not change
the point represented – unlike Cartesian coordinates, a single point can be
represented by infinitely many homogeneous coordinates.

The equation of a line through the point (a, b) may be written l(x − a)

+ m(y − b) = 0 where l and m are not both 0. In parametric form this can
be written x = a + mt, y = b − lt. Let Z=1/t, so the coordinates of a point on
the line may be written(a + m/Z, b − l/Z)=((aZ + m)/Z, (bZ − l)/Z). In
homogeneous coordinates this becomes (aZ + m, bZ − l, Z). In the limit as t
approaches infinity, in other words as the point moves away
from (a, b), Z becomes 0 and the homogeneous coordinates of the point
become (m, −l, 0). So (m, −l, 0) are defined as homogeneous coordinates
of the point at infinity corresponding to the direction of the line l(x − a)
+ m(y − b) = 0.

To summarize:

 Any point in the projective plane is represented by a triple (X, Y, Z),

called the homogeneous coordinates of the point, where X, Y and Zare
not all 0.
 The point represented by a given set of homogeneous coordinates is
unchanged if the coordinates are multiplied by a common factor.
 Conversely, two sets of homogeneous coordinates represent the same
point only if one is obtained from the other by multiplying by a common
factor.
 When Z is not 0 the point represented is the point (X/Z, Y/Z) in the
Euclidean plane.
 When Z is 0 the point represented is a point at infinity.
Note that the triple (0, 0, 0) is omitted and does not represent any point.
The origin is represented by (0, 0, 1).[3]
[edit]Notation
Some authors use different notations for homogeneous coordinates which
help distinguish them from Cartesian coordinates. The use of colons instead
of commas, for example (x:y:z) instead of (x, y, z), emphasizes that the
coordinates are to be considered ratios.[4] Brackets, as in [x, y, z] emphasize
that multiple sets of coordinates are associated with a single point. Some
authors use a combination of colons and brackets, as in [x:y:z].[5]
[edit]Homogeneity

Homogeneous coordinates are not uniquely determined by a point, so a

function defined on the coordinates, say f(x, y, z), does not determine a
function defined on points as with Cartesian coordinates. But a
condition f(x, y, z) = 0 defined on the coordinates, as might be used to
describe a curve, determines a condition on points if the function
is homogeneous. Specifically, suppose there is k so that

If a set of coordinates represent the same point as (x, y, z) then it can

be written (λx, λy, λz) for some non-zero value of λ. Then

A polynomial g(x, y) of degree k can be turned into a homogeneous

polynomial by replacing x with x/z, y with y/z and multiplying by zk,
in other words by defining
The resulting function f is a polynomial so it makes sense to
extend its domain to triples where z = 0. The process can be
reversed by setting z = 1, or

The equation f(x, y, z) = 0 can then be thought of as the

homogeneous form of g(x, y) = 0 and it defines the same
curve when restricted to the Euclidean plane. For example,
the homogeneous form of the equation of the
line ax + by + c = 0 is ax + by + cz = 0.[6]