COMPUTER NETWORK

Governor Mariano E. Villafuerte Community College- Siruma

Poblacion, Siruma Camarines Sur
[email protected]
INSTITUTIONAL VISION

Develop graduates as self-reliant and competitive professional.

INSTITUTIONAL MISSION

Provide free quality education geographically inaccessible disadvantaged areas and nearby communities.

Assure adequate and appropriate resources to the learners.

CORE VALUES

Respect, Service, Competence, Excellence

GRADING SYSTEM

Quizzes 15%

Projects 30%

Participation 15%

Major Exams 40%

Total 100%

Final Grade – Midterm Grade 40% + Final Grade 60%

CLASSROOM/ MODULAR POLICIES

• Student has 1-week extension to submit the course requirements after the due date of
submission.
• All questions related to the course will be entertained during working hours.
• Students must follow the exam schedule.
• Class attendance and Participation – regular attendance is expected from the students.
• Be polite and respectful towards others.
• Students are expected to be online 15 minutes before the time.
• Do not post irrelevant comments, links, thoughts, or pictures.
• If having trouble with internet connection, Advise the instructor.

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required for
installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home. The hardware components are the
server, client, peer, transmission medium, and connecting devices. The software components are
operating system and protocols.

Uses of Computer Network

Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.

Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the
machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.

Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users. For
example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees use for
daily communication.

E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the internet.
For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business
over the internet.

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Major components of a computer network are:

NIC(National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network interface
card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the
system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is made
using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.

Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request
to all the interconnected computers.

Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e.,
it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:

Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.

Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive
than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.

Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams. It
provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared
to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the
motherboard.

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Software Components

Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server and
facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.

Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data communication.
Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer networks. The two popular
protocol suites are −

a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)

b. TCP / IP Model

A computer network has following features:

• Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of response time. The

response time of sending and receiving data from one node (computer in a computer network
are often referred as node) to another should be minimal.
• Data Sharing: One of the reason why we use a computer network is to share the data between
different systems connected with each other through a transmission media.
• Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the backup of all the data
that is to be shared over a network so that in case of a failure it should be able to recover the
data faster.
• Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not limit all the computers in a
computer network to use same software and hardware, instead it should allow the better
compatibility between the different software and hardware configuration.
• Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs the recovery from a
failure should be fast.
• Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data transmitting over a network
should be safe from unauthorised access. Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the
receiving node, which means there should not be any loss of data during transmission.
• Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should always allow to add
new computers (or nodes) to the already existing computer network. For example, a company
runs 100 computers over a computer network for their 100 employees, lets say they hire another
100 employees and want to add new 100 computers to the already existing LAN then in that
case the local area computer network should allow this.

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Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

• LAN(Local Area Network)

• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
• LAN Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building,
office.

LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet
cables.

The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

Local Area Network provides higher security.

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PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range of 10
meters.

Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.

Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.

Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

• Wired Personal Area Network

• Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and then
creates a connection with another device to share the information.

Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a home
network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but
they are not connected to the internet.

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Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.

Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.

The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.

It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

It can be used in a college within a city.

It can also be used for communication in the military.

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WAN(Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.

A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is
made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if the branch of
our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a
leased line through which we can connect with another branch.

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Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not need to buy the
emails, files or back up servers.

• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the programmers get
the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web application like
Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and other
resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high bandwidth.
The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the productivity of
our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN network
as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can be
changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the
virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the purchasing of
routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork

An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer network
segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing scheme. This
process is known as internetworking.

An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer networks

can also be defined as internetworking.

An internetworking uses the internet protocol.

The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is
restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of
internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot
have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission Control
protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is only accessible by
the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the information and

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resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for
teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:

• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the organization

can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be accessed by
the authorized user.
• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to another
device with different architecture.
• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and distributes the
duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

COMPUTER NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other is known as topology.
There are five types of topology – Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring and Hybrid.

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MESH TOPOLOGY

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a dedicated
point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two connected
devices only. Let’s say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1)
devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is only
available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required must be
huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link

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STAR TOPOLOGY

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike Mesh
topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device must have to
communicate through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the
data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with hub with
one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star
topology.

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BUS TOPOLOGY

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through drop
lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is
transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.

2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.

RING TOPOLOGY

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In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two
dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure forms
a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends
the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is intended
for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are required to be
changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a combination of star
and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our concern then
we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with different
topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

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Transmission modes

The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode.

The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.

Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.

The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

• Simplex mode
• Half-duplex mode
• Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.

A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the data.

This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way exchange of
data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding
reply.

The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows them to
transmit back.

Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data from
the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.

The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can be
utilized during transmission.

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Advantage of Simplex mode:

In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex mode

In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data
as well.

Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.

The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.

In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.

A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another
party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create
the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes the
delay in sending the data at the right time.

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Full-duplex mode

In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.

Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.

Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.

The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.

The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

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Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured program
with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and modify. To
overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered approach, networking
concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say
that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture

The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.

Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.

It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.

It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer without
defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other
layers.

The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network. However, the
purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from
the layers of how the services are implemented.

The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

• Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

• Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity.
These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.
• Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.

In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another
machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.

1. OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.

OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.

Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

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Characteristics of OSI Model:

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just
above another layer.

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the
OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:

• Physical Layer
• Data-Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer

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Physical layer

The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another
node.

It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

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It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Data-Link Layer

This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

It defines the format of the data on the network.

It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.

It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.

It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer

It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.

It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.

It also provides flow control.

Media Access Control Layer

A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical
layer.

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It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added
to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before
it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at
a given time.

Network Layer

It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.

It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

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The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.

Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.

The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a

logical connection between different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

Transport Layer

The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and there is no duplication of data.

The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.

This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

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The two protocols used in this layer are:

Transmission Control Protocol

It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.

It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units
known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct
order at the receiving end.

User Datagram Protocol

User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment when
the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of
the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error.

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Session Layer

It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

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Presentation Layer

A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between the two systems.

It acts as a data translator for a network.

This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.

The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It
converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text,
audio, video.

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Application Layer

An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network service.

It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.

This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

2. TCP/IP model

The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer and physical layer.

The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented
in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

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TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference
model.

It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.

The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the
network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.

The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer

An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

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The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at
the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

• IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
• Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the
data into message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link
layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that
they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through
various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.

The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

• ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the
ARP request to the network.
• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the
request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the
form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the
datagram header

ICMP Protocol

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back
to the sender.

A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route
the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.

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An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

• ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
• ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.

The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.

ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP
datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being
sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user
datagram has been damaged.

UDP consists of the following fields:

1. Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has
created the message.
2. Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program
that receives the message.
3. Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
4. Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a
data segment.

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the
transmission.

TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it
ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to
be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.

At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each
segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.

At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards its
data to the transport layer.

There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the
application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known
as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-
mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a
host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

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Using any type of paper available. Imagine you are putting your own computer shop.

1. Come up with the name of your business. (Computer shop)

E.g. Mahjoy Netishop

2. Illustrate (draw) the topology you are going to use in putting up 15 units of computers.

3. Illustrate how OSI model works.

Note: This module covers prelim and midterm.

Thank you and Keep safe everyone.

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