Control System Theory

Sourav Choubey
Asst. Professor,
Electrical Engineering
SRICT, Ankleshwar
Mob:- +919726785727
Email id: [email protected]

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology CST Sourav Choubey 1

Module 3

Introduction to Controller Design

Stability, steady-state accuracy, transient accuracy, disturbance rejection, insensitivity and robustness
of control systems. Root-loci method of feedback controller design. Design specifications in
frequency-domain. Frequency-domain methods of design. Application of Proportional, Integral and
Derivative Controllers, Lead and Lag compensation in designs. Analog and Digital implementation of
controllers.
Introduction
• The design of control systems is a specific example of engineering
design. The goal of control engineering design is to obtain the
configuration, specifications, and identification of the key parameters
of a proposed system to meet an actual need.
The design process consists of seven main building blocks, which we
arrange into three groups:
1. Establishment of goals and variables to be controlled, and definition
of specifications (metrics) against which to measure performance
2. System definition and modelling
3. Control system design and integrated system simulation and analysis
 For example, we may state that our goal is to control the velocity
of a motor accurately. The second step is to identify the variables
that we desire to control (for example, the velocity of the motor).
The third step is to write the specifications in terms of the
accuracy we must attain. This required accuracy of control will
then lead to the identification of a sensor to measure the
controlled variable. The performance specifications will describe
1. Establishing The how the closed-loop system should perform and will include
System Goals (1) good regulation against disturbances,
(2) desirable responses to commands,
(3) realistic actuator signals,
(4) low sensitivities,
(5) robustness.
 2. System Definition and Modelling

As designers, we proceed to the first attempt to configure a system that will result
in the desired control performance. This system configuration will normally consist
of a sensor, the process under control, an actuator, and a controller, as shown in
Figure. The next step consists of identifying a candidate for the actuator. This will,
of course, depend on the process, but the actuation chosen must be capable of
effectively adjusting the performance of the process. For example, if we wish to
control the speed of a rotating flywheel, we will select a motor as the actuator. The
sensor, in this case, must be capable of accurately measuring the speed. We then
obtain a model for each of these elements.
Control System Design, Simulation, and
Analysis
The next step is the selection of a controller, which often consists of a
summing amplifier that will compare the desired response and the
actual response and then forward this error-measurement signal to an
amplifier. The final step in the design process is the adjustment of the
parameters of the system to achieve the desired performance. If we
can achieve the desired performance by adjusting the parameters, we
will finalize the design and proceed to document the results. If not, we
will need to establish an improved system configuration and perhaps
select an enhanced actuator and sensor. Then we will repeat the design
steps until we are able to meet the specifications, or until we decide
the specifications are too demanding and should be relaxed.
CONTROLLER DESIGN
Specifications:
Steady-state accuracy,
Transient response
Absolute/ relative stability,
Sensitivity,
Disturbance rejection,
Control effort.
CONTROLLER DESIGN
 Need for controllers

• Controllers improve steady state accuracy by decreasing the steady state

errors.

• As the steady state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.

• They also help in reducing the offsets produced in the system.

• Maximum overshoot of the system can be controlled using these controllers.

Introduction to • They also help in reducing the noise signals produced in the system.
Controller Design Types of controllers

• Proportional controllers.

• Integral controllers.

• Derivative controllers.

• Proportional and integral controllers.

• Proportional and derivative controllers.

Introduction to Controller Design
• Proportional controllers
The output (also called the actuating signal) is directly
proportional to the error signal.

Where, Kp is proportional constant also known as controller gain.

It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of Kp is

greater than unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the
amplified error signal can be detected easily.
 Advantages of Proportional Controller
• Proportional controller helps in reducing the
steady state error, thus makes the system more
stable.
Introduction • Slow response of the over damped system can be
made faster with the help of these controllers.
to Controller Disadvantages of Proportional Controller
Design • Due to presence of these controllers we get some
offsets in the system.
• Proportional controllers also increases the
maximum overshoot of the system.
Introduction to Controller Design
Integral Controllers
• The output (also called the actuating signal) is directly
proportional to the integral of the error signal.

Where, Ki is integral constant also known as controller

gain. Integral controller is also known as reset controller.
 Advantages of Integral Controller
• Due to their unique ability they can
return the controlled variable back to
the exact set point following a
disturbance that’s why these are
Introduction to
Controller Design
known as reset controllers.
Disadvantages of Integral Controller
• It tends to make the system unstable
because it responds slowly towards
the produced error.
 Derivative Controllers
Never use derivative controllers alone. It
should be used in combinations with other
modes of controllers because of its few
disadvantages
Introduction to • It never improves the steady state error.
Controller Design • It produces saturation effects and also
amplifies the noise signals produced in
the system.
In derivative controller the output (also
called the actuating signal) is directly
proportional to the derivative of the error
signal.
Introduction to Controller Design
• Derivative controller

Where, Kd is proportional constant also known as controller

gain. Derivative controller is also known as rate controller.
Introduction to Controller
Design

Advantages of Derivative Controller

• The major advantage of derivative
controller is that it improves the
transient response of the system.
Proportional and Integral Controller
• output (also called the actuating
signal) is equal to the summation of
proportional and integral of the error
signal.
Introduction to Controller
Design

Proportional and
Derivative Controller
output (also called the
actuating signal) is
equals to the
summation of
proportional and
derivative of the error
signal.
 With feedback, the controller is able to
use the output to shape the input of the
system. In this way, various disturbances
don't affect the system as much and do
What is not create such huge deviations from
disturbance our desired output. Thus, our system
rejection? can "reject" the disturbance.
Comparison between P, PI, PD and PID controllers

Considering a unit negative feedback system, with

Setpoint - R(S) ,
Output - C(S)
Error signal - E(s) = R(S) - C(S)
Manipulated signal - M(S)
The type of controller used defines the output of the
system. Here, specifically we see the following controllers
alone.

Proportional ( P )
Proportional - Integrated ( PI )
Proportional - Differential ( PD )
Proportional - Integrated - Differential ( PID )
 Gain in time domain

Proportional ( P ) :

Proportional - Integrated ( PI ) :

Proportional - Differential ( PD ) :

Proportional - Integrated - Differential ( PID ) :

 Gain in Frequency Domain

Proportional ( P ) :

Proportional - Integrated ( PI ) :

Proportional - Differential ( PD ) :

Proportional - Integrated - Differential ( PID ) :

 Advantages:

Proportional ( P ) : Speed controlled ( Increase gain)

Proportional - Integrated ( PI ) : Good damping, Offset is zero ( because of Integration),

No steady state error

Proportional - Differential ( PD ) : Maximum overshoot decreases, Rise time, settling time is

reduced , Bandwidth is increased.

Decreases rise time (Kp), Eliminates steady state error

Proportional - Integrated - Differential ( PID ) :
(Ki), Decreases overshoot and settling time ( Kd)
 Disadvantages:

Proportional ( P ) : offset issue

Proportional - Integrated ( PI ) : Slow Response, Stability

Proportional - Differential ( PD ) : Offset, Steady state error

 System Filtration

Proportional ( P ) : Linear network ( No filtration)

Proportional - Integrated ( PI ) : Low pass filter

Proportional - Differential ( PD ) : High pass filter

Proportional - Integrated - Differential ( PID ) : Band pass or Band reject depending on gain values
5/31/2019
Compensators are subsystems introduced into the
system to meet design specifications

The desired behavior of the system is specified in

terms of transient measures and the steady state
error.

COMPENSAT
Compensation may Cascaded or Feedback
ORS
Question: What is system compensation?
Given the control plant, the procedure of controller
design to satisfy the requirement is called system
compensation.

Question: Why to compensate?

The closed-loop system has the function of self-tunning.
By selecting a particular value of the gain K, some single
performance requirement may be met.
Is it possible to meet more than one performance
requirement?
Sometimes, it is not possible.
Something new has to be done to the system in order to
make it perform as required.
1.Control system design and
compensation
• Design：Need to design the whole
controller to satisfy the system
requirement.
• Compensation：Only need to design
part of the controller with known
structure.
2. Three elements for compensation
Original part of the system
Performance requirement
Compensation device
 Introduction to Compensation Design
Performance Requirement

1. Time domain criteria（step response）

• Overshoot, settling time, rising time, steady-state error
2. Frequency domain criteria
• Open-loop frequency domain criteria：
crossover frequency, phase margin, gain margin
• Closed-loop frequency domain criteria ：
maximum value Mr , resonant frequency, bandwidth
 Frequency domain and time domain criteria
1
Resonant peak Mr 
2 1   2

Resonant frequency r  n 1  2 2
Bandwidth b  n 1  2 2  (1  2 2 ) 2  1

Gain crossover frequency c   n 4 4  1  2 2

2
Phase margin   arctg
4 4  1  2 2


1 2
Percentage overshoot %  e  100%
3 4
Settling time tS  ,
n n
 Structure of Compensator

• According to the way of compensation, the compensator

can be classified into following categories:

R(s) + C(s)
Compensator Plant
-

(a) Cascade Compensation

 + + C(s)
Original Part
- -

Compensator

(b) Feedback compensation

R(s) + Compensator + C(s)

1 Original Part
- -

Compensator
2

(c)Cascade and feedback compensation

 Compensator

+
R(s) + + C(s)
Original Part
-

(d) Feed-forward compensation

N(s)
Compensator

+ +
R(s) + + Original C(s)
Controller Part
+
-

(e) Disturbance compensation

Remark：
 Cascade compensation and feedback compensation are inside the
feedback loop.
 Feed-forward compensation and disturbance compensation are
outside the feedback loop.
 Methods for Compensator Design
1. Frequency Response Based Method
Main idea ： By inserting the compensator, the Bode
diagram of the original system is altered to achieve
performance requirements.

Original open-loop Bode diagram＋Bode diagram

of compensator＋alteration of gain
＝open-loop Bode diagram with compensation
2. Root Locus Based Method
Main idea: Inserting the compensator introduces new open-
loop zeros and poles to change the closed-loop root locus to
satisfy the requirement.
 Cascade Compensation
• Frequency response based compensation
Phase lead compensation
Phase lag compensation
Phase lead-lag compensation
• Fundmantal rule for control design：PID control
Each requirement relates to a different region of the
frequency axis in the Bode diagram.
1. The steady-state error relates to the magnitude at low
frequency.
2. The transient response requirement relates to the gain
crossover frequency, which usually occurs at higher
frequencies.
 5/31/2019

60 Compensators are of three types

COMPENSAT
• Lead Compensator
ORS • Lag Compensator
• Lead -Lag Compensator
 Lead Compensator
Lead compensators have a transfer function of the form

Pole is located to the left of zero (zero near origin)

Lead Compensator
improves transient response
increases stability margin
increases system error constant by limited range

5/31/2019 61
 Lag Compensator
Lag compensators have a transfer function of the form

Pole is located to the right of zero (pole near origin)

Lag Compensator
improves steady state behavior
preserves transient response

5/31/2019 62
 Lag-Lead Compensator
Lag-Lead compensators have a transfer function of the form

Lag-Lead Compensator is a combination lag compensator

and lead compensator connected in series

5/31/2019 63
Phase Lag Compensation
A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole which is closer to origin that all
other poles is known as dominating pole) is known as lag network. If we want to add a dominating
pole for compensation in control system then, we have to select a lag compensation network.

The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of
the network must lie in (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a pole located or on the nearest to
the origin.
Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag compensation network.

We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor R2 and the capacitor C.
From the above circuit diagram, we get
Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be
determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
Taking Laplace transform of above two equation we get,
On substituting the

in the above equation (Where, T and β are respectively the time constant and DC
gain), we have
The above network provides a high frequency gain of 1 / β. Let us draw the pole zero plot for the above
transfer function.

Pole Zero Plot of Lag Network

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to origin than the -1 / (βT)(which is
the pole of the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag compensator pole is more dominating than
the zero and because of this lag network introduces negative phase angle to the system when connected
in series.
Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have a < 1. On finding the phase angle
function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lag occurs at a frequency let us differentiate this phase
function and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. Remember β is generally chosen to be greater than 10.
 Effect of Phase Lag Compensation

1.Gain crossover frequency increases.

2.Bandwidth decreases.
3.Phase margin will be increase.
4.Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the settling time
become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation

1.Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2.Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy increases.

Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation

Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system decreases.
Phase Lag Lead Compensation
With single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied design specifications. For an unstable
uncompensated system, lead compensation provides fast response but does not provide enough
phase margin whereas lag compensation stabilize the system but does not provide enough
bandwidth. So we need multiple compensators in cascade.

Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag- lead compensation network.
Now let us determine transfer function for the given network and the transfer function can be
determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

On substituting the αT1 = R1C1, R2C2 = βT2, R1R2C1C2 = αβT1T2 and T1T2 = R1R2C1C2 in the
above equation (where T1, T2 and α, β are respectively the time constants and attenuation
constants). We have
pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to the origin than the -1/(βT)(which is
the pole of the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag-lead compensation pole is more dominating
than the zero and because of this lag-lead network may introduces positive phase angle to the system
when connected in series.
Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation

1.Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because it shifts
gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2.Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.
Compensation in Control
System
Summary
 Compensator
Summary
96

Type Transfer function Improves Comments

PI 𝑠+ 𝑧𝑐 Error • Pole at origin
𝐾
𝑠 • Zero near origin
• Increases system type
• May introduce a slow transient
• Active circuitry required
• Susceptible to integrator windup
Lag 𝑠+ 𝑧𝑐 Error • Pole near the origin
𝐾
𝑠+ 𝑝𝑐 • Small negative zero
• 𝑧𝑧𝑐𝑐 > 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐
• Error constant improved by 𝑧𝑧𝑐𝑐/𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐
• May introduce a slow transient
• Passive circuitry implementation
possible
 Compensator
Summary
97

Type Transfer function Improves Comments

PD 𝐾𝑠+ 𝑧𝑐 Transient response • Zero at −𝑧𝑧𝑐𝑐 contributes angle to
satisfy angle criterion at desired
closed-loop pole location
• Active circuitry required
• Amplifies sensor noise
Lead 𝑠+ 𝑧𝑐 Transient response • Lower-frequency zero
𝐾
𝑠+ 𝑝𝑐 • Higher-frequency pole
• Net angle contribution satisfies
angle criterion at design point
• Added pole helps reduce
amplification of higher-frequency
sensor noise
• Passive circuitry implementation
possible
 Compensator
Summary
98

Type Transfer function Improves Comments

PID 𝐾𝑖 Error & transient • PD compensation improves
𝐾𝑝+ + 𝐾𝑑𝑠 response transient response
𝑠
• PI compensation improves
steady-state error
• Active circuitry
• Amplifies noise
Lead-lag 𝑠+ 𝑧𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 Error & transient • Lead compensation
𝐾𝐾 𝑠+ 𝑧𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑑
𝑠+ 𝑝 𝑠𝑠+ 𝑝 response improves transient
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙
response
• Lag compensation improves
steady-state error
• Passive circuitry
implementation possible
• Amplification of high-
frequency noise reduced
 Compensators
• Early in the course we provided some useful guidelines
regarding the relationships between the pole positions
of a system and certain aspects of its performance
• Using root locus techniques, we have seen how the
pole positions of a closed loop can be adjusted by
varying a parameter

• What happens if we are unable to obtain that

performance that we want by doing this?
• Ask ourselves whether this is really the performance
that we want
• Ask whether we can change the system,
say by buying different components
• seek to compensate for the undesirable aspects of the
process
 Compensator design

• Where should we put new poles and zeros to achieve desired

performance?
• That is the art of compensator design

• We will consider first order compensators of the form

Kc(s + z ) ˜c(1 + s/z)
K
Gc(s) = = , where K˜=
c K z/p
c
(s + p) (1 + s/p)

• with the pole −p in the left half plane

• and the zero, −z in the left half plane, too
• For reasons that will soon become clear
• when |z| < |p|: phase lead network
• when |z| > |p|: phase lag network
Lead compensation

Kc (s + z)
Gc (s) =
(s + p)
with |z| < |p|. That is, zero closer to origin than pole

Let p = 1/τp and z = 1/(αleadτp ). Since z < p, αlead > 1.

Define K˜c= K c z/p = Kc/αlead. Then
Kc (s + z) Kc˜ (1 + αlead τp s)
Gc (s) = =
(s + p) (1 + τps)
Principles of Lead design via Root Locus
• The compensator adds poles and zeros to the P(s) in
the root locus procedure.
• Hence we can change the shape of the root locus.

• If we can capture desirable performance in terms of

positions of closed loop poles
• then compensator design problem reduces to:
• changing the shape of the root locus so that these
desired closed-loop pole positions appear on the root
locus
• finding the gain that places the closed-loop pole
positions at their desired positions

• What tools do we have to do this?

• Phase criterion and magnitude criterion, respectively
 RL design: Basic procedure
1 Translate design specifications into desired positions of
dominant poles
2 Sketch root locus of uncompensated system to see if desired
positions can be achieved
3 If not, choose the positions of the pole and zero of the
compensator so that the desired positions lie on the root
locus (phase criterion), if that is possible
4 Evaluate the gain required to put the poles there
(magnitude criterion)
5 Evaluate the total system gain so that the steady-state error
constants can be determined
6 If the steady state error constants are not satisfactory, repeat
This procedure enables relatively straightforward design of
systems with specifications in terms of rise time, settling time, and
overshoot; i.e., the transient response.
For systems with steady-state error specifications, Bode (and
Nyquist) methods may be more straightforward (later)
 Outcomes
• Root locus approach to phase lead design was
reasonably successful in terms of putting dominant
poles in desired positions; e.g., in terms of ζ and ωn
• We did this by positioning the pole and zero of the lead
compensator so as to change the shape of the root
locus
• However, root locus approach does not provide
independent control over steady-state error constants
(details upcoming)
• That said, since lead compensators reduce the DC gain
(they resemble differentiators), they are not normally
used to control steady-state error.
• The goal of our lag compensator design will be to
increase the steady-state error constants, without
moving the other poles too far
 Cascade compensation

• Throughout this lecture, and all the discussion on cascade

compensation, we will consider the case in which H(s) = 1.
• We will consider first order compensators of the form

Kc (s + z)
Gc (s) =
(s + p)
with the pole, −p, and the zero, −z, both in the left half plane
• when |z| < |p|: phase lead network
• when |z| > |p|: phase lag network
 Lag compensator design
Design principles:
• Don’t reshape the root locus
• Adding the open loop pole and zero from the
compensator should only result in a small change to the
angle criterion for any (important) point on the
uncompensated root locus
• Angles from compensator pole and zero to any
(important) point on the locus must be similar
• Pole and zero must be close together

• Increase value of error constant:

• Want to have a large value for αlag = z/p.
• How can that happen if z and p are close together?
• Only if z and p are both small, i.e., close to the origin
Compensation in Control
System
Principles of Lead design via Root Locus
• The compensator adds poles and zeros to the P(s) in
the root locus procedure.
• Hence we can change the shape of the root locus.

• If we can capture desirable performance in terms of

positions of closed loop poles
• then compensator design problem reduces to:
• changing the shape of the root locus so that these
desired closed-loop pole positions appear on the root
locus
• finding the gain that places the closed-loop pole
positions at their desired positions

• What tools do we have to do this?

• Phase criterion and magnitude criterion, respectively
 RL design: Basic procedure
1 Translate design specifications into desired positions of
dominant poles
2 Sketch root locus of uncompensated system to see if desired
positions can be achieved
3 If not, choose the positions of the pole and zero of the
compensator so that the desired positions lie on the root
locus (phase criterion), if that is possible
4 Evaluate the gain required to put the poles there
(magnitude criterion)
5 Evaluate the total system gain so that the steady-state error
constants can be determined
6 If the steady state error constants are not satisfactory, repeat
This procedure enables relatively straightforward design of
systems with specifications in terms of rise time, settling time, and
overshoot; i.e., the transient response.
For systems with steady-state error specifications, Bode (and
Nyquist) methods may be more straightforward (later)
 Outcomes
• Root locus approach to phase lead design was
reasonably successful in terms of putting dominant
poles in desired positions; e.g., in terms of ζ and ωn
• We did this by positioning the pole and zero of the lead
compensator so as to change the shape of the root
locus
• However, root locus approach does not provide
independent control over steady-state error constants
(details upcoming)
• That said, since lead compensators reduce the DC gain
(they resemble differentiators), they are not normally
used to control steady-state error.
• The goal of our lag compensator design will be to
increase the steady-state error constants, without
moving the other poles too far
 Cascade compensation

• Throughout this lecture, and all the discussion on cascade

compensation, we will consider the case in which H(s) = 1.
• We will consider first order compensators of the form

Kc (s + z)
Gc (s) =
(s + p)
with the pole, −p, and the zero, −z, both in the left half plane
• when |z| < |p|: phase lead network
• when |z| > |p|: phase lag network