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Candlenut oil: review on oil properties and future liquid biofuel prospects

Article  in  International Journal of Energy Research · January 2021

DOI: 10.1002/er.6446

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Received: 18 September 2020 Revised: 29 December 2020 Accepted: 8 January 2021
DOI: 10.1002/er.6446

SPECIAL ISSUE REVIEW PAPER

Candlenut oil: review on oil properties and future liquid

biofuel prospects

Marwan Abdulhakim Shaah | Faisal Allafi | Md Sohrab Hossain |

Alyaa Alsaedi | Norli Ismail | Mohd Omar Ab Kadir | Mardiana Idayu Ahmad

Environmental Technology Division,

School of Industrial Technology,
Summary
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, The rapid depletion of diesel fuel, increasing energy demand, and environmental
Malaysia pollution concerns are increasing worldwide interest in the production of liquid
Correspondence biofuels. Biofuel (bio-aviation and biodiesel) is a potential and plausible alterna-
Md Sohrab Hossain and Mardiana Idayu tive to diesel fuel to substantially mitigate the environmental impact of future
Ahmad, Environmental Technology
energy demand. Non-edible crop oil is viewed as a potential feedstock for liquid
Division, School of Industrial Technology,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, biofuel production owing to the massive demand for edible oil as a food source.
Penang, Malaysia. However, the major limitation of utilizing non-edible crop oil for biodiesel pro-
Email: [email protected] (M. S. H.) and
[email protected] (M. I. A)
duction is the cost due to the high price of feedstocks and the limited supply of
large-scale biodiesel production. Candlenut trees can grow in harsh and arid cli-
Funding information mates due to low moisture requirements. Therefore, candlenut can be cultivated
Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia,
Grant/Award Number: 203/
in the most unused lands, particularly in developing countries along coasts and
PTEKIND/6711817 riverbanks and in deserts and other wastelands unsuitable for edible crops. Addi-
tionally, candlenut seed contains a high amount of oil (30%-60%). Thus, candle-
nut oil is a promising source for commercial biodiesel production. The present
study was conducted to review the possibilities and challenges of utilizing candle-
nut as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Additionally, several impor-
tant aspects related to candlenut oil processing, such as extraction technology,
physicochemical properties, biodiesel production technologies, and advantages
and limitations of candlenut biodiesel production are discussed.

KEYWORDS
biodiesel, candlenut oil, engine performance, bio-aviation, biofuel policy, economic feasibility,
oil extraction technology, transesterification

1 | INTRODUCTION development. Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels

increases the level of CO2 in the atmosphere, which is
Global energy consumption is escalating.1 The decline in directly associated with global warming.5 Approximately,
fossil fuel reserves and rising environmental concerns 15 billion tons of CO2 are dispersed into the environment
has made renewable alternative energies attractive.2-4 In annually due to the utilization of petroleum oil in diesel
the past few decades, fossil fuel energy has been the pri- engines.5,6 As the demand for energy progressively
mary energy resource worldwide. However, non- expands due to rapid population rise and industrial
renewable fossil fuels are projected to be exhausted soon growth, wind, solar, hydrogen, and biofuel have been
due to rapid population growth and economic considered as promising alternative renewable energy

Int J Energy Res. 2021;1–23. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 SHAAH ET AL.

sources to mitigate climate change impacts and to meet 2 | BIODIES EL: ADVANTAGES
global energy demand.7 AND LIMITATIONS
Biofuel is the most prominent alternative natural fuel
owing to its technically viable economic benefits and Candlenut oil might provide a new source of feedstock
environment-friendly properties and can be utilized in for use in biodiesel production. The term “biodiesel” was
petroleum engines without mechanical modification.6,7 popularized in the United States in 1992 through the
Biofuels derived from edible or non-edible oils, animal fats, National Soy Diesel Development Board, which
and alcohol with or without a catalyst is an eco-friendly, spearheaded biodiesel commercialization. Biodiesel is
renewable, biodegradable, vastly available, and non-toxic becoming an increasingly popular clean fuel, and produc-
fuel.2,8,9 Research and development of biofuels continues to tion occurs from domestic, renewable resources. Biodie-
improve and enhance their reliability and sustainability as sel, which consists of a mono-alkyl ester of long-chain
a green energy resource. In the last decade, the biofuel sec- fatty acids, is a possible alternative to non-renewable
tor has made advancements in biofuel production by vary- petroleum-derived diesel fuel17-23 and can be combined
ing many alternative raw materials. First-generation with diesel in any proportion, resulting in a biodiesel
biofuels are produced from agricultural crops containing blend.9,19,23,24 The environmentally friendly and non-
sugar, such as seeds, corn, wheat, and sugarcane. However, toxic nature of biodiesel differentiates it from ordinary
this has raised the food vs fuel issue and increased the bio- diesel, and mixing with diesel improves mechanical effi-
fuel production cost, as the price of feedstock increased ciency.25 The use of biodiesel in engines reduces emis-
with high demand and competition for food. Thus, the sions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), the major cause of acid rain,
second-generation feedstock was introduced, creating a and the effective lubrication properties enhance engine
space for biofuels as the raw materials for fuels obtained life and performance. Operational safety is also improved
from agricultural and forest residues and wood processing because of the high flash point of biodiesel, which is safer
waste, such as Pongamia glabra (koroch), Aleurites than diesel and can be used in engines without alter-
moluccanus (candlenut), Madhuca indica (mahua), Pon- ations.19,22,26 Scientists and researchers are increasingly
gamia pinnata (karanja), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber seeds), interested in the use of non-edible candlenut oil as feed-
Azadirachta indica (neem), Ricinus communis L. (castor), stocks to produce biofuel (biodiesel) owing to the rela-
Babassu, Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba) Cerbera odollam tively low cost, which lowers the price of biofuel.27
(sea mango), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), croton Biodiesel fuel has many advantages and benefits over
megalocarpus, salmon oil, pilu, crambe, syringa, linseed, petro-diesel fuel; nonetheless, it also has shortcomings
and Schleichera triguga (kusum).2,10,11 and disadvantages.2,28-40 The major advantages of biodie-
Justifying the use of edible vegetable oils and animal sel are as follows:
fats for biofuel production is difficult owing to the demand
for food, which has increased sharply.12 Furthermore, vege- • Biodiesel, as a renewable energy source, can support a
table oils are more expensive as biofuel feedstock, which continuous supply chain.
encourages the use of non-edible oils, including candlenut, • Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly energy source
for biofuel (biodiesel and bio-aviation) production. Numer- that emits fewer greenhouse gases than diesel.
ous studies have focused on the production of biofuel from • The method of biodiesel production is simpler than
non-edible oils using various technologies.7,13-16 In this that of petro-diesel production.
paper, emphasis is placed on the prospects of the second- • Biodiesel has a high cetane number, which promises
generation feedstock (candlenut oil) as a sustainable alter- effective engine performance and a longer engine
native fuel. This paper aims to highlight the potential of lifespan with less maintenance.
candlenut oil for biofuel production, replacing the depen- • No additional lubricant is needed with biodiesel.
dence on fossil fuels and edible feedstocks. Several aspects • Biodiesel fuel has great value for stimulating sustain-
related to candlenut oil are reviewed in this paper, includ- able rural development.
ing the properties and characteristics of candlenut oil fatty • Transportation energy security issues could be solved
acid composition profile of candlenut oil, candlenut oil using biodiesel fuel.
extraction techniques, candlenut biodiesel conversion tech- • Biodiesel fuel can be locally produced, making it a
niques, biodiesel standard and characterization, candlenut cost-effective energy source.
biodiesel properties, candlenut biodiesel engine perfor- • Biodiesel properties, such as sulfur content, flash
mance, and emissions. The promising technologies that point, aromatic content, and biodegradability are supe-
can be used for bio-aviation production from candlenut oil, rior to those of petro-diesel.
bio-aviation standards, and characterization are also • Biodiesel has a highly biodegradable molecular struc-
highlighted in this paper. ture with minimal combustion toxicity.
SHAAH ET AL. 3

• Biodiesel is safer to handle and transport and less can grow in soil with pH of 5-8 at 18-28
C and rainfall of
toxic. 6500-4000 mm24,42 and is medium-sized with a maximum
• Biodiesel is more portable renewable fuel with more height of 20 m. The candlenut is a flowering tree with a
available combustion efficiency. crown shape, irregular branches, and large green leaves.
• Biodiesel is non-corrosive and produced under low The annual productivity of candlenut seed and candlenut
pressure and temperature conditions. oil is 16 ton/ha/year and 3200 kg/ha, respectively.24,43
• Biodiesel is neither flammable nor toxic and reduces Indonesia currently cultivates candlenut in eastern prov-
tailpipe emissions, visible smoke, noxious fumes, and inces as a perennial plant.44 The tree has many different
odors. uses, as almost every part can be used for various pur-
• Biodiesel is a potential substitute for diesel in boilers poses. The living tree can be used as a windbreak and
or internal combustion engines and requires no major domestic fence. The wood is not resistant to rotting, but
alterations. it can be used as an effective substrate for growing mush-
• Biodiesel oxygen content is higher, which assists com- rooms, fuel, and making fishing boats.44 The seeds are
plete fuel combustion and decreases emissions. toxic when raw, but edible when dried in small quanti-
• Cultivation of biodiesel materials in rural areas and ties. Empty seed shells can be used to make jewelry or
unused land within numerous countries can notably produce dye by burning the shells. Approximately 60% of
increase national economic potential and reduce the candlenut seed is oil, which is obtained using several
dependency on crude oil imports. extraction techniques.24,27,45,46 Candlenut oil has a high
iodine number (≥125) and lower pour point24,46 and is
Although biodiesel is regarded as a promising alterna- primarily for cosmetics, varnishes, paints, and high-
tive to diesel fuel, the following limitations must be over- quality biofuel production. The seed cake that remains
come to compete for diesel fuel: after extracting the candlenut oil can be used as animal
fodder or fertilizer.24,44 Crude candlenut oil contains high
• Biodiesel produces higher NOx emissions than die- free fatty acids (FFA), which contribute to its low pour
sel fuel. point.24,27,45 Oil content is another important criterion
• Biodiesel has higher pour and cloud points when set for determining the suitability of candlenut oil as an
against diesel fuel, which causes the fuel to freeze in alternative feedstock for biofuel production.24,44,45
cold weather.
• Biodiesel viscosity is higher than that of diesel fuel
because of its chemical structure. The large molecular 4 | CANDLENUT O IL
mass of non-edible oils may cause problems in EXTRACTION METHODS
pumping, atomization, and combustion in the diesel
engine injector system. Extracting the oil from non-edible feedstock (seeds,
• Biodiesel provides 5% less engine power and speed leaves, fruits, and seed shells) is the first step in biofuel
than diesel fuel. production. The extraction process parameters and pre-
• Biodiesel is degradable when stored over a long period. treatment processes, such as cleaning, drying, preheating,
• The high viscosity over long-term operations causes and crushing, affect the success or failure of the extrac-
the build-up of injector deposits, ring-sticking, and tion process and the extracted oil quality.11 Various
plugging of filters, lines, and injectors.

T A B L E 1 The taxonomical or scientific classification of

candlenut oil tree
3 | CANDLE NUT ( ALEURITES
MOLUCCANUS) AS A P O T E N T I A L Taxonomical classification
FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODIESEL
Kingdom Plantae
PRODUCTION
Division Spermatopphyta

Candle nut (Aleurites moluccanus) is also known as Sub division Angiospermae

kemiri in Indonesia and kukui Hawaii.24 The candlenut Class Dicotyledoneae
tree (Aleurites moluccana L. Wild)—found in tropical Order Archichlamydae
subcontinents—belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family24 Family Euphorbiaceae
and is a multipurpose tree native to the Indo-Malaysia
Genus Aleurites
region.27,41 The taxonomical or scientific classification of
Species Aleurites moluccana
the candlenut oil tree is presented in Table 1. The tree
4 SHAAH ET AL.

outcomes of oil and grades of oil can be obtained solvent extraction.2 Non-edible oil Soxhlet extraction can
depending on the type of plant seeds and the extraction be performed using other organic solvents, such as meth-
method.47 Common technologies for the extraction of anol, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone, or chloro-
non-edible oils from various plant seeds are the mechani- form.57,59,60 The performance of Soxhlet extraction
cal screw press, Soxhlet extraction, enzymatic extraction, depends on several parameters, such as the type of sol-
microwave extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction vent, operating temperature, particle size of the sample,
(SFE).2,48 However, researchers have tested only the solvent to seed ratio, and extraction time.2,48,49,61,62
mechanical press method, Soxhlet extraction technology, Mixing the organic solvent can also be applied during the
and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction technology to extraction of lipids, which have different types of polari-
extract candlenut oil from seeds. ties.59 Particle size is one of the most influential parame-
ters in Soxhlet extraction, because the smaller particle
size has a greater interfacial area between the solvent
4.1 | Mechanical extraction of and solid matrices.24,58 Temperature potentially influ-
candlenut oil ences the extraction rate, because increased temperature
increases the solubility of the solid matrices.57
The mechanical pressing of candlenut seeds is the tradi- Subroto et al.24 reported that solvent extraction using
tional oil extraction method. Researchers have used a hexane produced approximately 62.8% oil yield from can-
mechanical press with solvent extraction on the pressed dlenut seeds. Siddique et al.43 and Sulistyo et al.46
candlenut cake to extract candlenut oil from the extracted candlenut oil using hexane as a solvent. Martín
seeds,46,49 and the mechanical press is the most common et al.50 extracted candlenut oil from candlenut pressed
and conventional method used in extracting oil from cake using ethanol as the extraction solvent to yield
high-oil-content natural materials, including candlenut 13.1% candlenut oil. However, drawbacks of the Soxhlet
seeds.49-51 The mechanical screw technique is operated extraction process include the long duration of the
manually or using a hydraulic shaft to exert a pressing method and the large amount of solvent required, which
force of up to 100 MPa by reducing the space and volume makes it economically inefficient.56 Furthermore, the use
in the extraction chamber to squeeze out the oil from the of dangerous solvents in the extraction methods has
materials.49,52,53 The operation process of the mechanical many environmental limitations and has driven efforts to
press is simple but yields medium oil extraction. None- find cleaner alternative processes for candlenut oil
theless, the efficiency of the mechanical press extraction extraction.
method increases with proper pretreatment of the seeds
by drying, cooking, and particle size reduction.49,52,54
Martín et al.49 extracted candlenut oil using a mechanical 4.3 | Supercritical carbon dioxide
press method that yielded 43.5% candlenut oil. Budianto extraction of candlenut oil
et al.50 and Yuliani et al.51 also used a mechanical press
to extract candlenut oil. The use of a mechanical press is The SFE technique was introduced in the 1980s and
more effective with organic solvent extraction, which offered a short extraction process without the use of
yields approximately 8%-13% more candlenut oil.50,51 organic solvents.49,63,64 Supercritical carbon dioxide
Martín et al.49 combined a mechanical press with hexane (scCO2) is a clean, unconventional extraction method
solvent extraction to extract candlenut oil from the seeds. used for the extraction of candlenut oil.24,56,63 The use of
The use of solvent extraction on the pressed cake CO2 gas as a solvent has many advantages; it is relatively
increased the oil yield by 13.1%. The disadvantage of cheap, non-toxic, non-flammable, and completely
applying mechanical extraction technology for non-edible inert.65,66 scCO2 is a good solvent for most natural com-
oil extraction is that the extracted oil requires further oil pounds, such as natural pigments, vitamins, aromas, and
purification by filtration and degumming processes.48,55 essential oils,67-70 and it is the most commonly used sol-
vent for the extraction of valuable products, such as food
additives, nutraceuticals, and antioxidants from natural
4.2 | Soxhlet extraction of candlenut oil sources. Conventional extraction methods normally
involve the use of organic solvents to dissolve the com-
Soxhlet extraction is widely used for the extraction of pounds of interest from their source materials, followed
nonedible oil from seeds, including candlenut oil, using by a separation process to separate the extractant from
organic solvents, of which hexane is the most commonly the residue. The final step is to isolate the valuable prod-
used.56-58 The extraction and removal of a constituent uct from the solution using various methods that nor-
from a solid material using a liquid solvent is called mally require heat application. The solvent can be reused
SHAAH ET AL. 5

many times after the separation process. With scCO2, the components isolation/fractionation from crude extracts
depressurization process at the end of the extraction for compound formulation and sterilization devoid of
phase ensures the complete removal of the utilized sol- organic solvents and high temperatures implies that the
vent from the extracted oil—a major advantage of using extraction process must be conducted using only dense
scCO2 for natural product extraction. The use of scCO2 gases.68 The technologies for candlenut oil extraction are
also ensures the stability of the extracted compounds listed in Table 2. The extraction yield primarily depends
owing to the lower operating temperatures and the on the oil content of candlenut seeds; maximum candle-
absence of organic solvents. scCO2 also permits the nut nut oil was extracted using supercritical carbon diox-
extraction of selected components or fractionation of ide extraction, as reported by Siddique et al.43 Figure 1
extracts.71,72 In scCO2, the solubility of the mixture or shows the schematic flow diagram of candlenut oil
compounds is a function of the dielectric constant and extraction and biofuel production.
density of the applied supercritical fluid (SCF), both of
which are dependent on the applied temperature and
pressure. Hence, the process parameters must be opti- 4.4 | Physicochemical properties and
mized to ensure adequate levels of compound solubility fatty acid composition of non-edible
and easy process control. Various researchers have candlenut oil
reported the use of scCO2 for candlenut oil extraction
and reported various oil yields of 61.4%,24 77.27%,43 and Obtaining non-edible oil derivatives to enhance the prop-
52.58%.60 erties and performance of biofuels has been a subject of
Owing to the high investment cost of SFE, the cost of scientific effort.2 The principal features of vegetable oils
SFE products is reasonably high when compared to the are fuel properties, such as the flash point, density, vis-
cost of products from other conventional methods; this is cosity, calorific value, acid value, iodine number, perox-
a major disadvantage of SFE,67 but it is counteracted ide value, and saponification value.17,18,28
avoiding legal limitations regarding the presence of sol- Physicochemical characterization of candlenut oil has
vent and solvent residues in products intended for been reported by various researchers. Determining these
human and animal applications. The need for properties allows candlenut oil to be evaluated as a

TABLE 2 Extraction technologies of candlenut oil

Extraction technologies
Mechanical press
Type of press Pre treatment Parameter Oil yield (%) Reference
Pressure (Mpa) Time (Min)
Pneumatic press Drying 8.8 5 43.2 49
Compression / / / 42.5 50
Press Drying / / / 51
Solvent extraction
Solvent Parameters Oil yield (%) Reference
Temperature (oC) Solvent to seed ratio Time (h)
Ethanol 40 15:1 24 13.1 49
Hexane 68.5 10:1 6 62.8 24
Hexane / / / / 46
Hexane / / 11 / 43
Supercritical extraction
Solvent Parameter Oil yield (%) Reference


Temperature ( C) Pressure (Mpa) Particle size (mm)
CO2 60 35 0.8 61.4 24
CO2 76.4 48.26 / 77.27 43
CO2 40 34.5 5 52.58 60
6 SHAAH ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 Schematic flow
diagram of candlenut oil
extraction and biofuel
production47 [Colour figure can
be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

possible source of industrial feedstock for biofuel produc- 5 | C A NDL E NUT BI O DI E SE L

tion and for other purposes. Table 3 outlines the physical C O NV E R SI O N T E C HNO L O GY
and chemical qualities of non-edible candlenut oil.
All biofuel sources include fatty acid composition, a Generally, four standard methods are used in the produc-
highly significant parameter that facilitates the selec- tion of biodiesel from various non-edible feedstocks,
tion of efficient production methods. The composition namely, pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, dilution, and
of fatty acids primarily depends on the source type and transesterification. Researchers have produced candlenut
quality and the habitat of the plant.2 The fatty acid biodiesel via transesterification and by using micro-emul-
composition of certain non-edible oils usually involves sification, pyrolysis, and dilution to produce candlenut
aliphatic compounds that have a straight chain with a biodiesel.
carboxyl group at the end.28 Commonly reported fatty
acids are palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1),
linoleic (C18:2), and linolenic (C18:3).24,27,43,60 Other 5.1 | Transesterification process
forms of acid may be less evident.60 Research suggests
that candlenut oil primarily contains unsaturated fatty Transesterification is the most commonly used way to
acids with a higher degree of polyunsaturated acids. reduce the viscosity of nonedible oils, including candle-
The values determined in research may differ slightly nut oil. This process generates products usually known as
depending on the precise extraction procedure, biodiesel (alkyl esters of fats or oils).22 In the trans-
employed analytical method, and geographical origin of esterification process, ethanol and methanol are the most
the candlenut tree. The fatty acid compositions of can- commonly used forms of alcohol. Methanol is preferred
dlenut oil are listed in Table 4. to other types of alcohol owing to its comparatively cheap
SHAAH ET AL. 7

price and chemical and physical advantages over other appropriate catalyst is present to produce ethyl/methyl
aliphatic alcohols—it is the shortest chain alcohol.73,74 esters. The basic transesterification pathway is shown in
The transesterification process—simple and relatively Figure 3. The reaction produces two clear layers of liq-
cheap—is considered the optimal technique and solution uids, ethyl/methyl ester, and glycerin.75 Many
to overcome the high viscosity issue found in different researchers have reported the transesterification of can-
approaches.48,75,76 Figure 2 shows the basic trans- dlenut oil with different parameters using different cata-
esterification process for biodiesel production. lysts. Transesterification shows high sensitivity to
Transesterification is a technique broadly available feedstock purity, especially in terms of moisture content
for the production of industrialized biodiesel and has and FFA content (greater than approximately 1% w/w).
greater conversion efficiency and fewer costs.75,78 This Candlenut oil typically requires pre-treatment operations;
method has numerous advantages over other methods. thus, saponification and lower reaction yields can be
Transesterification can be achieved under standard con- prevented.19,27,45,75
ditions, yields higher-quality biodiesel, and demonstrates The transesterification process generally uses two
high energy conversion, cost effective catalysts and reac- standard methods: non-catalytic and catalytic trans-
tants, and low energy consumption.78,79 In this tech- esterification. The former requires co-solvents and super-
nique, alcohol reacts with nonedible oil, and an critical alcohol, whereas the latter requires acid and base
catalysis.2,19,45,46,56,81,82 The catalytic transesterification
method can be conducted using a heterogeneous or
TABLE 3 Physicochemical properties of candlenut oil
homogeneous catalyst or enzymes.77,83 Candlenut biodie-
Sulistyo Pham Subroto sel is a synthesis that uses the transesterification method
Parameter et al.45 et al.27 et al.24 to produce candlenut oil in the presence of alcohol and a
Viscosity (mm/s2) 25.89 24.89 76.44 catalyst. The methanolysis reaction has been widely stud-
Density (kg/m ) 3
914.5 914 904
ied, and the standard process uses alkalis or acid, such as
sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid as a catalyst.27,45,46,84,85
Moisture content — 0.02 0.26
(wt%)
In the catalytic method, the type and cost of the catalyst
are the principal factors that reduce the cost of biodiesel
Calorific value — 5446.89 —
production. Potassium, sodium hydroxide, or sodium is
(MJ/kg)
typically selected as a catalyst, as these are low-cost and
Iodine number 137 138 —
active in this reaction.45,48,80,85 Many researchers have
(g I2/100 g)
produced candlenut biodiesel from candlenut seeds using
Acid value (mg 1.597 1.39 1.5
the transesterification method under different conditions.
KOH/g oil)
Table 5 summarizes biodiesel production through this
Saponification 3.384 3.29 187
process using candlenut oil; the advantages and disad-
value (mg/g)
vantages of transesterification are summarized in
FFA (%) 7.77 15 —
Table 6.
Peroxide value — 4.1 4.1 Biodiesel was produced from candlenut oil using the
(mEq O2/100 g transesterification method by Pham et al.,27 who stated
oil)
that candlenut oil contained 7% FFA. The oil was first

TABLE 4 Fatty acid composition of candlenut oil

Compound Structure Norulaini et al.60 Pham et al.27 Subroto et al.24 Siddique et al.43
Caprylic acid C8:0 0.019 — — —
Capric acid C10:0 0.017 — — —
Lauric acid C12:0 0.022 — — —
Myristic acid C14:0 0.051 — — —
Palmitic acid C16:0 6.340 6.3 6.51 0.383
Stearic acid C18:0 54.022 3.2 2.53 6.36
Oleic acid C18:1 16.147 21.8 26.35 47.17
Linoleic acid C18:2 20.391 41.1 39.71 42.63
Linolenic acid C18:3 2.991 26.8 25 2.38
8 SHAAH ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 Basic transesterification
process for biofuel production48,73,77
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 3
Transesterification reaction of
triglycerides2,48,77,80

TABLE 5 Biodiesel production from candlenut oil

Solvent Catalyst Temperature/time Alcohol: oil ratio Performance Reference

acetone KOH 1% 40 C/45 minutes 5:1 99.3% 27
Methanol KOH 1% Ambient temperature/75 minutes 6:1 98% 45


Ethanol KOH 1% 70 C/75 minutes 7.5:1 98.77% 46


Methanol KOH 1% 60 C/120 minutes 8:1 — 86


Nitrogen Co-Ni/HZSM-5 1 g 350 C/120 minutes — 46.77% 87
Nitrogen Zn/HZSM-5 325
C — 80.75% 50

pretreated through the esterification process to reduce as a catalyst, with a ratio of 6:1 of methanol to oil, and a
the FFA to less than 1%. The results of the esterification 75-minute reaction time at room temperature, with an
process using a co-solvent of acetonitrile (30 wt%) and ethanol-to-oil ratio of 7.5:1, and 1.5% potassium hydrox-
H2SO4 as a catalyst reduced the FFA in the oil to 0.8% in ide as a catalyst. The purity of the ethyl esters reached
1 hour at 65
C. The candlenut oil was transesterified 98.77% under these reaction conditions. Furthermore,
using 20 wt% of acetone as a co-solvent and 1 wt% potas- blends of candlenut biodiesel with petroleum diesel in
sium hydroxide (KOH) with a 45-minute reaction time at diesel engines have been tested. Imdadul et al.86 studied
40
C. The biodiesel conversion obtained in this study the two-step transesterification process of using candle-
was 99.3%. nut oil to produce biodiesel. The researcher also studied
Sulistyo et al.45,46 conducted transesterification of blending the resulting biodiesel with diesel fuel at three
candlenut oil using different solvents (methanol and eth- different blending ratios (10%, 20%, and 30%) as test
anol) with KOH as the respective catalyst. The oil was blends for engine testing. The candlenut oil contained
esterified to reduce the FFA to less than 1% using 1% sul- 15% free fatty acid content and was pretreated with the
furic acid and 30 wt% of methanol as a co-solvent, for esterification process by an acid catalyst. The trans-
1 hour at 65
C. The ideal reaction conditions for the esterification method using a base catalyst was used to
transesterification process were 1% potassium hydroxide produce candlenut biodiesel. The researcher concluded
SHAAH ET AL. 9

TABLE 6 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification the optimum ratio to maximize biodiesel yield at 98 wt.%
method was 7.5:1 M alcohol to oil. Many researchers agree that
Advantages Disadvantages
the alcohol to oil ratio is a significant factor in the pro-
duction of candlenut biodiesel within a certain limit,
Biodiesel properties are similar Pretreatment is required
beyond which the amount of alcohol does not affect the
to diesel (esterification)
biodiesel yield, whereas a greater concentration of alco-
Relativity low cost Neutralizing and washing
hol may lead to high downstream processing.27,45,51,86
the product is required
Catalyst concentration is also an important factor in the
High conversion efficiency Accompanied by side
transesterification of candlenut oil to yield biodie-
reactions
sel.2,27,45,90,91 Candlenut biodiesel yield was optimized
It is suitable for industrialized Separation of products is
using a catalyst concentration of up to 1 wt.%, with a
production difficult
98 wt.% conversion.45,46 The suitability of the catalyst
Low free fatty acid and water weight (%), time, and reaction temperature are normally
content are required (for base
determined through optimization.27,45 The physical
catalyst)
appearance of candlenut biodiesel is affected by using the
Source: References 17 and 88. correct catalyst concentration, where a greater concentra-
tion may produce a darker color.88,92 The reaction tem-
perature is also influential in the transesterification of
that the optimum parameters for the transesterification candlenut oil. Generally, increased reaction temperature
process were an 8:1 methanol to oil ratio, 1 wt% potas- increases the reaction speed and yields more candlenut
sium hydroxide (KOH), temperature of 60
C, and reac- biodiesel.45 However, raising the temperature further
tion time of 2 hours. above the boiling points of certain types of alcohols, such
Budianto et al.50 and Al-Muttaqii et al.87 conducted as methanol and hexane (boiling points of 64.7
C and
catalytic hydrocracking of candlenut oil to produce bio- 68.7
C, respectively), does not yield a higher quantity of
diesel. Budianto et al.50 used a Zn/HZSM-5 catalyst to biodiesel.27,92
produce biodiesel from candlenut oil. He stated that
a temperature of 325
C with a nitrogen flow rate of
60 mL/min obtained the greatest percentage of biodiesel 6 | PHYSICOCHEMICAL
(80.75%). Al-Muttaqii et al.87 produced biodiesel from P R O P E R T I E S O F C A NDL E NUT
candlenut oil using Co-Ni/HZSM-5 as a catalyst. BIODIESEL

Biodiesel quality is ascertained by comparing its proper-

5.2 | Factors affecting the candlenut oil ties with the standard specifications provided by alterna-
transesterification reaction tive fuel data centers.93 The quality of the resulting
candlenut biodiesel was ensured by physio-chemical
The candlenut oil transesterification process for synthe- analysis. The major properties of biodiesel are density,
sizing candlenut biodiesel is affected by numerous factors kinematic viscosity, flash point, calorific value, cloud
and parameters. The FFA content of candlenut oil is the point and pour point, oxidation stability, and cetane
primary factor affecting the transesterification process. number, in accordance with ASTM.28,94 The physico-
Candlenut oil is reported to have a high FFA content chemical characterizations of candlenut biodiesel and
ranging from 7% to 15%.27,45,46,50,86 Reduction of the FFA other nonedible plant biodiesel compared to ASTM
content in candlenut oil is important for reducing and D6751 and EN14214 are presented in Table 7.
preventing downstream processing issues and soap for-
mation.27,45,86 The ideal homogeneous acid catalyst in
candlenut oil esterification is H2SO4, with alcohol to 6.1 | Density
reduce the FFA content to less than 1 wt.% before the
transesterification procedure.2,17,27,89,90 Density is a key property of fuel and biofuel that directly
The alcohol-to-oil ratio is another important factor affects engine performance and is related to other signifi-
affecting the candlenut oil transesterification method. cant properties, such as the cetane number and viscos-
Candlenut oil transesterification requires alcohol to drive ity.102,103 Density is defined as the relationship between
the reaction to completion. KOH and NaOH are the most the mass and volume of a liquid or solid and is given in
used alkaline homogeneous catalysts in the candlenut oil units of grams per liter (g/L),2,28 indicating a delay
transesterification process.45,46 Sulistyo et al.46 stated that between the injection and combustion of biodiesel in a
10 SHAAH ET AL.

diesel engine (known as ignition quality) and energy per

6 hours minutes
unit mass (specific energy).28 Biodiesel density was mea-
EN14214 sured by the ASTM D1298 and EN ISO 1676

28,86,95
methods.2,28,103 Density affects combustion quality by
860-900

0.5max
>0.05
<120
3.5-5
influencing the mass of fuel injected through the injec-

120
51

35
/
/
tor.28,104,105 A higher density indicates that the combus-
tion chamber contains larger biodiesel droplets; thus, the

3 hours minutes
efficiency of atomization and air-fuel ratio formation
ASTM 6751

decreases. Therefore, the different mass of injected fuel

28,86,95
−3-11.8

0.5max
−15-15

>0.03 affects the engine output power.28,106 The density of bio-

<130
1.9-6
—

47
diesel also influences engine emissions. A higher volume

/
of emissions, notably NOx and particulate matter (PM), is
Diesel

produced by high-density biodiesel.28,107,108 Pham et al.27

28,86
829.7

44.34
68.7

0.18

59.4
3.5

and Imdadul et al.80 stated that candlenut biodiesel has a

8
5
/

density range of 885.7-887 kg/cm3.

2,32,33,100
Kusum

−10.8

47.27

38.33
−2.5

0.45
860

139
4.2

6.2 | Kinematic viscosity

/

/
Karanja

Another key property of biodiesel is kinematic

2,31,95
0.04
57.6

0.21
37.8
3.68

viscosity—the resistance of the liquid to flow. Kinematic

870

174
5.6

10

91
7

viscosity refers to the thickness of the oil and is measured

by timing the flow of a given measure of oil through an
Properties of biodiesel from various feedstock sources compared to diesel and biodiesel standard

2,28,30,100

orifice of specified size.2,28,109 The fuel injection equip-

Mahua

ment performance is affected by kinematic viscosity, par-

0.47
882

170
4.2

8.2
13

57
71

37
6

ticularly at low temperatures when higher viscosity

affects fuel fluidity.2,3,110 Additionally, a higher viscosity
2,28,100,101

results in incomplete combustion and greater difficulty in

Rubber

cold weather as the temperature falls as viscosity

0.04

0.07
36.5
870

110
3.7

8.5

rises.28,107 Research suggests that the viscosity of oil

−2
−6

43
/

methyl esters falls rapidly after biodiesel trans-

Caster

esterification.2 The kinematic viscosity of biodiesel is

78.21
2.805
38.34

2,99
15.4

0.15
43.7
−30
−18
946

194

4.4

higher than that of diesel fuel owing to its chemical struc-

ture and huge molecular mass. Pham et al.,27 Imdadul
2,57,98
Jojoba

et al.,86 and Sulistyo et al.46 reported that biodiesel kine-

0.053

42.82
5.86

74.7
0.22

3.05
871

150
−6
−2

matic viscosity is greater than that of diesel fuel, which

/

ranges from 4.2 to 4.8 mm2/s. The ASTM D445 and EN

2,28,95-97
Jatropha

ISO 3104 test methods are used to determine the kine-

matic viscosity in biodiesel.
4.84

0.02

38.5
3.37
879

191

2.8

0.3
51
3

/
Candlenut

6.3 | Flashpoint, cloud point, and

27,46,86

pourpoint
885.7

40.33
0.33
161
4.8

6.3

0.4

5.9
51
5

The flashpoint is a key property of biodiesel and reveals

Acid value (mgKOH/g oil)

its safety and flammability for storing, handling, and

Calorific value (MJ/kg)
Iodine Number (mg/g)

transporting.2,28,111 The flashpoint is the lowest tempera-

Moisture content (%)

Oxidation Stability

ture at which the vapor from the biodiesel ignites when it

Viscosity (Mm /s)

Cloud point (
C)
Flash point ( C)

Cetane Number
Pour point ( C)
2

encounters a flame or spark. Biodiesel has a higher flash-

Density (kg/l)

point than conventional diesel, which causes a longer

Reference
Property
TABLE 7

ignition delay, leads to carbon deposits, and increases gas

emissions. ASTM D93 and EN ISO 3679 are used to mea-
sure the flash point.2,95,100,110-112 The flash point of
SHAAH ET AL. 11

biodiesel produced from candlenut is 161
C, as reported thermal efficiency are affected by the calorific value. The
by Imdadul et al.86 The flashpoint of nonedible oil is latter also ascertains the energy content of biodiesel.28,117
reduced in the transesterification process.113 The cloud The biodiesel heating value is less than that of petroleum
point and pour point are also considered major properties diesel, as it contains more oxygen. Ash and moisture con-
in assessing how biodiesel engines function at low tem- tent represent major parameters, upon which the calo-
peratures by cooling fuel to the lowest temperature at rific value of biodiesel depends. Plant materials with high
which it can flow before a cloud of wax crystal ash content are less desirable as fuel.29,117 The EN 14214
appears.28,29 The cloud point refers to the temperature at standard advises a biodiesel heating value of at least
which wax is initially visible when the biofuel is cooled. 35 MJ/kg. Pham et al.27 reported that candlenut biodiesel
The pour point refers to the temperature at which the has a calorific value of 40.33 MJ/kg. Blending biodiesel
amount of wax in the fuel is sufficient to combine it—the with petroleum diesel can increase the calorific value of
lowest temperature at which the flow of fuel is possi- biodiesel.27
ble.2,28,113 The cloud and pour points of biodiesel are gen-
erally greater than those of diesel fuel and depend on the
composition of fatty acids.2,3,28,107,114 Mahmudul et al.28 6.6 | Iodine number
stated that the cloud and pour points of biodiesel can be
reduced by blending biodiesel with diesel fuel. ASTM The iodine number—another significant property of
D2500 and D97 are the testing methods used to deter- biodiesel—represents the number of double bonds in bio-
mine the cloud and pour points for biodiesel. Researchers diesel and shows the degree of unsaturation.2,28 The
found that the cloud and pour points of candlenut biodie- iodine value directly affects the oxidation stability for
sel are 5 and 6.3, respectively.27,86 long-term engine use and is measured per 100 g of iodine
sample, which can be combined with the double bonds of
any fatty acid or oil chain.118 The iodine number has a
6.4 | Cetane number direct correlation with biodiesel viscosity and the biodie-
sel cetane number.2 D1541and D1959 are the test
Another feature determining biodiesel quality is the methods used to determine the iodine value. The maxi-
cetane number, which determines the ignition quality of mum value of the iodine number of biodiesel is 120 mg
biodiesel in a particular condition and provides clear I2/g, based on EN 14214.2,28,96 A report by Atabani et al.2
information about the ignition delay time of biodiesel found that the paradise tree has the lowest iodine num-
and the auto ignite after injection into the combustion ber (46 mg I2/g), whereas H. brasiliensis had the highest
chamber.2,3,29 The structure of the FAME component iodine number (144 mg I2/g). Ndaya et al.98 stated that
determines the ignition quality. Biodiesel with a high the iodine number of candlenut biodiesel was 92 mg I2/g.
amount of saturated fatty acids has a higher cetane num-
ber, whereas biodiesel with a greater degree of unsatu-
rated fatty acid has a lower cetane number.29,115 A higher 6.7 | Acid value and peroxide value
cetane number lowers the ignition delay time and
improves engine performance by allowing smooth and Other important properties of biodiesel include the acid
noiseless performance; however, biodiesel with a low value and peroxide value. The acid number determines
cetane number results in engine-knocking, and a rise in the amount of carboxylic acid groups in the biodiesel and
gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions due to incom- clearly indicates the level of lubricant degradation during
plete combustion.2,115,116 Biodiesel has a higher cetane the period of biodiesel service.2,99 The acid number is
number than petroleum diesel.28,29 This number is mea- expressed as the mg/KOH necessary to neutralize 1 g of
sured according to the ASTM D613 and EN ISO 5165 test fatty acid methyl ester. Biodiesel with a high acid number
methods. Candlenut biodiesel has a cetane number of may corrode internal engine parts. ASTM 6751 and EN
51, marginally higher than that of diesel, at 48.27 14214 were used to fix a maximum of 0.5 mg KOH/g for
the acid value. The peroxide value is defined as the
amount of peroxide oxygen per kg of fat, which is an
6.5 | Calorific value essential feature of biodiesel fuel oxidation stability.98,101
Biodiesel has a higher oxidation stability as the peroxide
The calorific (heating) value is a vital aspect of biodiesel value is reduced, reducing the biodiesel fuel ignition
production and is the amount of thermal energy released delay. Peroxide value is a significant indicator of oxida-
per unit quantity after the biodiesel is fully burned.3,29 tion stability but is not listed in the ASTM standard
The combustion characteristics of an engine and its it.28,101 Imdadul et al.86 reported an acid value of 0.4 mg
12 SHAAH ET AL.

KOH/g in candlenut biodiesel, but no report examining viscous biodiesel is required to run modern diesel
the peroxide value of candlenut biodiesel was available. engines. Moreover, polymerization of nonedible oil could
A summary of the biodiesel characterizations is listed in cause carbon deposit build-up in the internal parts of the
Table 8. engine, injector cocking, and oil ring sticking. No4 rev-
ealed that the correct blending ratio of nonedible oils is
required to lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
7 | CANDLE N U T BI OD I E S EL ensure optimum performance, and provide proper com-
ENGINE PERFORM ANCE A ND bustion properties. Engine performance in terms of effi-
EMISSION B EH AVI OR ciency and power output was examined in this study,
which also examined BSFC candlenut biodiesel and its
The use of edible oil (vegetable oil) in rum engines has blends and the emissions resulting from non-edible can-
long been understood. A century ago, peanut oil was used dlenut biodiesel.
to fuel a diesel engine.2,3 Diesel engines are currently The engine performance, combustion properties, and
improvised from previous generations of engines. Less emission behavior of candlenut biodiesel and its blends

TABLE 8 Summary of biodiesel characterization

Biodiesel
property Effect
Cetane number 1. The higher the cetane number the shorter ignition delay.
2. Measuring biodiesel ignition quality.
3. It influences particulate and gases emission.
4. Engine knocking is related to biodiesel high auto ignition temperatures.
5. Higher molecular weight alkanes have higher cetane number.
Viscosity 1. Diesel engine requires proper biodiesel viscosity.
2. Affect the biodiesel flow through nozzles, pipes, injector and combustion chamber.
3. Higher viscosity causes incomplete combustion of biodiesel.
Density 1. It has direct effects on the combustion quality and engine performance by changing the mass of biodiesel.
2. It is related to cetane number
Flash point 1. Indicates the flammable compounds in biodiesel.
2. Indicates the safety of biodiesel for storage, handling, and transportation.
3. Measuring biodiesel tendency to produce flammable mixture with air.
Cloud point, pour 1. Determining biodiesel performance under low temperature condition.
point 2. Quality control property for biodiesel storage at low temperature.
Calorific value 1. Effects the combustion characteristics of an engine and the thermal efficiency.
2. Critical property of biodiesel intended for use in weight-limited vehicles.
3. Measure biodiesel energy available when composted.
Ash 1. Results from oil, water-soluble metallic compounds or extraneous solids, such as dirt and rust
2. It can be used to decide product's suitability for a given application
Iodine number 1. Indicates the number of double bonds in biodiesel.
2. Indicates the unsaturation degree of biodiesel.
3. Influence the oxidation stability of engine
Acid number 1. Measure the number of carboxylic acid groups exist in the biodiesel.
2. Indicates the level of lubricant degradation while the biodiesel in use.
Copper content 1. To assess relative degree of corrosively of biodiesel.
2. Indicates the presence of sulfur compounds in biodiesel.
Sulfur 1. Environmental pollution from their combustion products as emission.
2. It is controlled to minimize corrosion, tear and wear which effect the engine parts.
Oxidation stability 1. Long storage of biodiesel causes oxidation which biodiesel quality.
2. Oxidation cause gum formation which affect biodiesel combustion.
3. Combustion of oxidized fuel causes deposition of carbon in a combustion chamber and produces higher
amount of NOx in exhaust emissions.

Source: References 2,27-29,45,46,88,102.

SHAAH ET AL. 13

in diesel engines were studied by Pham et al.27 The study demonstrated average increments of 17.98%, 25.65%, and
was conducted using a Samdi electric generator—a one- 28.3% of CO emissions and 8.98%, 19.91%, and 35.98% of
cylinder air-cooled diesel engine with a direct fuel injec- HC emissions for candlenut biodiesel blends B10, B20,
tion system. The combustion of the candlenut biodiesel and B30, respectively. Both types of emissions were lower
and its blends of B5, B10, B20, and B50 with petro-diesel compared to diesel fuel.
fuel were tested using a diesel engine at loads of 0%, 30%, Ndaya98 conducted an examination of the perfor-
60%, and 100%. The B5, B10, B20, and B50 candlenut bio- mance and emission behavior of a diesel engine, which
diesel blends produced lower gas emissions (of CO2, CO, used (5-20% v/v) blends of candlenut biodiesel with diesel
and hydrocarbons [HC]) and smoke density than diesel as fuel. The study was conducted using a Ford six-cylin-
fuel, whereas NOx emissions were higher than from die- der, TC, turbo charged, water-cooling diesel engine, at a
sel fuel. The study reported that a 60% reduction in CO constant speed of 1500 rpm with differing loads (1-7LP).
emissions was observed at full engine load. Almost the The specific fuel consumption of the B5 and B20 biodie-
same reduction percentage was observed for the HC sel blends decreased as the load increased from 5.593 to
emission. On the one hand, the exhaust temperature and 33.570 KW. The decrease was attributed to the lower
CO and HC emissions were reduced as fuel combustion amount of fuel required to operate the engine per unit of
efficiency increased. On the other hand, NOx concentra- energy output with higher loads, and a lower blending
tion increased with increased engine load—regardless of ratio of biodiesel improved the thermal efficiency. Fur-
the candlenut biodiesel blends used—compared to the thermore, the thermal efficiency for the B5 and B20 can-
NOx concentration in diesel fuel. The study found that dlenut biodiesel blends increased from 12.64% (at BHP
increased NOx emissions signaled greater heat release 5.59 kW) to a maximum of 32.27% (BHP 27.96 kW), and
and might be explained by the cetane number and pres- from 13.74% (BHP 5.59 kW) to a maximum of 34.21%
ence of oxygen molecules in the biodiesel. Blends of can- (BHP 33.56 kW), respectively. Moreover, the study rev-
dlenut biodiesel can be utilized in diesel engines. ealed that gas emissions of CO and PM decreased with
Imdadul et al.86 tested a single cylinder, natural aspi- the use of candlenut biodiesel. However, the report stated
rated, air-cooled, direct injection, compression ignition that NOx emissions increased when candlenut biodiesel
engine with candlenut biodiesel and diesel as fuels. The and its blends were used. Additionally, the exhaust gas
engine was run at different engine speeds from 1200 to temperature rose when brake horse power was raised;
2400 rpm. The results showed that fuel consumption in the greatest exhaust gas temperature value of the candle-
the engine increased as the proportion of candlenut bio- nut biodiesel B5 blend was 572.5
C, which is higher than
diesel and its blends increased. The BSFC consumption that of diesel fuel (550
C). These experimental results
of the candlenut biodiesel B10, B20, and B30 blends was generally showed that the use of candlenut biodiesel is a
greater than that of diesel fuel by approximately 1.5%, viable alternative to diesel in diesel engines. A summa-
3.0%, and 4.1%, respectively. Qi et al.119 and Imdadul rized view of engine performance and gas emissions pro-
et al.86 stated that BSFC is influenced by fuel properties, duced from non-edible candlenut biodiesel and its blends
such as viscosity, density, and calorific value. Brake is given in Table 9.
power also increased sharply with increased engine
speed; however, once the engine reached maximum
speed, brake power was reduced due to high frictional 8 | CANDLENUT OIL AS
loss but improved by blending candlenut biodiesel with PRO MI S IN G F EED STOC K FO R BI O
the diesel fuel. Moreover, reduced thermal efficiency was A V I A T I O N ( B I O - J ET) FU E L
observed, and the biodiesel trend became significant as
the biodiesel blending ratio increased. The maximum As reported by the International Air Transport Associa-
brake thermal efficiencies of the B10, B20, and B30 bio- tion (IATA), the aviation industry is expected to continu-
diesel blends were 1.4%, 3.3%, and 4.37% less than those ously grow in the future. Fuel is one of the biggest
of diesel fuel, respectively. Furthermore, the tempera- operating costs for the aviation industry. Moreover, jet
tures of B10, B20, and B30 ranged from 224
C to 565
C. fuel consumption generates approximately 2% of global
The mix of biodiesel and diesel produced higher exhaust CO2 emissions and considerable GHG emissions. The avi-
gas temperatures than diesel. Furthermore, the results ation industry currently aims to reduce CO2 emissions by
showed that the engine emitted more NOx than diesel 50% by 2050 compared to 2005 emission levels.120 Thus,
fuel; the average increases in NOx emissions for the can- bio-jet fuel has become the principal target for many
dlenut biodiesel blends were 2.48%, 4.49%, and 6.44% for researchers and airline companies. According to IATA,
B10, B20, and B30, respectively. CO and HC emissions bio-jet fuel was identified as the most promising fuel to
were lower than those of diesel fuel. The results reduce aviation industry CO2 emissions. ASTM D7566-18
14 SHAAH ET AL.

has identified five types of synthesized paraffinic kero- 9 | BIOFUEL P OLICIES

sene as blending components for jet fuel.120 The path-
ways for bio-jet fuel production are gas to jet (GAT), The rapid increase in energy demand and energy prices
alcohol to jet (ATJ), sugar to jet (SIP), and oil to jet given the uncertain future availability of fossil fuels and
(OTJ)—the focus in this study.120 Nonedible, low-cost oil access to alternative resources have raised global interest
can be used as feedstock for bio-jet fuel production and in biofuels as renewable alternatives to non-renewable
positively influence global climate change. Researchers fuels.125 Energy is currently the key component of mod-
have produced bio-jet duels from different nonedible oil ern lifestyles and directly affects economic growth. As
feedstocks, including Jatropha curcas, castor, cottonseed, energy availability increases, the growth of nations
babassu, and Camelina sativa.121-123 Nonedible oils have increases.126 Figure 4 shows the primary global energy
a similar composition to kerosene. The sustainability and supplies in 2016. The term biofuel defines liquid biofuel
environmental friendliness of bio-jet fuel have given it (biodiesel, bio-aviation, bio-methanol, and bioethanol),
great attention as an alternative to conventional jet gas (biogas), and solids derived from biomass wastes and
fuel.123 The physicochemical properties and chemical products. Biofuel policies are adopted by governments to
composition of the candlenut oil within other nonedible address energy security and global climate concerns. The
oils used for bio-jet production enhance its potential as a principal target and main focus of biofuel policies is the
feedstock for bio-aviation production. The classified pro- reduction of GHG emissions through production and
cesses for conversion oil to bio-jet fuel are hydro- consumption of biofuels to reduce dependence on petro-
processed renewable jet, known as hydrotreated esters leum oil and to increase agricultural income.127 Improv-
and fatty acids (HEFA); hydrothermal liquefaction, ing national energy security is the most important factor
known as catalytic hydro-thermolysis (CH); and hydro- for increasing biofuel production. In the last decade, bio-
treated depolymerized cellulosic jet, known as fast pyrol- fuel production has been driven by governmental poli-
ysis. However, only HEFA products have been approved cies. Governments worldwide, including energy-short
for blending and have a defined ASTM specification. countries, are searching for and working to increase
Table 10 lists the jet fuel specifications. national energy production. The demand for biofuel

TABLE 9 Summary of candlenut biodiesel engine performance and emission in diesel engines

Result Reference

Engine Blend ratio Test condition Power BSFC NOx CO HC Smoke

Ford 6C, TC, B5, B20 Constant speed 7.5% lower 2.5% less increased Lower than Lower than 98
WC (1500 rpm) than diesel diesel fuel
Different Load 1Lb- diesel
7Lb
SAMDI 1C, B5, B10, B20, Different Load 1% less / increased 60% less 60% less Lower than 27
DI B50, B100 0%,30%,60%, diesel fuel
100%
Yanmar 1C, B10, B20, B30 Different speed Almost Higher than Higher than Reduced by 35% less Lower than 86
NA, WC, (1200-2400 rpm) similar diesel diesel fuel increasing diesel fuel
DI Increased with the speed and
the ratio blend blend ratio

TABLE 10 Jet fuel and bio jet fuel

Property Unit ASTM D1655 ASTM D7566
specification
Density at 15
C kg/cm3 775-840 775–840

2
Viscosity at 20 C mm /s max 8 max 8
Acid number mg KOH/g 0.100 0.100


Flash point C min 38 38
Heat of combustion Mj/kg min 42.8 min 42.8


Freezing point C −47 −47
Sulfur wt% 0.3 0.3
Smoke point mm min 25 min 25
Aromatics % max 25 max 25

Source: References 124 and 121.

SHAAH ET AL. 15

others (9%). In 2009, the EU set a minimum target of a

10% share of transport biofuel by 2020 as a part of the EU
directive 2009/28/EC on alternative energy and set a min-
imum GHG reduction of 35% to be achieved by biofuels
during their life cycle. Sustainability criteria for indirect
land-use changes are also provided. No bio-feedstock
should originate from primary forests, highly bio-diverse
grassland, protected territories, or carbon-rich areas.131
In the last century, the United States induced demand
for biofuels by requiring their use in the transport sector.
In both cases, government initiatives were underwritten
by multidimensional ideas that linked biofuels to multi-
ple policy goals, including decreasing greenhouse gas
emissions, energy security, economic growth, and rural
job creation.132 The U.S. biofuel policy is comprised of
tax credits for biofuel blenders and production mandates
(a renewable fuel standard) authorized in the Energy Pol-
F I G U R E 4 The World total primary energy supply in 2016126 icy Act of 2005 and the Energy Independence and Secu-
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] rity Act of 2007 (EISA 2007). The Energy Policy Act of
2005 established the renewable fuel standard (RFS),
requiring U.S. fuel production to include a minimum
production is increasing, as it offers increased energy amount of biofuel by volume yearly. Ethanol produced
consumption without greenhouse gas emissions.128 CO2 from corn was expected to provide the bulk of the man-
emissions have increased by 2.5% annually in the past dated fuel—4 billion gallons in 2007 that would reach 7.5
decade, resulting in a yearly temperature increase of billion gallons in 2012. The 2005 Energy Policy Act also
2
C.126 Five years ago (2015) in the Paris Climate Confer- provided incentives to encourage the production of cellu-
ence, 194 countries signed an agreement that aims to losic biofuels produced from switchgrass, crop residues,
decrease global temperature, reduce GHG emissions, and and forest residues. In late 2007, with the volumetric
explore new renewable energy resources.126 Moreover, requirements of the 2005 RFS having been virtually met
the biofuel policy is linked to farm policy as a current and with rising pressure to address several years of rising
food and energy production goal to compete for land and, oil prices, Congress agreed to the Energy Independence
more specifically, for staple crops.129 Biofuel policies in and Security Act (EISA) (Grossman 2013), which raised
the United States, the EU, and many developing coun- the RFS almost 5fold to 36 billion gallons in 2022 and set
tries are discussed below. an aggressive target for advanced biofuels, including cel-
Current EU biofuel policies primarily focus on the lulosic fuels.132 Government support for biofuels has
promotion of biofuels. The EU biofuel policy was come under criticism, as research suggested that existing
designed to achieve energy supply, to protect the environ- biofuels do little to accomplish greenhouse gas emission
ment, and to enhance the European Union econ- reduction and improve energy independence—the princi-
omy.130,131 Moreover, biofuel development will create pal biofuel policy objectives.133 According to the Interna-
new employment opportunities in construction, tional Energy Agency (IEA), scenarios developed for the
manufacturing, service and plant operation, and fuel sup- United States indicate that near-term targets of up to 6%
ply and provide work opportunities for rural areas in fuel displacement of petroleum fuels with biofuels appear fea-
harvesting, maintenance, and fuel transport. In 2003, the sible using conventional biofuels, given available crop-
biofuel directive set the goal of obtaining (5.75%) of trans- land. Approximately 5% displacement of gasoline in the
portation biofuel market penetration by 2010. Each coun- USA requires approximately 8% of the available cropland
try in the EU was allowed to show its national action to produce ethanol. A 5% displacement of diesel requires
plan and was encouraged to achieve a 2% biofuel share 13% of available cropland.129 The recent commitment by
by 2005; the share of transport fuel, however, was 1%. In the U.S. government to increase bioenergy threefold in
2007, the European Commission projected a 6.25% share 10 years has added impetus to the search for viable
of biofuel by 2015. This share was planned to be filled by biofuels.130 Shares of biofuel compared to total global
biodiesel as a transport fuel. Germany became the largest transport fuel consumption are shown in Figure 5.
producer of biodiesel (54%), followed by France (15%), Additionally, biofuel production has attracted more
Italy (9%), United Kingdom (4%), Austria (2.5%), and attention from other countries, including Asian
16 SHAAH ET AL.

B20, for the transport sector will be fully implemented

across the country by mid-June 2021.135 Summary of bio-
fuel policies in selected countries are listed in Table 11.

10 | E N V I R O N M E N T A L IM P A C T ,
EC O N O M I C F E A S I B I L I T Y , A N D
FUTURE DIRECTION

10.1 | Environmental impact and

economic feasibility

Diesel fuel combustion is a major contributor to environ-

F I G U R E 5 Shares of biofuel compared to the total mental pollution worldwide. Diesel engines emit toxins
transport fuel [Colour figure can be viewed at and greenhouse gases, including carbon monoxide (CO),
wileyonlinelibrary.com] carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur diox-
ide (SO2), PM, and unburned HC.19,111 Pollutant emis-
sions from diesel fuel combustion cause global warming,
countries. Each country has set a future target for their air pollution, and global climate change. Therefore, scien-
share of alternative fuels. China is currently the third tists and environmentalists seek alternatives to diesel fuel
largest global producer of ethanol; additionally, biofuels to minimize environmental pollution and global
are a part of China's long-term energy plan. However, warming. Biodiesel is regarded as an alternative fuel to
policies encouraging or mandating the production of conventional diesel fuel owing to its renewability, low
biofuels change frequently. In early 2000, China toxicity, and environmentally friendly properties—it is
implemented an ethanol program in response to abun- free of aromatics and sulfur compounds136 and emits
dant grain supplies.2 However, the rapid increase in com- fewer greenhouse gases and air pollutants than to
modity prices (and commodity price volatility) in 2007 petroleum-based diesel.111,136 Studies have reported that
and 2011 triggered several changes to the biofuel pro- the utilization of biodiesel in combustion engines in place
gram. For example, policy now dictates that biofuel pro- of conventional petroleum diesel minimizes emissions of
duction should not use crops intended for human or SO2, CO, HC, and PM by 100%, 48%, 67%, and 47%,
animal consumption. As part of their 12th Five Year plan respectively.111 Although biodiesel combustion reduces
(FYP), which ended in 2015, China set a target of produc- exhaust emissions compared to fossil fuel combustion, it
ing 4.5 hm3 of ethanol and 1.1 hm3 of biodiesel; however, unfavorably increases NOx emissions due to the presence
only the biodiesel target was reached. China's 13th FYP of high oxygen content in fatty acid methyl ester.23,137
(2016-2021) increases those targets. By 2020, the country Biodiesel offers potential environmental benefits over
targets the production of 6.3 hm3 of ethanol and 2.3 hm3 conventional diesel fuel but has not been extensively uti-
of biodiesel annually.134 These targets imply a 100% lized as a complete substitute for diesel fuel owing to its
expansion of the production capacity of ethanol over the high production cost. Studies have been conducted to
5 years and even larger development of biodiesel produc- determine the economic viability of biodiesel production
tion. India's largest potential biofuel component is biodie- from various edible and non-edible feedstocks.138 The
sel, where reaching a 20% reduction target would entail a biodiesel production cost can be calculated using the fol-
triple-digit increase in vegetable oil production. The lowing equation138:
Indian government proposes reducing its dependence on
crude oil imports by 10 percentage points in several ways Biodiesel production cost
by increasing domestic output, promoting energy effi- operation cost ð$Þ− byprodcut creditð$Þ ð1Þ
ciency and conservation, and encouraging greater use of =
product ðkgÞ
alternative fuels.134 However, most efforts to increase bio-
fuel production have not panned out. Ethanol consump-
tion has increased, but biodiesel consumption depends where the operating costs include collecting and
on the use of industrial vegetable oils. Malaysia, the processing raw materials, labor, and utilities. By-product
second-largest producer of palm oil, hopes to use palm generation during biodiesel production influences the
oil biodiesel as an alternative fuel. The mandate to manu- biodiesel production cost. Studies report that the average
facture biofuel with a 20% palm oil component, known as biodiesel production cost is $0.50 ± 10. The raw material
SHAAH ET AL. 17

TABLE 11 Summary of biofuel policies in selected countries

Country Policy Description Biofuel Reference

United Energy Policy Act of 2005 Established the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), targeted Ethanol 125-129
States production (7.5 billion gallons) in 2012.
Energy Independence and Encourage the production of cellulosic biofuels produced Ethanol
Security Act of 2007 from switchgrass, crop residues and forest residues.
Targeted production 36 billion gallons in 2022
Food, Conservation, and Established new energy programs, including the Biorefinery Ethanol
Energy Act of 2008 Assistance Program, the Bio-based Marketing Program
and the Biomass Crop Assistance Program
The Agricultural Act of 2014 Reauthorized and provided USD 880 million for energy Ethanol
programs established in the 2008 Farm Bill
2014 Farm Bill Authorized USD 3 million support for biomass research and Ethanol
development grants
European Biofuels Directive 2003/30/EC Set of first goal for transportation biofuel. Targeted Biodiesel 130,131
United production (5.75%) in 2010
Renewable Energy (RE) Decrease the carbon emission by 6% in 2020. Biodiesel
Directive 2009/28/EC
Directive (EU) 2015/1513 Reduce the risk of indirect land use change and to prepare /
the transition toward advanced biofuels (2020)
Brazil National Fuel Alcohol Reducing the demand for imported fuel, increasing national Ethanol 133

Program (ProAlcool), 1975 income by better utilizing Brazilian resources; and
increasing the growth of agricultural and industrial
domestic sectors. Targeted production (27 604 120 m3) in
2011.
National Program of Avoid single crop focus, dominance of agribusiness, and Biodiesel
Production and Use of include biodiesel into the national energy matrix
Biodiesel, 1975-2004
National Biodiesel Program, Gradual increase of blending targets. Targeted production Biodiesel
2004-2010 (2.7 billion litter) in 2011.
China Demonstration program Implemented an ethanol program. Targeted production Ethanol 134
(China's tenth 5-year (1.7 hm3) in 2006.
planning period
(2001-2005).
China's 13th FYP (2016–2021) Increase the biofuel targets to 6.3 hm3 (Ethanol) and Ethanol &
2.3 hm3 (Biodiesel) in 2020. Biodiesel
Malaysia Malaysia's first national To stabilize the prices of crude palm oil in 2016 Biodiesel 135
biofuel policy, 2006
Malaysian Biofuel Industry Increase blending ration to 10% and 20% by 2015-2021 Biodiesel
Act of 2007
India Power Alcohol Act, 1948-2000 Provide necessary access for the development of the “power Ethanol 126
alcohol” industry in India (2000)
National Mission on Biodiesel Blending of 5% ethanol with Petro-fuel (2003) Ethanol
2003
National Policy on Biofuels Increase the biofuel targets to 20% in 2020 Biodiesel
2008

price is the principal barrier for commercial biodiesel factors influencing biodiesel production cost include
production and accounts for over 80% of the total biodie- fat/lipid extraction technology, separation of lipids, types
sel production cost. The feedstock type is one of the most of catalysts utilized during the transesterification process,
important parameters in biodiesel production and and by-product production.138,139 The lipid extraction
accounts for 80% of the total production cost. Other cost involves the use of utilities and the solvent
18 SHAAH ET AL.

price.138,140 Transesterification involves 10%-15% of the encouraging low-temperature extraction and separation
total bio-diesel production cost. Studies have reported methods to maintain the fatty acid content and to avoid
that the feedstock lipid content, the quality of the FFA production. Few studies address the environmental
extracted lipids, and the types of catalyst utilized influ- impact and economic viability of candlenut biodiesel pro-
ence the transesterification process cost in biodiesel pro- duction. Therefore, additional studies should be con-
duction.138 However, the use of methanol in the ducted to determine the environmental impact and
transesterification process has minimal influence on bio- economic viability of the production of candlenut biodie-
diesel production cost. Catalyst selection can influence sel as an alternative to conventional diesel fuel.
the total production cost. The use of a homogenous cata-
lyst in the transesterification process increases the biodie-
sel production cost because of the cost of the catalyst and 10.2 | Future direction
requires further processing steps to separate the catalyst
from the produced biodiesel. However, the replacement Using limited agricultural areas for growing non-edible
of a homogeneous catalyst with waste-derived biomass, crop cultivation for biofuel production will eventually
such as eggshell, biochar, kraft lignin, and scallop waste minimize food crop production, increase food prices, and
shells as heterogeneous catalysts, could minimize the bio- ignite the food vs fuel debate and its impact on food pro-
diesel production cost.138 The high cost of labor for duction and demand in developing countries. Consider-
harvesting is an important issue that should be consid- ing these conditions, identifying promising non-edible
ered for biodiesel production from non-edible crops. plants on abandoned marginal and degraded agricultural
The principal biodiesel production cost is feedstock. land is a possible solution to this dilemma, which will
Studies have reported that biodiesel production can be increase biomass capacity. The cultivation of nonedible
minimized by selecting, (i) the most dominant feedstock candlenut trees will utilize wasteland and enhance bio-
for biodiesel production, (ii) appropriate technology for diesel production without competing for the land area
higher productivity and quality lipid extraction, and available for food crops. Thus, candlenut could be uti-
(iii) abundance of raw materials.138 Candlenut is one of lized as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production.
the most domesticated multipurpose trees. The produc- The use of agricultural lands should be limited to edible
tivity of candlenut seed yields up to 16 ton/ha/year, and oil and food plantations, whereas non-edible oil plants
annual oil yield is approximately 3200 kg/ha.28 Candle- should be planted in wastelands and forests to optimize
nut seed contains approximately 30%-60% candlenut oil, available land area, especially in developed countries.
which can be obtained using several extraction tech-
niques. Additionally, candlenut oil has a high iodine
number (≥125) and a low pour point. The candlenut is a 11 | C O N C L U S I O N
flowering tree that can grow in a harsh and arid land and
has low moisture requirements. Thus, candlenut can be In the last decade, interest in utilizing biofuel as an alter-
cultivated in the most unused lands, particularly in devel- native to fossil fuels has increased sharply due to environ-
oping countries, on the coast, along river banks, and in mental and economic benefits and to the rapid depletion
deserts and other wastelands unsuitable for edible crops. of diesel fuel. Biodiesel could reduce fossil fuel depen-
This allows the maximization of the candlenut crop prod- dency, as an alternative and renewable energy source
uct and sustainable supply chain as a raw material feed- with similar properties. Currently, 95% of biodiesel is pro-
stock for biodiesel production. duced from edible oils as a feedstock, which raises con-
The degradation of lipid quality and lower yield is cerns about the food vs fuel debate and the argument
due to the extraction technology utilized. Currently, the against high production cost due to high feedstock price.
most common technologies utilized for the extraction of Therefore, the demand for non-edible oil as a feedstock
lipids from non-edible crops are the mechanical screw for biodiesel production is sharply increasing. Candlenut
press and Soxhlet extraction. These temperature-based oil is not suitable for human consumption due to the
technologies degrade the quality of lipids during extrac- presence of toxic components. Moreover, candlenut trees
tion. Candlenut oil is susceptible to oxidation with tem- can grow on non-fertile and harsh lands that are not suit-
perature, because it contains high amounts of able for edible crop production. The physicochemical
unsaturated fatty acids.141 Additionally, the extracted properties and fatty acid compositions of non-edible oils
lipids require multiple purification and separation pro- are comparable to those of edible oils and fatty acid com-
cesses before utilization for biodiesel production. These positions. Thus, non-edible oil has great potential as feed-
lipid purification steps increase biofuel production cost stock for biodiesel and bio-aviation production. The
and the FFA content in the extracted lipids, thus principal barrier to utilizing non-edible oil as a potential
SHAAH ET AL. 19

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