CHAPTER ONE

SOIL PHASE RELATIONSHIPS, INDEX PROPERTIES

AND CLASSIFICATION

SOIL PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

Soil mass is generally a three phase system. It consists of solid particles,
liquid and gas. For all practical purposes, the liquid may be considered to be water
(although in some cases, the water may contain some dissolved salts) and the gas
as air. The phase system may be expressed in SI units either in terms of
mass-volume or weight-volume relationships. The inter relationships of the different
phases are important since they help to define the condition or the physical make-up
of the soil.
Mass-Volume Relationship
In SI units, the mass ​M, ​is normally expressed in kg and the density ​p ​in
kg/m3. Sometimes, the mass and densities are also expressed in g and g/cm3 or Mg
​ t 4 °C is exactly 1.00 g/cm3 (=
and Mg/m3 respectively. The density of water ​po a
1000 kg/m3 = 1 Mg/m3). Since the variation in density is relatively small over the
range of temperatures encountered in ordinary engineering practice, the density of
water ​pw ​at other temperatures may be taken the same as that at 4 °C. The volume
is expressed either in cm3 or m3.
Weight-Volume Relationship
Unit weight or weight per unit volume is still the common measurement in
geotechnical engineering practice. The density ​p, ​may be converted to unit weight,
7by using the relationship ​Y=pg (​ 3.la) .The 'standard' value of ​g ​is 9.807 m/s2 (= 9.81
m/s2 for all practical purposes).
Conversion of Density of Water ​pw ​to Unit Weight
From Eq. (3.la)

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Where in Eq. (3. If), p is in g/cm3. For example, if a soil mass has a dry density, ​pd =
1.7 g/cm3, the dry unit weight of the soil is γ =9.81 x 1.7= 16.68 kN/m3 (3.1g)
MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
The phase-relationships in terms of mass-volume and weight-volume for a
soil mass are shown by a block diagram in Fig. 3.1. A block of unit sectional area is
considered. The volumes of the different constituents are shown on the right side and
the corresponding mass/weights on the right and left sides of the block. The
mass/weight of air may be assumed as zero.
Volumetric Ratios
There are three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotechnical
engineering and these can be determined directly from the phase diagram, Fig. 3.1.

Soil Phase Relationships, Index Properties and Soil Classification 21 (3.2)

1. The ​void ratio, e, ​is defined as
Vv
e= Vs

where, ​Vv = ​volume of voids, and ​Vs = v​ olume of the solids.

The void ratio ​e ​is always expressed as a ​decimal.
2. ​The ​porosity n i​ s defined as
Vv
n= V x 100%

where, ​V = t​ otal volume of the soil sample.

The ​porosity n ​is always expressed as a ​percentage.

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 3. The ​degree of saturation S ​is defined as
Vw
S= Vv x 100%

where, ​Vw = ​volume of water

It is always expressed as ​a percentage. W ​ hen ​S = 0​ %, the soil is completely
​ 00%, the soil is fully saturated.
dry, and when ​S = 1

Mass-Volume Relationships
The other aspects of the phase diagram connected with mass or weight can
be explained with reference to Fig. 3.1.
Water Content, ​w
The water content, ​w, ​of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water, ​Mw, ​in the voids to the mass of solids, ​Ms, ​as;
Mw
w= Ms x 100%

The water content, which is usually expressed as a percentage, can range

from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The natural water content for most
soils is well under 100%, but for the soils of volcanic origin (for example bentonite) it
can range up to 500% or more.
Density
Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is ​density ​(or, unit
weight) which is expressed as mass per unit volume. There are several commonly
used densities. These may be defined as the total (or bulk), or moist density, pr; the
dry density, ​pd; t​ he saturated density, psat; the density of the particles, solid density,
ps; ​and density of water ​pw. E
​ ach of these densities is defined as follows with
respect to Fig. 3.1. ​M​ Total density​,
m
ρ= v

Specific Gravity

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 The specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of its mass in air to
the mass of an equal volume of water at reference temperature, 4 °C. The specific
gravity of a mass of soil (including air, water and solids) is termed as bulk specific
gravity ​Gm. I​ t is expressed as

Interrelationships of Different Parameters

We can establish relationships between the different parameters defined by
equations from (3.2) through (3.12). In order to develop the relationships, the block
diagram Fig. 3.2 is made use of. Since the sectional area perpendicular to the plane
of the paper is assumed as unity, the heights of the blocks will represent the
volumes. The volume of solids may be represented as ​Vs = ​1. When the soil is fully
saturated, the voids are completely filled with water.
Relationship Between ​e ​and ​n (​ Fig. 3.2)

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Relationships Between Density ​p ​and Other Parameters

The density of soil can be expressed in terms of other parameters for cases of soil
(1) partially saturated (S < 100%); (2) fully saturated ​(S = ​100%); (3) Fully dry ​(S = ​0);
and (4) submerged.
Case 1: For ​S < ​100%

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Case 4: ​When the soil is submerged If the soil is submerged, the density of the
submerged soil ​pb​ ​, ​is equal to the density of the saturated soil reduced by the density of
water, that is;

Relative Density
The looseness or denseness of sandy soils can be expressed numerically by relative
density ​Dr, ​defined by the equation;The loosest state for a granular material can

usually be created by allowing the dry material to fall into a container from a funnel
held in such a way that the free fall is about one centimeter. The densest state can
be established by a combination of static pressure and vibration of soil packed in a
container. ASTM Test Designation D-2049 (1991) provides a procedure for
determining the minimum and maximum dry unit weights (or densities) of granular
soils. This procedure can be used for determining ​Dr ​in Eq. (3.21).
Example Problem 1:

Example Problem1.

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 A sample of wet silty clay soil has a mass of 126 kg. The following data were
​ .1 g/cm3, ​G = ​2.7,
obtained from laboratory tests on the sample: Wet density, ​ρt = 2
water content, ​w = ​15%. Determine (i) dry density, ​pd, ​(ii) porosity, (iii) void ratio, and
(iv) degree of saturation.

P​AGE​ 7
Example Problem 2.
The moisture content of an undisturbed sample of clay belonging to a volcanic
region is 265% under 100% saturation. The specific gravity of the solids is 2.5. The
dry unit weight is 21 Ib/ft3. Determine (i) the saturated unit weight, (ii) the submerged
unit weight, and (iii) void ratio.

Example 3.

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 A sample of saturated clay from a consolidometer test has a total weight of
3.36 Ib and a dry weight of 2.32 Ib: the specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.7. For
this sample, determine the water content, void ratio, and porosity and total unit
weight.

QUIZ NO.1

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1. A soil mass in its natural state is partially saturated having a water content of
17.5% and a void ratio of 0.87. Determine the degree of saturation, total unit
weight, and dry unit weight. What is the weight of water required to saturate a
mass of 10 m3 volume? Assume G^ = 2.69.

2. A sample of soil compacted according to a standard Proctor test has a unit

weight of 130.9 lb/ft3 at 100% compaction and at optimum water content of
14%. What is the dry unit weight? If the voids become filled with water what
​ .67.
would be the saturated unit weight? Assume ​Gs = 2

3. A saturated sample of undisturbed clay has a volume of 19.2 cm3 and weighs
32.5 g. After oven drying, the weight reduces to 20.2 g. Determine the
following: (a) water content, (b) specific gravity, (c) void ratio, and (d)
saturated density of the clay sample.

4. The natural water content of a sample taken from a soil deposit was found to
be 11.5%. It has been calculated that the maximum density for the soil will be
obtained when the water content reaches 21.5%. Compute how much water
must be added to 22,500 Ib of soil (in its natural state) in order to increase the
water content to 21.5%. Assume that the degree of saturation in its natural
state was 40% and G = 2.7.

5. The natural total unit weight of a sandy stratum is 117.7 lb/ft3 and has a water
content of 8%. For determining of relative density, dried sand from the
stratum was filled loosely into a 1.06 ft3 mold and vibrated to give a maximum
density. The loose weight of the sample in the mold was 105.8 Ib, and the
dense weight was 136.7 Ib. If G9 = 2.66, find the relative
density of the sand in its natural state.

6. A pit sample of moist quartz sand was obtained from a pit by the sand cone
method. The volume of the sample obtained was 150 cm3 and its total mass

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 was found to be 250 g. In the laboratory the dry mass of the sand alone was
​ .80 and ​emin =
found to be 240 g. Tests on the dry sand indicated ​emax = 0
0.48. Estimate ​ps, ​w, ​e, S, pd a
​ nd ​Dr o
​ f the sand in the field. Given ​Gs = ​2.67.

7. 225 g of oven dried soil was placed in a specific gravity bottle and then filled
with water to a constant volume mark made on the bottle. The mass of the
bottle with water and soil is 1650 g. The specific gravity bottle was filled with
water alone to the constant volume mark and weighed. Its mass was found to
be 1510 g. Determine the specific gravity of the soil.

8. A sample of sand in its natural state has a relative density of 65 percent. The
dry unit weights of the sample at its densest and loosest states are
respectively 114.5 and 89.1 lb/ft3. Assuming the specific gravity of the solids
as 2.64, determine (i) its dry unit weight, (ii) wet unit weight when fully
saturated, and (iii) submerged unit weight.

9. A sample of sand above the water table was found to have a natural moisture
content of 10% and a unit weight of 120 lb/ft3. Laboratory tests on a dried
sample indicated values ​emin = 0.45,​ and ​emax = ​0.90 for the densest and
​ nd the
loosest states respectively. Compute the degree of saturation, ​S, a
​ ssume G = 2.65
relative density, ​Df. A

10. It is required to determine the water content of a wet sample of silty sand
weighing 400 g. This mass of soil was placed in a pycnometer and water filled
to the top of the conical cup and weighed (M3). Its mass was found to be
2350 g. The pycnometer was next filled with clean water and weighed and its
mass was found to be 2200 g. Assuming G = 2.67, determine the water
content of the soil sample.

CHAPTER TWO
INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS

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 The various properties of soils which would be considered as index properties
are;
1. The size and shape of particles.
2. The relative density or consistency of soil.
The index properties of soils can be studied in a general way under two
classes. They are:
1. Soil grain properties.
2. Soil aggregate properties.
The principal soil grain properties are the size and shape of grains and the
mineralogical character of the finer fractions (applied to clay soils). The most
significant aggregate property of cohesionless soils is the relative density, whereas
that of cohesive soils is the consistency. Water content can also be studied as an
aggregate property as applied to cohesive soils. The strength and compressibility
characteristics of cohesive soils are functions of water content. As such water
content is an important factor in understanding the aggregate behavior of cohesive
soils. By contrast, water content does not alter the properties of a cohesionless soil
significantly except when the mass is submerged, in which case only its unit weight is
reduced.
THE SHAPE AND SIZE OF PARTICLES
The shapes of particles as conceived by visual inspection give only a
qualitative idea of the behavior of a soil mass composed of such particles. Since
particles finer than 0.075 mm diameter cannot be seen by the naked eye, one can
visualize the nature of the coarse grained particles only. Coarser fractions composed
of angular grains are capable of supporting heavier static loads and can be
compacted to a dense mass by vibration. The influence of the shape of the particles
on the compressibility characteristics of soils are:
1. Reduction in the volume of mass upon the application of pressure.
2. A small mixture of mica to sand will result in a large increase in its compressibility.
The classification according to size divides the soils broadly into two
distinctive groups, namely, coarse grained and fine grained. Since the properties of
coarse grained soils are, to a considerable extent, based on grain size distribution,
classification of coarse grained soils according to size would therefore be helpful.
Fine grained soils are so much affected by structure, shape of grain, geological
origin, and other factors that their grain size distribution alone tells little about their
physical properties. However, one can assess the nature of a mixed soil on the basis
of the percentage of fine grained soil present in it. It is, therefore, essential to classify

P​AGE​ 12
the soil according to grain size. The classification of soils as gravel, sand, silt and
clay as per the different systems of classification is given in Table 2.2. Soil particles
​ nd the
which are coarser than 0.075 mm are generally termed as ​coarse grained a
finer ones as silt, clay and peat (organic soil) are considered ​fine​ ​grained. ​From an
engineering point of view, these two types of soils have distinctive characteristics. In
coarse grained soils, gravitational forces determine the engineering characteristics.
Interparticle forces are predominant in fine grained soils. The dependence of the
behavior of a soil mass on the size of particles has led investigators to classify soils
according to their size.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves. Sieves are
made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles to one another. The square holes
thus formed between the wires provide the limit which determines the size of the
particles retained on a particular sieve. The sieve sizes are given in terms of the
number of openings per inch. The number of openings per inch varies according to
different standards. Thus, an ASTM 60 sieve has 60 openings per inch width with
each opening of 0.250 mm. Table 3.2 gives a set of ASTM Standard Sieves (same
as US standard sieves).
The usual procedure is to use a set of sieves which will yield equal grain size
intervals on a logarithmic scale. A good spacing of soil particle diameters on the grain
size distribution curve will be obtained if a nest of sieves is used in which each sieve
has an opening approximately one-half of the coarser sieve above it in the nest. If the
soil contains gravel, the coarsest sieve that can be used to separate out gravel from
sand is the No. 4 Sieve (4.75 mm opening). To separate out the silt-clay fractions
from the sand fractions, No. 200 sieve may be used. The intermediate sieves
between the coarsest and the finest may be selected on the basis of the principle
explained earlier. The nest of sieves consists of Nos 4 (4.75 mm), 8 (2.36 mm), 16
(1.18 mm) 30 (600 jun), 50 (300 pun), 100
(150 jim), and 200 (75 |im).

P​AGE​ 13
 The particles separated out by some means. The minimum size of sample to
be used depends upon the maximum particle size as given in Table 3.3 (US Army
Corps of Engineers). By determining the mass of soil sample left on each sieve, the
following calculations can be made.
mass of soil retained:
mass of soil retained
1. Percentage retained on any sieve = total soil mass x 100%

P​AGE​ 14
P​AGE​ 15
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES
A typical set of grain size distribution curves is given in Fig. 3.7 with the grain
size ​D ​as the abscissa on the logarithmic scale and the percent finer ​P a
​ s the
ordinate on the arithmetic scale. On the curve ​C{​ the section ​AB ​represents the
portion obtained by sieve analysis and the section ​B'C' ​by hydrometer analysis. Since
the hydrometer analysis gives equivalent diameters which are generally less than the
​ ill not be a continuation of ​AB a
actual sizes, the section ​B'C' w ​ nd would occupy a
position shown by the dotted curve. If we assume that the curve ​BC ​is the actual
curve obtained by sketching it parallel to ​B'C', t​ hen at any percentage finer, say 20
​ nd ​De r​ epresent the actual and equivalent diameters
per cent, the diameters ​Da a
respectively. The ratio of ​Da t​ o ​Dg c​ an be quite high for flaky grains. The shapes of
the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested. On the basis of the shapes we can
classify soils as:
1 . Uniformly graded or poorly graded.
2. Well graded.
3. Gap graded.
Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical lines as shown by
curve C2 in
Fig. 3.7. Such soils possess particles of almost the same diameter. A well graded
soil, represented by curve Cp possesses a wide range of particle sizes ranging from
gravel to clay size particles. A gap graded soil, as shown by curve C3 has some of
the sizes of particles missing. On this curve the soil particles falling within the range
​ re missing. The grain distribution curves as shown in Fig. 3.7 can be used to
of ​XY a
understand certain grain size characteristics of soils. Hazen (1893) has shown that
the permeability of clean filter sands in a loose state can be correlated with numerical
values designated D10, the effective grain size. The effective grain size corresponds
to 10 per cent finer particles. Hazen found that the sizes smaller than the effective
size affected the functioning of filters more than did the remaining 90 per cent of the
sizes. To determine whether a material is uniformly graded or well graded, Hazen
proposed the following equation:

P​AGE​ 16
 where D60 is the diameter of the particle at 60 per cent finer on the grain size
distribution curve. The ​uniformity coefficient, Cu, ​is about one if the grain size
distribution curve is almost vertical, and the value increases with gradation. For all
practical purposes we can consider the following values for granular soils.

There is another step in the procedure to determine the gradation of particles. This is
​ hich is expressed as
based on the term called the ​coefficient of curvature w

Where in D​30 ​is the size of particle at 30 percent finer on the gradation curve? The soil
is said to be well graded if C​c ​lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands. Two samples of
soils are said to be similarly graded if their grain size distribution curves are almost parallel to
each other on a semi logarithmic plot. When the curves are almost parallel to each other the
ratios of their diameters at any percentage finer approximately remain constant. Such curves
are useful in the design of filter materials around drainage pipes.

P​AGE​ 17
 QUIZ 2
1. A sieve analysis of a given sample of sand was carried out by making use of
US standard sieves. The total weight of sand used for the analysis was 522 g.
The following data were obtained.
Sieve size in mm 4.750 2.000 1.000 0.500 0.355 0.180 0.125 0.075
Weight retained
Sieve Size: Grams
4.750 25.75
2.000 61.75
1.000 67.00
0.500 126.0
0.355 57.75
0.180 78.75
0.125 36.75
0.075 36.75
Pan 31.5
Plot the grain size distribution curve on semi-log paper and compute the
following:
(i) Percent gravel
(ii) Percent of coarse, medium and fine sand
(iii) Percent of silt and clay
(iv) Uniformity coefficient
(v) Coefficient of curvature

P​AGE​ 18
2. Combined mechanical analysis of a given sample of soil was carried out. The
total weight of soil used in the analysis was 350 g. The sample was divided
into coarser and finer fractions by washing it through a 75 microns sieve The
finer traction was 125 g. The coarser fraction was used for the sieve analysis
and 50 g of the finer fraction was used for the hydrometer analysis. The test
results were as given below:
Sieve analysis:

3. In a sieve analysis of a given sample of sand the following data were

obtained. Effective grain size = 0.25 mm, uniformity coefficient 6.0, coefficient
of curvature = 1.0. Sketch the curve on semilog paper.

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 CHAPTER THREE
Atterberg Limits
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, considered the consistency of soils in 1911,
and proposed a series of tests for defining the properties of cohesive soils. These
tests indicate the range of the plastic state (plasticity is defined as the property of
cohesive soils which possess the ability to undergo changes of shape without
rupture) and other states. He showed that if the water content of a thick suspension
of clay is gradually reduced, the clay water mixture undergoes changes from a liquid
state through a plastic state and finally into a solid state. The different states through
which the soil sample passes with the decrease in the moisture content are depicted
in Fig. 3.9. The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to
another are termed as ​Atterberg Limits and the tests required to determine the limits
are the ​Atterberg Limit Tests. ​The testing procedures of Atterberg were subsequently
improved by A. Casagrande (1932). The transition state from the liquid state to a
plastic state is called the ​liquid limit, wr ​At this stage all soils possess a certain small
shear strength. This arbitrarily chosen shear strength is probably the smallest value
that is feasible to measure in a standardized procedure. The transition from the
​ t this state the soil
plastic state to the semisolid state is termed ​the plastic limit, w . A
rolled into threads of about 3 mm diameter just crumbles. Further decrease of the
water contents of the same will lead finally to the point where the sample can
decrease in volume no further. At this point the sample begins to dry at the surface,
saturation is no longer complete, and further decrease in water in the voids occurs
without change in the void volume. The color of the soil begins to change
​ he limits
from dark to light. This water content is called the ​shrinkage limit, ws. T
expressed above are all expressed by their percentages of water contents. The
range of water content between the liquid and plastic limits, which is an important
measure of plastic behavior, is called ​the plasticity​ ​index, I } ,

Figure 3.10 depicts the changes in volume from the liquid limit to the shrinkage limit
graphically. The soil remains saturated down to the shrinkage limit and when once
this limit is crossed, the soil becomes partially saturated. The air takes the place of
the moisture that is lost due to evaporation. At about 105° to 110°C, there will not be
any normal water left in the pores and soil at this temperature is said to be ​oven-dry.
​ nd water content ​wo i​ s represented by point ​A ​in the
A soil sample of volume ​Vo a
figure.

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As the soil loses moisture content there is a corresponding change in the volume of
soils. The volume change of soil is equal to the volume of moisture lost. The straight
line, ​AE, therefore, gives the volume of the soil at different water contents. Points ​C
and ​D r​ epresent the transition stages of soil sample at liquid and plastic limits
respectively. As the moisture content is reduced further beyond the point D, the
decrease in volume of the soil sample will not be linear.

DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

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Liquid Limit
The apparatus shown in Fig. 3.11 is the Casagrande Liquid Limit Device used
for determining the liquid limits of soils. The device contains a brass cup which can
be raised and allowed to fall on a hard rubber base by turning the handle. The cup is
raised by one cm. The limits are determined on that portion of soil finer than a No. 40
sieve (ASTM Test Designation D-4318). About 100 g of soil is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water into a uniform paste. A portion of the paste is placed in the cup and
leveled to a maximum depth of 10 mm. A channel of the dimensions of 11 mm width
and 8 mm depth is cut through the sample along the contact. The handle is turned at
a rate of about two revolutions per second and the number of blows necessary to
close the groove along the bottom for a distance of 12.5 mm is counted. The groove
should be closed by a flow of the soil and not by slippage between the soil and the
cup. The water content of the soil in the cup is altered and the tests repeated. At
least four tests should be carried out by adjusting the water contents in such a way
that the number of blows required to close the groove may fall within the range of 5 to
40. A plot of water content against the log of blows is made as shown in Fig. 3.13.
Within the range of 5 to 40 blows, the plotted points lie almost on a straight line. The
curve so obtained is known as a ​'flow curve'.

Liquid Limit by One-Point Method

The determination of liquid limit as explained earlier requires a considerable
amount of time and labor. We can use what is termed the 'one-point method' if an
approximate value of the limit is required. The formula used for this purpose is;

Plastic Limit
About 15 g of soil, passing through a No. 40 sieve, is mixed thoroughly. The soil is
rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until it is about 3 mm in diameter. This
procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till the soil shows signs of crumbling. The
water content of the crumbled portion of the thread is determined. This is called the
plastic limit​.

P​AGE​ 22
Plasticity Index ​lp

Plasticity index / indicates the degree of plasticity of a soil. The greater the
difference betweenliquid and plastic limits, the greater is the plasticity of the soil. A
cohesionless soil has zeroplasticity index. Such soils are termed non-plastic. Fat
clays are highly plastic and possess a highplasticity index. Soils possessing large
values of w, and / are said to be highly plastic or fat. Those with low values are
described as slightly plastic or lean. Atterberg classifies the soils according To their
plasticity indices as in Table 3.9.

Liquidity Index /,
The Atterberg limits are found for remolded soil samples. These limits as such
do not indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils. The index that is used to indicate
​ he liquidity index is
the consistency of undisturbed soils is called the ​liquidity index. T
expressed as;

Shrinkage Ratio ​SR

P​AGE​ 23
 Shrinkage ratio ​is defined as the ratio of a volume change expressed as a
percentage of dry volume to the corresponding change in water content above the
shrinkage limi​t.

Where:
Vo = i​ nitial volume of a saturated soil sample at water
content ​wo
Vd = t​ he final volume of the soil sample at shrinkage
limit ​ws
(wo-ws) = c​ hange in the water content

Md ​= mass of dry volume, ​Vd, o ​ f the sample

Substituting for ​(wo-ws) ​in Eq (3.48b) and simplifying, we have:

Thus the shrinkage ratio of a soil mass is equal to the mass specific gravity of
the soil in its dry state.

QUIZ 3

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 1. A sample of clay has a water content of 40 percent at full saturation. Its
shrinkage limit is 15 percent. Assuming ​Gs = ​2.70, determine its degree of
shrinkage. Comment on the quality of the soil.
2. A sample of clay soil has a liquid limit of 62% and its plasticity index is 32
percent.
(i) What is the state of consistency of the soil if the soil in its natural state has
a water content of 34 percent?
(ii) Calculate the shrinkage limit if the void ratio of the sample at the shrinkage
limit is 0.70
Assume Gs = 2.70.
2. A soil with a liquidity index of-0.20 has a liquid limit of 56 percent and a
plasticity index of 20 percent. What is its natural water content?

References: Geotechnical Engineering V.N.S. Murthy

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