823

12. Control and monitoring

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12. CONTROL AND MONITORING

To guarantee energy availability and reduce energy bills, industrial installations require optimal
management of their electrical networks.

A control and monitoring system enables optimisation of network management through the use
of automatic functions such as:

- supply changeover

- loop reconfiguration

- load shedding/restoration

- time-dependent programming and tariff management

- management of internal generator sets, etc.

Furthermore, it offers network supervision, remote control of equipment and maintenance

planning.

12.1. Benefits of an electrical energy distribution control and monitoring

system
The electrical energy distribution network is a vital element in any company's operation, and
must be permanently supervised and managed.

The complexity of effective network control is due to:

- the amount and diversity of information that needs to be handled

- the geographical dispersion of electrical equipment.

n network remote control and monitoring

Remotely monitoring and controlling the network allows operators to:

- display the state of the electrical installation

- monitor the different measurements

- carry out remote control of equipment

- be informed of any incidents occurring on the electrical installation.

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n improving the speed and effectiveness of network diagnosis and intervention

The speed and effectiveness of network diagnosis and intervention are improved through the
following functions:

- automatic load shedding/restoration and supply changeover management

- control over the automatic restarting of medium voltage motors

- management of internal generator sets

- fine time stamping

- fault recording

n optimising energy costs

The following functions enable electrical energy costs to be optimised :

- tariff management

- time-dependent programming

- internal generator set management

- reactive energy compensation

- energy metering and sub-metering.

n optimising maintenance

Using the system's recorded count of switching device operations and equipment operating
times, maintenance can be optimised.

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12.1.1. Energy bill savings

Electrical utilities offer their customers supply contracts whose basic characteristics are in
essence identical (see § 13).

The energy tariff comprises:

- a standing charge related to the subscribed demand (not to be exceeded). The lower the
subscribed demand, the lower the standing charge

- a charge for active energy consumption in kWh

- any penalty payments related to power consumption exceeding the subscribed demand

- an eventual charge for reactive power consumption, in units of kvarh, once its value
exceeds the supplier's uninvoiced consumption threshold during certain tariff periods.

The different energy cost components vary according to the month of the year and the hour of
the day or night, i.e. the tariff periods.

One important function of any control and monitoring system is to manage tariff variations in
the best possible way in order to reduce energy costs. The means used are described in the
following paragraphs.

n temporary or permanent operation of internal generator sets

The cost of energy produced by internal generator sets can be less than that charged by the
energy utility. Economic reasons therefore exist for supplying the network from internal
generator sets.

Where generators can supply more power than that demanded internally, the excess can be
sold to the utility.

The control and monitoring system:

- calculates the economic benefit of supplying all or part of the load from internal generator
sets

- automatically handles the changeover from utility supply to generator supply (for operation
disconnected from the utility)

- controls the active and reactive powers supplied by the generator sets (see § 12.1.4.).

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n keeping within the subscribed demand

To avoid penalty charges, as far as possible the power supplied by the utility should not
exceed the subscribed demand.

The means available to achieve this are:

- starting internal generator sets or increasing their power supply

- load shedding of non-priority consumers

The control and monitoring system manages automatic load shedding together with the power
supplied by internal generators in order to keep within the subscribed demand.

n management of consumption based on energy costs

Certain industrial processes can be time-shifted.

Since energy costs vary according to the time of day, the energy related costs of these
processes may be reduced by running them during the least expensive tariff periods.

This is known as tariff management.

The control and monitoring system function carries out tariff management.

n reactive energy compensation

Compensation is installed on site so as to:

- avoid reactive energy payments to the utility

- limit capital costs, Joule losses and voltage dips where the capacitors are installed close to
highly reactive loads.

The means employed are:

- installation of capacitors

- increasing the reactive power supplied by the generator sets, where it exists.

The control and monitoring system manages capacitor control and the reactive power supplied
by the generator sets.

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n energy sub-metering

Sub-metering - that is, measuring energy consumption for a given production unit, workshop or
activity sector - allows energy costs to be more clearly defined and apportioned, as well as
alerting the operator to situations deviating from the norm, thus enabling energy costs to be
shared between the various workshops and production units.

Measurements are made of active and reactive energy.

Energy sub-metering is a control and monitoring system function.

12.1.2. Energy availability

Guaranteed energy availability is essential for companies.

The following control and monitoring functions serve this objective:

- automatic changeover from a faulty supply to a back-up supply

- automatic loop reconfiguration

- load management to avoid exceeding the available power

- interlocking and intertripping of switching devices to prevent operational errors

- monitoring of energy quality.

Control of the automatic devices which contribute to improving energy availability is one of the
most important considerations on which control and monitoring systems are based.

The following paragraphs describe these automatic systems.

n changeover from a faulty supply to a back-up supply

For loads where continuity of supply is critical, there are redundant sources of power.

The control and monitoring system handles the automatic changeover from a faulty supply to
the back-up.

These automatic operations comprise in particular:

- changeover without coupler circuit-breaker, referred to as 1/2 changeover

- changeover with coupler circuit-breaker, referred to as 2/3c changeover

- loop reconfiguration.

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n network load management

For a network disconnected from the utility:

- a load in excess of the production capacity results in generators being taken out of service

- after supply interruption, load restoration must be carried out step by step to avoid
unacceptable voltage and frequency variations.

Once the internal generators are operating an electrical fault can provoke network instability
(see § 9) and, as a consequence, the loss of the internal supply.

The control and monitoring system controls automatic load shedding/restoration which is
adapted to the nature of the situations encountered:

- preventing consumption from exceeding production capacity

- protecting the network and contributing to its dynamic stability under fault conditions

- restoring the load step by step after a supply interruption.

n interlocking of switching and isolating devices

Interlocking of switching and isolating devices avoids operational errors which might otherwise
lead to electrical faults.

The control and monitoring system supervises the interlocking of switching and isolating
devices.

n intertripping of switching devices

The intertripping of switching devices prevents configurations occurring which could be

detrimental to the network's operation.

Example: the intertripping of switching devices upstream and downstream of a transformer.

The control and monitoring system controls the intertripping of switching devices.

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n earthing transformer changeover

Consider the case of a network equipped with two busbars with coupler, each having an
earthing transformer installed.

When the two busbars are connected together only one earthing transformer should be on line
(see § 2.3.1 of the Industrial network protection guide).

The control and monitoring system provides the automatic control necessary to ensure only
one earthing transformer is on line when the two busbars are connected together.

n energy quality control

To ensure the proper functioning of loads and long service life of electrical apparatus the
quality of the energy supply is of paramount importance.

At different points on the installation measurements are taken of:

- harmonic currents and voltages

- power factor

- voltage unbalance

- peak factor (ratio between peak and r.m.s. values).

Periodic reports are transmitted to the system enabling problems to be analysed and remedial
action to be taken.

The control and monitoring system maintains control of energy quality.

12.1.3. Time-dependent programming

Certain consumer-processes only operate during scheduled periods.

Their on/off control is managed on a time-dependent basis.

Time-dependent programming is handled by the control and monitoring system.

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12.1.4. Control of internal generator sets

Internal generator sets must be controlled for operation connected to and disconnected from
the utility.

n operation disconnected from the utility

Active and reactive powers are determined by the load; frequency and voltage are regulated.

n operation connected to the utility

The supply frequency and voltage are applied by the utility.

This offers three possibilities.

o 1st possibility

The active and reactive powers supplied by the generator sets are regulated to pre-set values,
with any load variations then being met by the utility.

o 2nd possibility

The active and reactive powers supplied by the utility are regulated to pre-set values (for
example, subscribed demand), with load variations then being withstood by the generator set
up to the limit of its capacity.

o 3rd possibility

The active power supplied by the generators is regulated to a pre-set value. Variations in
active power demand are then met by the utility.

The reactive power supplied by the utility is regulated to a pre-set value (the uninvoiced limit
consumption, for example). Reactive power variations are then withstood by the generator set
up to the limit of its capacity.

A synchronizing function is installed between each generator and between the generator set
and the utility.

The control and monitoring system controls the operation of the internal generator set.

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12.1.5. Network diagnostic aids

The two key functions of fine time stamping and fault recording are diagnostic aids. They allow
the current state of the network to be known and its operation to be closely tracked.

Fine time stamping records alarms and switching device operations with a precision that
enables the chronology of events leading up to and following a fault to be determined.

The fault recorder registers changes to analogue values (voltage, current) when specific
events occur (overcurrent, overvoltage).

The control and monitoring system manages these two key functions.

12.1.6. Distribution network control system

Control of the electrical network is carried out by a computer automated system. This allows
monitoring of the network and remote control of operations.

It also offers the operator help and assistance with his work thus leading to improved
productivity and safety.

12.1.7. Optimising equipment maintenance

By recording and counting the number of switching device operations and equipment operating
hours, the system enables equipment maintenance to be optimised, and reduces the number
of operator interventions.

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12.2. Description of the functions carried out on an electrical network

In this section we will describe the automatic systems of control and monitoring that are
generally available to operators running an electrical network.

12.2.1. Automatic changeover

Distribution switchboards where loss of supply is critical are generally fed from two or three
sources, each capable of acting as a back-up. Internal generator sets might constitute one of
these sources. (see § 1).

Automatic changeover controls the switchboard incoming switching devices.

The objective of automatic supply changeover is to:

- improve supply availability. A supply with a fault on it is replaced by a back-up.

- make savings by feeding the switchboard from the most economical source (where one of
the sources is the internal generator sets)

- provide the opportunity for maintenance of the normal supply.

A short-break changeover is carried out if, during the changeover sequence, the disconnected
source and the replacement source do not feed the load in parallel.
This means there is a brief interruption of supply to the load.

A no-break changeover is carried out if, during the changeover sequence, the two supplies
feed the load in parallel, in which case they must be synchronous. There is no interruption of
supply to the load.

n role of a control and monitoring system in changeover management

Before a changeover can take place, the control and monitoring system must first of all
analyse the necessary operating conditions:

- the correct state of all isolating devices. For example, all isolators are closed or all circuit-
breakers are plugged in

- the voltage is correct, in the case of the replacement supply coming from the same energy
production source

- the voltage and frequency are correct, in the case of a changeover without coupling to an
internal generator set

- the voltage, frequency and phase are correct, in the case of changeover with coupling of
two supplies coming from different production sources

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- the absence of voltage is not the result of a downstream fault trip (otherwise the back-up
supply would re-supply the fault).

- the remanent voltage on busbars to which motors are connected is below a given threshold.
In fact, following a supply disconnection, the motors maintain a remanent voltage for the
time it takes the flux to collapse (about a second). Rapidly reconnecting the supply whose
phase is in opposition to the remanent voltage could well provoke transient electrical and
mechanical phenomena likely to damage the motor. In the case of a short-break
changeover the control and monitoring system will inhibit supply reconnection until the
remanent busbar voltage is below a predefined threshold value (of the order of 20 % of the
nominal voltage). Where a minimum remanent voltage protection system (code ANSI 27R)
is fitted to the busbar, reconnection is enabled directly through its "digital" output signal.

Changeovers in general involve load disconnection (complete in the case of a short-break

changeover). The control and monitoring system must manage automatic load
shedding/restoration and motor restarting in a manner adapted to the type of changeover
being executed.

For a short-break changeover, control and monitoring system performance is such that there is
loss of supply for a period of less than 400 ms (where reconnection is not locked by the
remanent voltage monitoring).

n description of a 1/2 changeover (without coupler circuit-breaker)

The principle of the 1/2 changeover is shown in the simplified diagram in figure 12.1.

source A source B

busbar

outgoing feeders

Figure 12-1: simplified diagram showing the 1/2 changeover

In normal operation only one source supplies the busbar.

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o 1/2 changeover sequence

If one of the busbar supplies is lost the power source acting as back-up is connected
(see fig. 12-2).

source A source B source A source B

1/2 changeover of B to A

open closed closed open

1/2 changeover of A to B

Figure 12-2: 1/2 changeover sequence

n description of a 2/3c changeover (with coupler circuit-breaker)

The principle of the 2/3c changeover is shown in the simplified diagram in figure 12-3.

source A source B

coupler

outgoing feeders

Figure 12-3: simplified diagram showing a 2/3c changeover

In normal operation the coupler circuit-breaker is open. Each supply feeds one bus section.

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o 2/3c changeover sequence

If one of the supplies is lost the coupler circuit-breaker is closed, and the other supply feeds all
the outgoing feeders (see fig. 12-4).

source A source B source A source B

2/3c changeover of B to A

closed closed closed open

return

open closed

Figure 12-4: 2/3c changeover sequence

n other automatic changeover systems

Other automatic changeover systems exist corresponding to more complex electrical

configurations, for example:

- 3 sources feeding a busbar with or without coupler (see fig. 1-25 and 1-26)

- a double busbar, with 2 isolators and a circuit-breaker on each supply and on each outgoing
feeder (see fig. 1-15)

- two interconnected double busbars with 2 isolators and a circuit-breaker on each supply
and outgoing feeder (see fig. 1-16).

n changeover to internal generators (types: 1/2; 2/3c or others)

4 changeover modes are possible:

- short-break changeover. The load is disconnected before the internal generators come on
line. The generators then progressively restore the load

- progressive no-break changeover. The utility and internal generators are connected in
parallel, generator power being progressively increased until it reaches the level required by
the load. The utility supply is then disconnected

- instantaneous no-break changeover. As soon as the generators are brought on line in

parallel with the utility, the latter is disconnected. The generator sets instantly supply the
load (inasmuch as they are able to)

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- changeover for a permanent operation of utility and generators in parallel. The generators
will then either only supply a part of the energy required, or else deliver power to utility
network.

Paralleling up the utility supply with the internal generators requires the installation of a
synchronizer, as well as a fast-acting disconnection protection to enable the industrial network
to be isolated in the case of a short circuit, a supply interruption or high levels of disturbance
on the utility distribution network.

Synchronizing is an automatic function acting on the frequency and voltage regulators. It

allows sources of supply to be coupled when the frequency, voltage and phase of the internal
generators are within their predefined ranges.

12.2.2. Automatic MV loop reconfiguration

An MV loop comprises a busbar feeding several secondary substations in a loop configuration.
(see fig. 12-5).
source

busbar

A1 B1

I > I >

A2 B2
substation 1 substation 5
A3 B3

A4 B4

substation 2 substation 4
A5 B5

A6 B6 open

substation 3

fault detector

I > overcurrent protection

Figure 12-5: an MV loop

Secondary substations are fitted with switches or circuit-breakers.

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n case where secondary substations are fitted with switches

In normal operation the loop is open. In figure 12-5, we assume that the loop at B6 is open.

The loop head circuit-breakers at A1 and B1 are fitted with an overcurrent protection.

Phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth fault detectors are installed at each switch location. They
indicate the passage of a fault current.

The automatic loop reconfiguration function controls the switches in a way that re-establishes
the supply after a fault on the loop:

- by isolating the faulty zone

- by reconfiguring the loop so as to restore supply to all secondary substations. If the fault is
on a substation busbar, the substation is no longer supplied.

Example of a sequence following a fault at • on the diagram:

- the overcurrent protection at A1 detects the fault and causes the circuit-breaker A1 to be
tripped

- the fault detectors located at A2 and A3 indicate the passage of a fault current, the other
detectors giving no indication. The fault is located. Automatic loop reconfiguration opens
switches A3 and A4 so as to isolate the faulty zone

- the system then closes switch B6 and circuit-breaker A1 providing supply once more to
substations 1, 2 and 3.

After the faulty cable has been repaired the operator can instruct the system to return to the
normal configuration, i.e. with only switch B6 in the open state.

The control and monitoring system performance is such that loop reconfiguration takes place
in less than 10 seconds, including switch operating times.

n case where secondary substations are fitted with circuit-breakers

The loop is closed under normal operating conditions.

If a loop fault occurs, the selective protection system will automatically isolate the faulty zone,
thus no automatic loop reconfiguration is necessary (see § 10.1.8. of the Protection guide).

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12.2.3. Load shedding

Setting up the load shedding function requires the system to be configured in order to
determine which loads are to be shed.

n parameter setting

Parameter setting offers the following possibilities :

- selecting the loads to be shed

- determining the conditions in which loads can be shed

For each load the operator can set:

- the load shedding priority level.

For example, for n levels, level n priority loads are the first to be shed and level 2 the last.
Level 1 priority loads are never subject to load shedding

- the maximum period of disconnection of the load from the supply

- the minimum post restoration time, i.e. once a load has been restored, the minimum length
of time which must elapse before the same load can be shed once more (to avoid any
"pumping" effects)

- the conditions defining the priority level.

For example, a load may be shed over-night but not during the daytime, or in winter but not
in summer ...

n carrying out load shedding and restoration

The control and monitoring system controls load shedding/recovery according to the
parameters set by the operator. The choice of loads to shed or to restore is governed by a
hierarchically defined algorithm.

o choice of loads to be shed

Level n loads are shed one by one, and if the load-shedding requirement is not entirely met by
level n, level n-1 loads follow, and so on. Level 1 loads must never be shed.

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o choice of loads to be restored

Loads having the highest priority level are restored first, beginning with the last load to have
been shed in the priority level concerned. If the possibility for load restoration has not been
entirely filled by the loads belonging to this level, the loads belonging to the next level may be
restored, and so on.

In any case, a hysteresis type mechanism must be integrated into the operation of the control
and monitoring system, so as to avoid pumping occurring, which could reduce the useful life of
switching devices and loads.

12.2.3.1. Tariff management load shedding

Load shedding based on tariff considerations is established assuming there are no operational
internal generator sets capable of providing the load requirements.

The control and monitoring system must:

- permanently evaluate the quantity of energy consumed over the contract-based integrating
period to allow any overshoot of subscribed demand to be estimated

- determine from this the value of power to be shed or restored

- control the corresponding load shedding/restoration operations.

The contract-based integrating period is usually of the order of 10 minutes.

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n estimating the power of the load to be shed or restored

Estimating the energy which will have been consumed over a complete integrating period is
done using the energy consumed between the start of the period and a time t0 , to which is
added an estimation of the energy that will be consumed from t0 until the end of the period,
i.e. at time T (see fig. 12-6).

Pt

power
power estimated at instant t 0
P$ (t ) 0

0 t0 T time
integrating period T

Figure 12-6: estimating the energy consumed over the integrating period

Let us assume that t = 0 at the start of the integrating period.

Let E$ (t 0 ) be the evaluation at the instant t0 of the energy consumed during one integrating
period:

E$ ( t0 ) = z
0
t0
P ( t ) dt + P$ ( t0 ) × ( T − t0 )

P$ ( t0 ) is the estimated power for the period [t 0 → T ] , at the instant t0 . It is calculated from the
values of power measured over a time λ before the instant t0 :

P$ ( t0 ) =
1 t0
z
λ t0 − λ
P ( t ) dt

P$ ( t0 ) is thus the mean value of consumption at the instant t0 during a period λ . The value of λ
can be set to several minutes.

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Let Ps be the subscribed demand, or the power consumption which must not be exceeded,
and ∆ P the value of power to be shed or restored. We have:

E$ (t 0 )
∆ P = Ps −
T

if ∆ P > 0 , it is possible to restore a power ∆ P

if ∆ P < 0 , a power ∆ P must be shed.

Estimating energy consumption using a mean value over a period λ enables peaks to be
filtered out, thus avoiding load shedding commands being issued on occurrence of a
temporary overload; motor starting or welding machine operations for example.

The control and monitoring system is permanently calculating the ∆ P value, and as a result
may issue a load shedding or restoration command.

The load shedding operation itself has no time constraint since the integrating period is quite
long; it can therefore be carried out over several seconds.

12.2.3.2. Load shedding for transformer overload protection

A transformer can cope with high overloads for short periods.

Standard IEC 354 allows the following overloads:

2 Sn for distribution transformers ( Sn < 2500 kVA)

1,8 Sn for medium power transformers ( Sn ≤ 100 MVA)
1,5 Sn for high power transformers ( Sn > 100 MVA)

Sn : transformer rated power

These overloads are allowed for periods of several minutes, and there is no time constraint on
transformer protection on occurrence of an overload. For very high currents (in the event of a
short circuit), the transformer will be protected by overcurrent protection devices (see § 10.3. of
the Protection guide).

The control and monitoring system can :

- determine the power to be shed in the case of an overload

- control the load shedding procedure

- determine the power to be restored

- control the recovery procedure.

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The command to shed load is given by the alarm threshold of a thermal probe or a thermal
overload protection. The value of power to be shed ∆ P is the difference between the power
consumed and the transformer rated power (or a value inferior to it).

After a given period, determined by the time constant of the transformer and its operating
conditions, there is load restoration equal to the difference between the rated power (or a
value inferior to it) and the power consumed.

Load shedding dependent on a thermal overload protection (or thermal probe) threshold allows
transformer load shedding by overcurrent to be avoided for overloads that the transformer is
able to allow for a certain period of time.

n case of two transformers operating in parallel

Since transformers can tolerate abrupt changes in load it is not necessary to carry out
immediate shedding when one transformer is lost due to a fault. The remaining transformer will
continue supplying the full load power.
Load shedding will, if necessary, take place depending on the power being consumed and
information coming from the transformer thermal overload (or thermal probe) protection, where
such protection exists.

12.2.3.3. Load shedding to protect internal generator sets

Three types of anomaly can provoke a request to shed load:

n overload

This situation occurs when a slow increase in load results in a demand for power in excess of
the production capacity.

The control and monitoring system can:

- calculate the value of power that needs to be shed

- carry out load-shedding before generator protection is activated.

n a fall in production capacity (operation disconnected from the utility) or the loss of
utility supply (operation connected to the utility)

This can be due to the loss of a generator or its drive.

Load shedding must be carried out rapidly to maintain frequency and voltage within their
acceptable ranges, and to avoid the protection system placing generator sets out of service.

The control and monitoring system can:

- calculate the value of power that needs to be shed

- carry out load-shedding quickly enough to keep frequency and voltage within their
acceptable ranges.

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n electrical incidents

They include:

- a short-circuit inside the site

- a short circuit on the utility network at a point close to the site

- a large voltage dip affecting the operation of rotating machines.

Rapid load shedding helps to maintain network stability.

A dynamic stability analysis (see § 11) will clarify which loads need to be shed in order to
maintain the stability of the network.

The control and monitoring system can:

- determine which loads must be shed

- carry out load-shedding within a time that enables network stability to be maintained.

n load restoration

Once the network is stable following a load shedding operation, and the available power is
greater than that demanded by the load, restoration operations become possible.

Load restoration must be carried out in stages since generators cannot tolerate large load
impacts.

A stability analysis allows the load restoration stages to be determined, i.e. the load impacts
permitted by the generator sets in relation to the power that they supply.

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o case of motors
Following an interruption of supply, motors maintain a remanent voltage during the time it
takes the flux to collapse (in the order of a second). Rapidly reconnecting the supply could
result in a coupling of opposite phase voltages. The resulting electrical and mechanical
transients could quite easily damage the motor.

Once load shedding has taken place, the control and monitoring system will inhibit restoration
operations involving any busbar which supplies motors until the remanent voltage appearing
on the busbar falls below a predefined threshold (of the order of 20 % of the nominal voltage).

Where a minimum remanent voltage protection system is fitted to the busbar (code ANSI 27R),
reconnection is enabled directly through the protection digital output signal.

The control and monitoring system must:

- determine the power that can be restored

- determine the stages of load restoration

- verify the absence of remanent voltages due to motors on the busbars being re-supplied

- carry out the stages necessary to restore the load.

n time constraints

Given that overload conditions develop relatively slowly, a load shedding response to an
overload need not be rapid, a time of several seconds being allowable.

On the other hand, stability studies may show that when a fault condition occurs load shedding
must happen quickly in order to maintain the stability of the network. In such a case, load
shedding must take no more than several hundred ms.

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12.2.4. Transformer group sequential loading

Energizing a transformer can give rise to a transient overcurrent 10 to 15 times the nominal
current lasting for several tenths of a second (see Protection guide § 10.3.1).

For this reason, the simultaneous energizing of all or part of the transformers may cause
spurious tripping of certain overcurrent protections.

To avoid this, the control and monitoring system must handle the supply of power to all or part
of the installation by energizing transformers in groups (including energizing a single
transformer).

Step by step re-powering may be deemed to be necessary for :

- load restoration (see § 12.2.3)

- changeover (see § 12.2.1)
- loop reconfiguration (see § 12.2.2)
- energization of all or part of the installation.

12.2.5. Interlocking of switching and isolating devices

The control and monitoring system should refuse to execute any operator command that would
result in an electrical fault.

The refusal will generate an explanatory message at the operator's control station.

n example (see fig. 12-7)

source 1 source 2

CB1 CB2

Figure 12-7: interlocking of circuit-breakers

Sources 1 and 2 are generated completely separately. When both transformers are supplied
the system will refuse to close CB2 if CB1 is also closed, and vice versa.

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12.2.6. Intertripping of switching devices

The control and monitoring system must intertrip the switching devices upstream and
downstream of a transformer (see fig. 12-8).

upstream circuit-breaker

downstream circuit-breaker

Figure 12-8: intertripping of switching devices upstream and downstream of a transformer

When the operator or protection device opens the upstream circuit-breaker, the control and
monitoring system opens the downstream circuit-breaker.

In addition, closure of the downstream circuit-breaker is not allowed if the upstream device is
open.

Note: in general, a fault detected by the protection system will directly open both circuit-breakers.

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12.2.7. Earthing transformer changeover

Consider a network comprising two busbars with coupler; an earthing transformer is installed
on each one (see fig. 12-9).

When the two busbars are coupled, only one of the two earthing transformers should be in
service to avoid doubling the value of any potential earth fault current.

After closing the coupler circuit-breaker, the control and monitoring system must eliminate one
of the two earthing transformers.

G G
TR1 TR2

busbar 1

busbar 2
coupler
circuit-breaker

earthing earthing
transformer n° 1 transformer n° 2

Figure 12-9: switching of two earthing transformers on double busbars with coupler

12.2.8. Reactive energy compensation

The control and monitoring system must carry out varometric regulation under the different
supply configurations.

n network supplied from the utility only

The system controls switched steps capacitor banks so as to maintain the level of reactive
power consumed below the utility's uninvoiced consumption value.

Note: in certain cases, benefit might be obtained by "totally" compensating the reactive energy in
order to reduce the current, Joule losses and voltage dips to a minimum. (see § 7).

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n network supplied from internal generator sets connected to the utility

Reactive power can be supplied from the capacitors and the generators.

The stability of generators is improved when they supply reactive power. As a consequence,
part of the reactive power is provided by the generators, with the remainder being supplied by
the capacitors.

However, in the even of loss or considerable reduction in load, it becomes imperative to take
the capacitors out of service in order to prevent generator instability occurring.

The system controls the reactive power provided by the generators to keep the reactive energy
consumed below the reactive power uninvoiced by the utility.

n network supplied by internal generator sets only

In this situation the generators are supplying the required reactive power, and therefore the
varometric regulation function is inhibited. On the other hand, voltage regulation works to keep
the reactive power production-consumption balanced.

Typically, generators are rated so as to be capable of supplying a value of cos ϕ = 0.8 on full
load.

If the (inductive) cos ϕ value for the load is below 0.8 (a rare occurrence), the capacitor banks
can supply the difference.

12.2.9. Sub-metering and energy quality control

The control and monitoring system carries out energy metering and quality checks at defined
points on the network.

n active and reactive energy metering

Metering covers a specific period (tariff period, an hour, a day, a week, a month, etc.).

n energy quality control

The quality of the energy supply is determined by the following measurements:

- current and voltage harmonics

- power factor
- voltage unbalance
- peak factor (ratio between peak and r.m.s. values).

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These measurements may be made :

- periodically

- under operator control

- when a set-point value is exceeded.

The measurement results are transmitted to the operator's control station to be analysed. They
could equally trigger off an alarm.

12.2.10. Time-dependent programming

The control and monitoring system must carry out "time-dependent" load control in accordance
with operator-configured parameters.

n parameter setting

Parameters are set in order to schedule load operating periods, i.e. the start/stop times.

The precision of parameter-setting must be about one minute.

When programming an operating period it must be possible to take account of holidays or

other special days.

An operator must at any moment be able to :

- modify the parameter settings

- issue an "ON override" command during an "OFF" period

- issue an "OFF override" command during an "ON" period

- issue a permanent start or stop command

- issue a return to automatic mode command.

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12.2.11. Tariff-management
The control and monitoring system must carry out control of loads for which "tariff-
management" has been defined, according to the current tariff period.

The current tariff period is determined:

- either through external signals supplied by the utility

- or by the control and monitoring system in relation to the time and the tariff details specified
in the contract with the utility.

n parameter setting

Parameters are set to define load start / stop times in accordance with the tariff period.

An operator must at any moment be able to :

- modify the parameter settings

- issue an "ON override" command during an "OFF" period

- issue an "OFF override" command during an "ON" period

- issue a permanent start or stop command

- issue a return to automatic mode command.

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12.2.12. Control of internal generator sets

Internal generator sets must be controlled and monitored when operating either connected to
or disconnected from the utility.

n operation disconnected from the utility

Active and reactive powers are applied by the load.

Consider an electrical installation with an energy production centre consisting of n generator

sets.

The control and monitoring system must:

- determine the number of generator sets that need to be started to match the requirement
for power.

- control generator starting

- synchronize the generator sets

- manage active and reactive power sharing between the generator sets (see § 4), i.e. the
percentage power, i % , supplied by each generator set in relation to the power required,
n
where ∑ i % = 100 .
1
- control generator loading; this being carried out in stages so as to maintain the voltage and
frequency within their acceptable ranges

- regulate generator set frequency by adjusting the power supplied by the drive machines

- regulate the voltage supplied by the generator sets by adjusting generator excitation.

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n operation connected to the utility

Frequency and voltage are supplied by the utility.

This offers three possibilities:

o active and reactive powers supplied by the generator sets are constant

The active and reactive powers supplied by the generator sets are regulated to set-point
values, with any variations in demand then being met by the utility.

Consider an electrical installation with an energy production plant consisting of n generators

The control and monitoring system must:

- determine the number of generator sets to be started in relation to the power set-point

- control generator starting

- synchronize the generator sets

- synchronize the generator sets with the utility

- manage active and reactive power sharing between the generator sets (see § 4), i.e. the
percentage power, i % , supplied by each generator set in relation to the power set-points,
n
where ∑ i % = 100 .
1
- control the drive machine power so that the generator sets are loaded

- regulate the active power supplied by the generator sets by adjusting the drive machine
power control

- regulate the reactive power supplied by the generator sets by adjusting generator
excitation.

Note: active and reactive powers supplied by the utility can be negative, in which case the generator
sets will supply power to the utility. The control and monitoring system must be able to operate
for positive or negative utility powers.

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o active and reactive powers supplied by the utility are constant

The active and reactive powers supplied by the utility are regulated to set-point values
(subscribed demand values for example), with variations in load being withstood by the internal
generator sets up to the limit of their capacity.

The power that must be supplied by the generator sets (i.e. the power required) is the
difference between the load power and the utility set-point value.

Consider an electrical installation with an energy production plant consisting of n generator

sets.

The control and monitoring system must:

- determine the number of generator sets to be started in relation to the power required

- control generator starting

- synchronize the generator sets

- synchronize the generator sets with the utility

- manage active and reactive power sharing between the generator sets (see § 5), i.e. the
percentage power, i % , supplied by each generator set in relation to the power set-points,
n
where ∑ i % = 100 .
1
- regulate the active power supplied by the utility to the set-point value, by adjusting the
power control of the drive machines so as to maintain:

Pg = Pld − Pusp

Pg : active power supplied by the generator sets

Pld : active power of the load
Pusp : utility active power set-point (constant value)

- regulate the reactive power supplied by the utility to the set-point value by adjusting
generator excitation so as to maintain:

Qg = Qld − Qusp

Qg : reactive power supplied by the generator sets

Qld : reactive power of the load
Qusp : utility reactive power set-point (constant value)

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Note : the utility active and reactive power set-point values can be negative, in which case the
generator sets then supply power to the utility. The control and monitoring system must be able
to operate for positive or negative utility powers.

o the active power supplied by the generator sets and the reactive power supplied by
the utility are constant

The active power supplied by the generator sets is regulated to a set-point value. Variations in
the active power are then met by the utility.

The reactive power supplied by the utility is regulated to a set-point value (uninvoiced limit
value, for example). Variations in reactive power are then withstood by the generator sets up
to the limit of their capacity.

The reactive power that must be supplied by the generator sets is the difference between the
reactive power of the load and the utility set-point value (or cosϕ ).

Consider an electrical installation with an energy production plant consisting of n generators

The control and monitoring system must:

- determine the number of generator sets to be started in relation to the active power set-
point and the reactive power required

- control generator starting

- synchronize the generator sets

- synchronize the generator sets with the utility

- manage active and reactive power sharing between the generator sets (see § 5), i.e. the
percentage power, i %, supplied by each generator set in relation to the active power set-
n
point and the reactive power required, where ∑ i % = 100
1
- control the drive machine power in order to load the generator sets

- regulate the active power supplied by the generator sets by adjusting the drive machine
power control

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- regulate the reactive power supplied by the utility to the set-point value by adjusting
generator excitation (or alternatively by adjusting the tap-changer of the transformer
connected to the utility supply) so as to maintain:

Qg = Qld − Qusp

Qg : reactive power supplied by the generator sets

Qld : reactive power of the load
Qusp : utility reactive power set-point (constant value)

Note: the utility active and reactive power set-point values can be negative, in which case the
generator sets then supply power to the utility. The control and monitoring system must be able
to operate for positive or negative utility powers.

n changeover from operation connected to the utility to operation disconnected from

the utility, and vice versa

On changeover from operation connected to the utility to operation disconnected from the
utility, the control and monitoring system automatically switches from active and reactive power
regulation to frequency and voltage regulation.

Conversely, on changeover from operation disconnected from the utility to operation

connected to the utility the control and monitoring system automatically switches from
frequency and voltage regulation to active and reactive power regulation.

12.2.13. Fine time stamping

The control and monitoring system dates alarms and changes of switching device state.

Events are recorded to a precision of 1 ms, with a separating capability between events of
10 ms.

12.2.14. Fault recording

The fault recorder permanently collects analogue values (voltages, currents), and calculates
residual values of current and voltage.

When a network event occurs the change in analogue values is recorded.

Recording is triggered by:

- an external input (activation of a protection for example)

- a collected or calculated analogue value exceeding a predefined threshold
- a change in the slope of one of the collected or calculated analogue values
- a variation in frequency.

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The record of an event includes pre and post event timings, both of which are configurable.

For example, the pre-event timing may be configured to be between 100 ms and 2 seconds.

Likewise, the post-event timing may be configured to be between 100 ms and 20 seconds.

The sampling frequency is also configurable (roughly 1000 Hz).

The fault recorder data collected are transmitted to a dedicated operator terminal via the
control and monitoring system serial link.

The terminal runs software capable of presenting the data in the form of curves or as tables of
values.

The software can also make calculations of harmonics or RMS values.

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12.3 Description of control and monitoring system equipment

n standard architecture

In order to run an electrical network and its associated automatic systems, a control and
monitoring system uses computer hardware in combination with a set of software applications
all of which communicate over a network.

Figure 12-10 gives a schematic representation of control and monitoring system architecture.
The system must be able to communicate with all low, medium and high-voltage electrical
equipment under its control.

server
computer operator stations

maintenance gateway to other

terminal computer systems
printers

synchro signal

local network
substation

substation

MV switchboard MV switchboard

switchboard
control
centre internal bus

LV switchboard LV switchboard
electrical equipment

Figure 12-10: control and monitoring system architecture diagram

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o main server computer

Carrying out the network supervision data processing, this machine manages the real-time
database and communication with the switchboard control centres.

It must perform well enough to correctly manage the electrical network. For large systems a
mini-computer is generally used while for smaller systems a microcomputer is adequate.
Mains/Standby server redundancy is sometimes built in to improve control and monitoring
system availability.

o operator stations

Operator stations provide the control and monitoring system user graphical interface and they
may be located in the installation control room or in substations. They may comprise either
work stations, PCs or terminals depending on the particular requirements.

o maintenance terminal

The maintenance personnel are equipped with a PC that can be connected to any point on the
communication network (especially in each substation).

This enables personnel to modify substation controller programmes and monitor the
communication network.

o printers

These supply a printout of information as it becomes available (events or alarms) and printouts
of reports and screen captures.

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o switchboard control centres

These are programmable controllers, or the equivalent, which handle the following functions:

- interfacing with communicating electrical switchgear such as circuit-breakers, contactors,

protection devices, etc.

- event dating

- communications with the main server computer

- switchboard automatic processes such as supply changeovers, load shedding, switchgear

interlocking, etc.

o gateway to other computer systems

The function of the gateway is to allow information to pass between the control and monitoring
system and other existing computer systems (industrial processes, administrative
management, etc.).

Its principal role is the conversion of communication protocols.

Data can either be exchanged with the main server computer database or directly with the
switchboard control centres.

o communication network

It allows:

- exchange of data between the switchboard control centres and the server.

- exchange of data between the server and the operator stations.

- where necessary, communications between other computer systems via the gateway.

- the constraints of long distance between substations and complicated geographic dispersal
to be overcome.

- either partial or global redundancy solutions.

The use of fibre optic cables enables data communication over long distances, and eliminates
potential problems due to electromagnetic disturbance.

The network data rate is high (greater than 10 Mbits/s); Ethernet for example.

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o internal bus

The internal bus facilitates data communication between a substation's electrical equipment
and the switchboard control centre.

o synchronization of various pieces of equipment

The various elements of the control and monitoring system which receive data about the state
of the electrical network must be synchronized (protection devices, substation controllers,
server, etc.).

Indeed, the system must be able to show that a substation circuit-breaker has been tripped
before another circuit-breaker in another substation, with separating capability between events
of less than 10 ms.

The preferred choice is to use an external, high precision electronic clock operating
independently of the system in case of a supply failure.

The clock supplies a date, and this is used as the reference distributed to all equipment which
records changes of state, alarms, etc.

n control and monitoring system performance

o upgradability

The architecture of the control and monitoring hardware and software must be designed to be
easily upgradable in terms of functions and processing capacity in order for the electrical
network to be accommodated without sacrificing any of the initial investment.

o dependability of the control and monitoring system

In the case of installations requiring a high degree of reliability and dependability, redundancy
at server or network level can be built into the system.

For large systems, a dependability analysis is used to establish the determining factors
governing the suitability of the control and monitoring solution proposed (see § 12). It enables
the areas for duplication to be defined, depending on the needs and constraints of each
application.

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o a few system performance criteria (see table 12-1)

performance type Time in seconds

Time needed for operation to be possible following a system re-start 60

(hardware and software reset)

Time needed to process a remote indication or remote measurement 1

received from a switchboard control centre

Display on demand of a diagram irrespective of the number of symbols 2

included

Alarm or change-of-state display 1

Table 12-1: control and monitoring system performance criteria

12.4 Description of control and supervision functions

Operator stations are the hardware and software interface between the operator and the
distribution network. They thus withstand control functions (remote commands) and
supervision functions (animated mimic diagrams, alarms, event lists, etc.).

They offer the possibility of setting parameters and configuring the control and monitoring
system to adapt it to changing requirements. The operator who interacts with the control and
monitoring system then has access to all real-time variables and recorded variables which give
a global picture of the state of the electrical network.

Following a description of the general principles behind the user interface we will detail the
functions offered to the operator for control and monitoring of the electrical network.

n general principles behind the user interface

Designing a user interface consists in defining a computer tool corresponding to the user's
needs which is both easy to learn and simple to use.

Different sciences (ergonomics, psychology, etc.) contribute to the inclusion of the specifically
human-related elements in the design. However, other characteristics are based on the actual
practices and customs common to a particular working environment and are therefore
determined through experience.

The graphic user interface is generally developed using a standard "Windows" type system.

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The "look and feel" system is used, based on the principle of uniformity:

- all screens are designed with the same basic structure such that the same information can
always be found in the same screen area.

- to access a function, the operator carries out the same actions whatever the state of the
user interface.

o description of the basic screen

the screen contains :

- a menu with its different options.

- an animated real time mimic diagram of the electrical network.

- tables of values.

- curves.

- lists of alarms, events.

- reports.

- etc.

n system functions

Depending on the operator's duties, the functions offered by the system will allow him/her to
achieve the required end results. They concern real-time system monitoring, analysis or
maintenance operations.

o assigning access rights (limiting access according to user status)

The system generally has built-in access codes limiting the functions available to a user in line
with his/her duties and responsibilities.

There might, for example, be four levels of access, structured hierarchically:

- level 0: Display only

The operator whose job it is to monitor the installation is limited to simply being able to view
the different displays: - mimic diagrams, alarm screens, reports, event lists, measurement
tables, etc.

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- level 1: Display and commands

As well as being able to select displays, the operator is allowed to acknowledge alarms and
send remote control commands to network equipment: - open/close, stop/start, etc.

- level 2: Display, commands and parameter setting

As well as level 1 rights, the operator is authorised to alter system parameters such as load
shedding priorities, tariff and time periods, values displayed as curves, etc.

- level 3: system management

The operator has level 2 rights plus system manager status, and can:
. modify switchboard control centre programmes, alarm thresholds, etc.
. modify databases and mimic diagrams
. set operator access levels.

o Real-time display of the electrical network mimic diagrams

Single-line wiring mimic diagrams offer a dynamic representation of the electrical network
updated in real time.

They allow information to be shown graphically and numerically on:

- the positions of the different switching devices (circuit-breakers, isolators, etc.)

- the values measured at different points on the network (voltages, currents, powers, etc.)

- the state of the power supply to the different busbars and cables using colours symbolising
the presence, or not, of voltage and its level.

Several mimic diagrams are provided showing different layers of detail, from a global network
diagram down to a detailed representation of each switching device with its measured values.

For example, we may have the following:

- a general single-line diagram giving a complete view of the network showing the various
substations and electrical connections.

- a substation single-line diagram (for each substation) showing each switching device, its
open or closed state, the current flowing through it, etc.

- a detailed diagram of a particular device, giving extra information concerning measured

values (temperature, pressure, ...), operating state, number of operations carried out, etc. It
also allows its operating parameters (alarm threshold, priority for load shedding, tariff and
time periods, etc.) to be modified.

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n event and alarm management

The control and monitoring system dates alarms and events with a separating capability of
ten milliseconds. The system also supplies a chronological, running printout of them.

o events

Generally, the definition of an event includes a device change of state, an operator-modified

parameter, the activation of a protection, etc.

Each event is logged and stored on the hard disk, allowing the operator to monitor the
installation with precision. If an event has been declared alarmable its occurrence will generate
an alarm.

Two types of event exist:

- events recorded to the millisecond. These come from the electrical network and comprise
switching device changes of state, protection activation, etc. They are presented to the
operator chronologically and are date-stamped either at the device location or by the
switchboard control centre.

- events recorded to the second. These come from the control and monitoring system and
comprise parameter modifications, operator interventions (alarm acknowledgement, remote
commands), communication faults, messages sent to other operators, etc. and are date-
stamped by the main server computer.

Event details are available to the operator from several sources:

- a running printout.

- on the screen which, updated by each new event, only shows the last events which
occurred.

- an audit trail of events recorded on the hard disk. In this way, the event history can be
analysed if a fault occurs, or used to compare the chronology of two situations.

Event messages contain the following information:

- date, hour, minute, second, millisecond.

- equipment to which the event relates (substation, switchboard, device, etc.).

- explanatory message.

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o alarms

An alarm results from the occurrence of an event that has been declared alarmable. Thus an
alarm appears in both the events list and in the list of alarms.

Alarms can be triggered by:

- a device operating fault (circuit-breaker, generator, motor, etc.).

- an electrical fault detected by a protection (earth fault current, overcurrent, undervoltage,

etc.).

- a control and monitoring system fault (substation controller, communication network, etc.).

- a fault in the synchronization of the different date-stamping elements.

- abnormal operation of an automatic cycle (supply changeover, load shedding, etc.).

- a measurement threshold value being exceeded.

In general, a value of importance is assigned which corresponds the seriousness of the alarm.

The operator may acknowledge the alarm once he/she has become aware of it.

An alarm can therefore be in one the following states:

- non-activated.
- activated and not acknowledged.
- activated and acknowledged.

Alarm details are available to the operator from several sources:

- a running printout.

- on the screen. Two lists are displayed, one containing unacknowledged alarms and the
other showing acknowledged alarms. The screen is updated for each new alarm, and only
shows the last alarms to appear.

- alarm history recorded in files on the hard disk, permitting a detailed follow up analysis to be
displayed.

Alarms may be acknowledged individually, by group, globally (acknowledgement all alarms) or

after sorting.

The acknowledgement of an alarm generates an extra event.

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An alarm message contains the following information:

- date, hour, minute, second, millisecond.

- definition of equipment to which the alarm relates (substation, switchboard, transformer,

device, etc.).

- explanatory message.

- importance.

n remote control of electrical devices

A user with the correct access level can remotely control electrical devices from an operator
station.

In general, remote-controlled equipment includes:

- switchgear (circuit-breakers, isolators, switches, contactors).

- generators.

- transformer tap-changers.

The procedure is based on the "Select - Before - Execute" principle:

- the operator selects the required command.

- the system verifies that it is executable.

- if the command is not executable (interlocking, locally controlled device, faulty device) it is
forbidden. A message is displayed explaining why.

- if the command can be executed the operator must confirm his/her request. The command
is then transmitted to the device via the switchboard control centre.

- when the command has been executed the device returns a "command executed" message
and updates the mimic display.

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n measurement display

Measured (current, voltage) or calculated (power, energy, etc.) electrical values can be
displayed on the mimic diagrams, listed in tables or shown as curves.

Thus on the single-line mimic diagram the main electrical values (current, voltage) are
displayed close to the elements to which they refer. The secondary electrical values are shown
on the detailed diagram associated with the electrical device.

This notion of main and secondary values avoids diagrams being crammed with too much
detail by limiting the display to essential information only.

The numerical values are sent from the network to the computer in cyclical periods, within a
period of several seconds. They are recorded so that reports and analyses can be drawn up.

n curves

The system offers the possibility of displaying curves representing the change in numerical
values over time.

n reports

Reports contain measurements, calculations, operations, etc. and are drawn up for various
periods of time: tariff periods, day, week, month, year.

An operator can therefore keep track of the changes in operation of the electrical installation.

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n history files, archiving

All the information available in the system makes up the history.

It contains:

- measurements of electrical values.

- events, alarms.

- information relating to control and monitoring system management.

- control and monitoring system equipment faults

History files are created automatically, and cover predetermined operating periods.

The operator can then refer to a set of history files which correspond to time periods (day,
week, month, etc.).

When accumulated history files begin to take up too much space, in order to avoid the system
becoming saturated they are archived externally on to a magnetic medium.

Figure 12-11 illustrates the history file and archiving principle

real time database

in live memory

measurement event alarm

history history history
file file file

magnetic magnetic magnetic

and and and
optical optical optical
support support support

Figure 12-11: history file and archiving

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n sorting

The system offers the possibility to sort events and alarms.

Sorting is carried out using the history files.

It is based on different criteria, e.g. dates, equipment reference, alarm importance, etc.

n message list

The system offers a message list which allows the various operators to send one another
instructions and other information relating to the behaviour of the network.

n on-line help, operation help

On-line help is a function that offers operators supplementary information on the significance
of a function or the way to complete a sequence of operations.

n display of the control and monitoring system

The operator can also access animated mimic displays of the control and monitoring system.
Since the displays are updated in real time, a faulty system element can quickly be spotted.

n event simulation for operator training

For large installations where availability is of paramount importance, the system offers a
function which allows the network behaviour to be simulated in the event of an incident and
when the operator carried out switching operations.

Its use as a training function improves the operators' skills in reacting to incidents on the
network.

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CHAPTER 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY

n standards

o IEC 354 (09.1991): loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers

n Schneider cahiers techniques

o Automatic changeover switching on L.V. and H.V. network supplies,

Cahier Technique n° 75, G. Thomasset

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