Chapter 16

Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties

Nazmul Haque Mondol

16.1 Introduction into the borehole on the end of an insulated electrical

cable after the drilling tool is pulled up (Fig. 16.1). The
Well logging is a means of recording the physical, cable itself is used as the depth measuring device, so
acoustic and electrical properties of the rocks that properties measured by the tools can be related to
penetrated by a well. It is carried out by service particular depths in the borehole.
companies, which work under contract for the oil Well logs are usually recorded while the logging
companies. Logging has the advantage that it measures device is being winched upward through the well. The
in situ rock properties which cannot be measured in a measurements from the instruments housed in the log-
laboratory from either core samples or cuttings. ging tool are recorded digitally at intervals of between 3
Logging started with simple electric logs measuring and 15 cm and the data is processed near the well on
the electrical conductivity of rocks, but it is now an land, or on the platform in the case of offshore. Record-
advanced and sophisticated method used routinely in ing the well log involves a number of steps, beginning
different phases of hydrocarbon exploration, field with sensing and pre-processing the measurement in the
development and monitoring. It gives us a continuous logging tool itself, transmission of this information to
downhole record that provides a detailed subsurface the surface over several kilometers of wireline, further
picture of both gradual and abrupt changes in physical processing in the logging truck computer, data storage
properties from one bed to the next. By contrast, only on disc or magnetic tape, and finally display of the data
selected parts of the reservoir rocks are cored, and on film or paper. A measured log shows many
samples of cuttings from the rest of the well give no variations from top to bottom (log display in
more than a general idea of the lithology. Fig. 16.1), and each wiggle has significance. Most
None of the logs actually measure the parameters logs are dependent on direct contact with the rock via
that are of most interest to us, such as how much oil or the walls of the well, and have to be run after successive
gas is in the subsurface, or how much is being pro- intervals of the drilling, before each stage of the steel
duced. Such important knowledge can only be derived, casing is installed in the well.
from the measured properties such as gamma radiation,
density, velocity and resistivity, using a number of
assumptions which, if true, will give reasonable 16.2 Well Logs: The Necessity
estimates of hydrocarbons. To perform a logging oper-
ation on wireline, the measuring instrument is lowered Geological sampling during drilling (cuttings)
provides a very imprecise record of the formations
encountered. Entire formation samples can be brought
N.H. Mondol (*) to the surface by mechanical coring, but this is both
Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway slow and very expensive. In the narrowest sense, well
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo, Norway logging supplements the analysis of cores, side-wall
e-mail: [email protected] samples and cuttings. Logs are used for a variety of

K. Bjørlykke (ed.), Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics, 385
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-34132-8_16, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
386 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.1 Example of a logging tool (left, Courtesy of borehole with logging tools at the end of the cable (middle).
Schlumberger). The wireline logging operation showing logging Example of a recorded gamma ray log display (right)
truck, logging cable strung into the rig, then lowered into the

purposes depending on the nature of the data recorded. Table 16.1 How is logging viewed by others? (Adapted from
Ellis and Singer 2008)
Correlation from well to well is one of the oldest and
probably the most common use of logs. Correlation is The Geologist:
What depths are the formation tops?
usually based on the shapes of the recorded curves Is the environment suitable for accumulation of hydrocarbon?
versus depth. It allows the subsurface geologist to Is there evidence of hydrocarbons in this well?
map formation depths, lateral distributions and What type of hydrocarbon?
thicknesses, and then to identify conditions that could Are hydrocarbons present in commercial quantities?
The Geophysicist:
trap hydrocarbons. Identification of the lithology of the
Are the tops where you predicted?
rock sequence is another important use. After acquiring Are the potential zones porous as you assumed from seismic data?
experience in an area it is possible for a log analyst to What does a synthetic seismic section show?
make an educated guess as to lithology by looking at The Drilling Engineer:
the log from a new well. A set of logs run in a well will What is the hole volume for cementing?
Where can you get a good packer seat for testing?
usually mean different things to different professionals Where is the best place to set a Whipstock?
(Table 16.1). Currently, over fifty different types of The Reservoir Engineer:
these logging tools exist in order to meet various infor- How thick is the pay zone?
mation needs and functions. Some of them are passive How homogeneous is the formation?
measurement devices, others exert some influence on What is the volume of hydrocarbon per cubic metre?
Will the well pay-out?
the formation being traversed.
The Production Engineer:
Pickett (1963) indicated some of the applications Where should the production well be placed?
for well logs in petroleum engineering (Table 16.2). What kind of production rate can be expected?
The applications fall into three categories: identifi- Will there be any water production?
Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?
cation, estimation and production. Identification
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 387

Table 16.2 Uses of well logging in petroleum engineering pressure in the formation pore space to prevent
(adapted from Pickett 1963) disasters such as blowouts. The drilling mud helps to
Logging applications for petroleum engineering transport the rock fragments (cuttings) from the drill
Identification: bit up to the surface (Fig. 16.2), where the cuttings are
Rock type analysed for indications of hydrocarbon. Another
Identification of geological environments
Location of fluid contacts (e.g. gas/oil, gas/water and oil/water
important function of drilling fluids is rock
contacts) stabilisation. Special additives ensure that the drilling
Fracture detection fluid is not absorbed by the rock formation in the well
Estimation: and that the pores of the rock formation are not
Estimate of hydrocarbon in place clogged.
Estimate of recoverable hydrocarbon
Reservoir pressure Because the pressure in the drilling mud must
Porosity/pore-size distribution exceed the formation pore pressure, the mud begins
Production: to enter permeable zones in the formation but is nor-
Water flood feasibility mally rapidly stopped by the build-up of a mudcake
Reservoir quality mapping
which lines the borehole wall (Fig. 16.2). The solid
Interzone fluid communication probability
Reservoir fluid movement monitoring particles are concentrated there while the fluid
penetrates the formation, first creating a flushed zone
where nearly all the primary pore fluids are replaced
concerns subsurface mapping or correlation. Estima- by the fluids from the drilling mud. This part of the
tion is the more quantitative aspect of well logging, in drilling mud is called the mud filtrate. Beyond this,
which physical parameters such as water saturation or there will be a zone where the primary pore fluids are
pressure are needed with some precision. The final partially replaced by drilling fluids, called the transi-
category consists of well logging measurements tion zone. The virgin formation fluids occupy the
which are used to monitor changes in a reservoir uninvaded/undisturbed zone further into the formation
during its production phase. (Fig. 16.2). The depth of invasion is related to the
permeability of the rock. Drilling mud extends furthest
into porous sandstones but flushing and invasion will
16.3 Drilling Muds and Borehole be rather limited in low permeability formations such
Environments as shales and tight sandstones. As the well is drilled
deeper, further invasion occurs slowly through the
During drilling a water-based, or sometimes oil-based, mudcake, either dynamically, while mud is being
slurry containing clays and other natural materials, circulated, or statically when the mud is stationary.
called drilling mud (drilling fluid), is pumped down In addition, the movement of the drill-string can dis-
the drill-string. Drilling muds are added to the lodge some of the mudcake, allowing renewed
wellbore to facilitate the drilling process by invasion.
suspending cuttings, controlling pressure, stabilising The replacement of oil by the water-based mud
exposed rock, providing buoyancy, and cooling and filtrate is by pressure-driven displacement. In water-
lubricating the drilling bit. Nowadays, drilling deeper, bearing formations the mud filtrate replaces all of the
longer and more challenging wells is made possible formation water close to the borehole (Fig. 16.3a) but
due to more efficient and effective drilling fluids. High this decreases with depth of invasion. In oil-bearing
density materials (e.g. barite, hematite) are added to formations the mud filtrate replaces all the formation
the drilling mud to increase its density and thereby its water and most of the oil close to the borehole wall,
pressure on the walls of the well. The drilling fluid again decreasing with distance into the formation
pumped down the borehole must ensure that the (Fig 16.3b). Oil-based mud filtrates replace the fluids
hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore exceeds the fluid in the invaded zone by pressure-driven displacement
388 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.2 The schematic diagram illustrates an idealised version zones (a). Overpressured mud indicates that it is invading porous
of what happens when fluids from the borehole invade the porous and permeable sandstones with the formation of a mudcake (a and
and permeable sandstones and low permeability shales. The mud b). During drilling, mud is pumped down the drill-string, forcing
circulation causes borehole washout in the low permeability shale the cuttings up to the surface with the return flow (c)

alone. In water-bearing formations the oil-based mud interpretation. To get good readings of the true subsur-
filtrate does not replace all the formation water even face properties of the rock, the tool has to either (1)
close to the borehole wall (Fig. 16.3c), while in oil- measure accurately through the borehole mud, mud
bearing formations the oil-based mud filtrate only cake, flushed zone and transition zone, or (2) make
replaces the oil in the formation, leaving the formation readings closer to the tool (i.e. in the flushed zone) that
water in place (Fig. 16.3d). can be reliably corrected to represent the values in the
It is very important to know the type of drilling mud uninvaded zone. Wireline companies provide correc-
used, as this will determine the way in which it tion graphs for their various tools. However, the accu-
influences what is recorded on the logs. Salinity racy of the correction diminishes as the diameter of the
variations in mud may alter rock properties. Oil-based borehole, the thickness of mud cake and the depth of
mud causes its own complications for log invasion, increase.
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 389

Fig. 16.3 Schematic indication of the distribution of pore fluids in the flushed, transition and uninvaded zones for water-based
muds (top), and oil-based muds (bottom), in water- and oil-bearing formations

16.4 Measuring Techniques MWD and LWD are types of well logging where
the measurement tools are incorporated into the drill-
Well logs measure in open hole, cased hole and paral- string and provide real-time information to help with
lel with drilling (Fig. 16.4). The conventional wireline steering the drill. These technologies were originally
logs that are run in a hole which has just been drilled, developed to partially or completely replace the open-
and before it is cased, are called open-hole logs. Open- and cased-hole logging. MWD and LWD offer the
hole logs require that the drill-string must be removed same measurements as wireline logging but in poor
from the well before the logging tools can be lowered quality, lower resolution and less coverage. Information
into the hole. Open hole logs are used to determine may be continuously transmitted to the surface by mud
most petrophysical properties of the rocks. Logs run pulses, a common method of data transmission where a
after the well is cased are called cased-hole logs. Most valve is operated to restrict the flow of the drilling mud
cased-hole logs are used to assess the integrity of the according to the digital information to be transmitted.
well completion and fluid flow into the well though This creates pressure fluctuations representing the
some cased-hole logs can also be used to determine information. The pressure fluctuations propagate within
petrophysical properties. Most logs can now be the drilling fluid towards the surface where they are
recorded while drilling (i.e. do not need the drill-string received from pressure sensors. At the surface, the
be removed) and so measurements are available con- received pressure signals are processed by computers
tinuously as drilling proceeds. These logs are called to reconstruct the information. Alternatively, the data is
MWD (Measurements While Drilling) and LWD (Log- recorded downhole and retrieved later when the instru-
ging While Drilling). ment is brought back to the surface.
390 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.4 Open hole (left), cased hole (middle) and LWD/ well is cased are called cased-hole logs. LWD and MWD are the
MWD (right) logging techniques. Logs run in an open hole general terms use to describe the logging techniques for
which has just been drilled but not cased. Logs run after the gathering downhole data while drilling a well

Table 16.3 lists the main differences between LWD Table 16.3 Main differences between conventional wireline
and conventional wireline logging. LWD tools are logging and LWD
large instrumented drill collars, part of the bottom Wireline LWD
hole assembly. The sensors are arranged so that they • Small, light and delicate • Big, heavy and tough
• Since the 1930s • Since the 1970s
can make relatively unimpeded measurements of the • High data speed • Slow telemetry
formation. MWD is a type of LWD where tools are • Easy communication • Limited control
encompassed in a single module in the steering tool of • Good borehole contact • Minimum borehole contact
the drill-string at the end of the drilling apparatus • Powered through cable • Batteries and mud turbine
• Takes more time • Saves time
(bottom hole assembly). Providing wellbore position, • Problem at high deviation • Can log in any direction
drillbit information and directional data, as well as • Susceptible to hole • More capable in tough
real-time drilling information, MWD uses gyroscopes, conditions conditions
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 391

magnetometers and accelerometers to determine bore- reservoir. Note that the greatest variety of logging
hole inclination and azimuth during the actual drilling. tools is run in the area that is expected to be of greatest
Some information is logged on the rig, such as a interest, i.e. the reservoir.
mud log which may record up to five or ten properties Most tools have a shallow depth of investigation,
of the drilling fluid, or a drilling log which records the resulting in the measurement of the formation in the
rate of penetration and other functions of the drilling flushed or transition zones (Fig. 16.5). Most radiation
process. The stratigraphic log or sample description tools (e.g. Gamma Ray, Neutron and Density logs)
log, records the site geologists’ identification of the have an investigation depth of less than 0.5 m. Electri-
rock samples retrieved from the drilling mud, together cal tools (e.g. Microlog, Laterolog, Induction log)
with qualitative or interpretive data concerning evi- come in various versions with a wide range of investi-
dence of the fluid content of the rock, and thus is one gation depths, from the micro-tool, which measures
of the primary sources of rock and fluid descriptions only the mud cake (a few centimetres), to the deep
for the well. penetration tools (induction log, up to 5 m). The
depth of investigation often depends upon the den-
sity/porosity of the formation. Because of the wide
16.5 Logging Tools variety of subsurface geological formations, many dif-
ferent logging tools are needed to give the best possible
Logging tools have been developed over the years to combination of measurements for the rock type
measure radioactivity (e.g. Gamma Ray, Neutron and anticipated. The following are the principles, most
Density logs), electrical properties (e.g. SP, Induction common applications and uncertainties of the most
and Resistivity logs), acoustic properties (Sonic log), important types of log:
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR log), pressure, and
many other properties of the rocks and their contained 16.5.1 Temperature Log
fluids. Other logs, which measure properties of the
wellbore itself, are Caliper, Temperature, Image and 16.5.1.1 Generalities and Basic Principles
Dipmeter logs. Despite the availability of this rather The temperature log is a tool for measuring the
large number of devices, each providing complemen- borehole temperature. Readings from a number of
tary information, the final answers derived are mainly thermometers attached to different tool combinations
(1) the location of hydrocarbon-bearing formations, and run at different times are analysed (Fig. 16.6) to
(2) an estimate of their producibility, and (3) an assess- give the temperature at the bottom of the borehole
ment of the quantity of hydrocarbon in place in the (bottom hole temperature, BHT). Temperature in the

Fig. 16.5 Depth of investigation of common logging tools

392 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.6 Plot of measured

and estimated bottom hole
temperatures (BHT) and
geothermal/temperature
gradients with depth for wells
is a sedimentary basin

subsurface increases with depth. The rate at which it formula. This is often referred to as formation temper-
does so is called the geothermal gradient (gG), or ature (Tf).
simply geotherm. The first step involved in determin-
ing temperature at a particular depth is to determine T f ¼ Tms þ ½gG ð D=100Þ (16.2)
the geotherm of the region.
Low thermal conductivity rocks, such as shale,
act as a thermal insulator and have a large temper- 16.5.1.2 Uses of Temperature Log
ature gradient across them, while high thermal con- Temperature logs have many applications, with the
ductivity rocks, such as salt, permit the conduction most common being to identify zones producing or
of heat efficiently and have a small temperature accumulating fluid, to evaluate a cement or hydraulic
gradient across them. Geothermal gradient is com- fracture treatment, and to locate lost circulation zones
monly expressed in degrees celsius per 100 m and casing leaks. Geothermal gradients in sedimentary
(
C/100 m). If the geothermal gradient of an area basins are extremely important for the calculations
is not known, then it can be determined by the necessary for predicting kerogen maturation, detection
following formula: of fluid movement, subsurface pressures, and for the
general modelling of basin subsidence. Since temper-
gG ¼ ð BHT  Tms=TDÞ  100 (16.1) ature takes time to dissipate, a temperature log tends to
reflect the behaviour of a well over a longer time
where BHT is the bottom hole temperature, TD is the period than other measurements.
total depth and Tms is the mean surface temperature.
Typical geotherms for reservoirs are about 20–35
C/ 16.5.1.3 Uncertainties of Temperature Log
km, although significantly higher values (up to 85
C/ Temperature measurements made during drilling
km) can be found in tectonically active areas, and (MWD and LWD) consistently underestimate the for-
lower ones (0.05
C/km) in stable continental mation temperature because drilling mud is being
platforms. Once the geothermal gradient has been circulated. Temperature measurements made on
established, it is possible to determine the tempera- wireline logs sometime after the drilling fluid circula-
ture for a particular depth (D) using the following tion has stopped also underestimate the formation
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 393

temperature, but less so than MWD and LWD as the represent the caliper value minus the drill bit diameter
formation is now in the process of reheating the and thus record cavities where the well has caved in,
borehole. Drilling mud takes several days or even and also indicate the competence of the rocks cut
weeks before its temperature approaches that of during drilling (Fig. 16.7). The scale is generally
the formation water, and there is therefore considerable given in inches, which is standard for measuring bit
uncertainty involved in such temperature calculations. sizes. Table 16.4 describes the main influences on
caliper values. A hole with the same diameter as the
bit-size is called on gauge.
16.5.2 Caliper Log
16.5.2.2 Uses of Caliper Log
16.5.2.1 Generalities and Basic Principles The common uses of the caliper log are as follows:
The caliper log measures borehole diameter and shape. • Indication of borehole quality for the assessment of
Nowadays, caliper logs also record the three- the quality of other logs whose data quality is
dimensional shape of the borehole walls. It has two, degraded by boreholes that are out of gauge.
four, or more extendable arms (Fig. 16.7) which can • Contributory information for lithological assess-
move in and out as the tool is drawn up the borehole. ment, and as indicator of good permeability and
These movements are converted into electrical signals porosity zones (reservoir rocks) due to develop-
by a potentiometer. Normally caliper log readings ment of mudcake.

Fig. 16.7 Typical caliper log responses to various lithologies (right). Mutli-arm and multi-sensor caliper tool (upper-left).
Ellipticity of borehole can help to identify direction of principal stresses (lower-left). (Modified from Rider 2004)
394 N.H. Mondol

Table 16.4 Factors influencing caliper responses

Hole diameter Cause Possible lithologies
On gauge Well-consolidated formations Massive sandstones
Non-permeable formations Calcareous shales
Igneous rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Larger than Formations soluble in drilling mud Salt formation drilled with freshwater
bit size Weak formations and caving Unconsolidated sands, gravels, brittle shales
Smaller than Formations that swell and flow into borehole Swelling shales
bit size Development of mudcake with porous and Porous, permeable sandstones
permeable formations

• Estimation of mudcake thickness, hmc ¼ (dbit – dh)/

2, where h stands for the hole, in inches.
• Measurement of borehole volume, Vh ¼ (dh2/
2) + 1.2%, in litres per metre.
• Measurement of required cement volume, Vcement
¼ 0.5  (dh2 – d2casing) + 1%, in litres per metre.
• Selection of consolidated formations for wireline
pressure tests, recovery of fluid samples, and for
packer seating for well testing purposes.

16.5.2.3 Uncertainties of Caliper Log

Known challenges with caliper logging include bore-
hole spiralling. The position of the drill bit may pre-
cess as it drills, leading to spiraling shapes in the
wellbore wall, as if the hole had been drilled by a
screw. If the arms of the caliper log follow the grooves
of the spiral, it will report too high an average diame-
ter. Moving in and out of the grooves, the caliper will
give erratic or periodically varying readings. In most
cases, the borehole’s circumference will not be a per-
fect circle and therefore a caliper tool with several
Fig. 16.8 The SP tool arrangement and typical log responses
arms is required to obtain a true understanding of the for permeable sandstone and impermeable shales
size and shape of the borehole. The borehole can
change to an oval shape after drilling, which can
cause the caliper log to overestimate the size of the difference in the concentrations of electrolytes in the
borehole. liquid phases. There are three requirements for the
existence of an SP current: (1) a conductive borehole
fluid (i.e. a water-based mud), (2) a porous and perme-
16.5.3 Self-Potential/Spontaneous able bed sandwiched between low porosity and imper-
Potential (SP) Log meable formations, and (3) a difference in salinity
between the borehole, in most cases the mud filtrate,
16.5.3.1 Generalities and Basic Principles and the formation fluid. This log has no absolute
The self-potential/spontaneous potential log (SP) was scale – it is the relative changes in the SP log that are
the first wireline logging tool used in hydrocarbon important. SP is measured in mV (millivolts). A rela-
exploration. It is very simple, requiring only an elec- tive scale of 10 mV/small division is usually used.
trode in the borehole and a reference electrode at the Value range is typically approximately 50 mV
surface (Fig. 16.8). A current is created by the about the 0 mV for shale baseline, while sandstones
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 395

produce more negative (to the left) (Fig. 16.8) or

positive values based on salinity variations between
drilling mud and formation water.
SP measures the naturally occurring electrical poten-
tial (voltage) produced by the interaction of formation
water, conductive drilling fluid and shale. There are
three sources of the currents; two are electrochemical
potential (liquid junction potential and membrane
potential), and one electrokinetic potential. The liquid
junction potential and the membrane potential are the
main components of SP deflection. The Na+ and Cl
ions have different nobilities at the junction of the
invaded and virgin zones. The ion movement across
this boundary generates a current flow and hence a
potential. The greater the difference between the salin-
ity of the solutions (mud and formation water), the
greater the potential. In low porosity, low permeability
formations, the mudcake builds slowly and the electro-
kinetic potential becomes predominant. Electrokinetic
potential is generated by the flow of mud filtrate
through a porous permeable bed. It depends upon the
resistivity of the mud filtrate and will only become
important if there are high differential pressures across
the formation. The effects are normally negligible in
permeable formations because the mudcake builds
quickly and halts any further invasion.

16.5.3.2 Uses of SP Log

The SP log has several applications: (1) indication of
the shaliness of a formation, (2) correlation of strati-
graphic sequences, (3) detection of permeable beds,
(4) determination of formation water resistivity (Rw),
and (5) detection of hydrocarbons by the suppression Fig. 16.9 Example of the shale baseline and the SSP defined
on an SP log. The shale base line is the maximum positive
of the SP curve. The two most common applications
deflection (in this example) and occurs against shale. The SSP
are described below: is a maximum negative deflection and occurs against clean,
porous and permeable water-bearing sandstone
Shale Volume Estimation
The volume of shale is used in the evaluation of shaly
sand reservoirs and as a mapping parameter for both SSP (static spontaneous potential) is the SP log
sandstone and carbonate facies analysis. The follow- reading in a thick clean sand zone and SPshale is the
ing relationships are used to estimate shale volume shale baseline. This assumes a linear mixing relation-
(Vsh) from the SP log (Fig. 16.9): ship between the SP log and shale volume and has no
theoretical basis; it probably overestimates the shale
V sh ¼ ð1  PSP=SSPÞ (16.3) volume.

V sh ¼ ½ðPSP  SSPÞ=ðSPshale  SSPÞ (16.4) Identification of Facies and Depositional

Environments
where PSP (pseudostatic spontaneous potential) is the The SP log can be used to follow facies changes. SP
log reading in a thick homogeneous shaly sand zone, deflections often respond to changes in depositional
396 N.H. Mondol

mostly replaced by the GR log, which has a higher

resolution and is more reliable.

16.5.3.3 Uncertainties of SP Log

The SP log has several limitations such as (1) borehole
mud must be conductive: when using an oil-based mud
readings cannot be obtained from SP logs, (2) a
sequence of permeable and impermeable zones must
exist, (3) little or no deflection occurs if resistivity of
mud/mud filtrate is close/equal to resistivity of forma-
tion water, and (4) SP response will not fully develop
in front of thin beds. The log has a low vertical resolu-
tion and is rarely useful in offshore environments.
Although it can be used for correlation, it is best not
to rely solely upon it.

16.5.4 Gamma Ray and Spectral Gamma

Ray Logs

16.5.4.1 Generalities and Basic Principles

The gamma ray (GR) log measures the total natural
gamma radiation whereas the spectral gamma (SGR)
ray log measures the natural gamma radiation
emanating from a formation split into contributions
from each of the major radio-isotopic sources
(Fig. 16.11). Gamma ray log is combinable with all
other logging tools, and is almost always used as part
of every logging combination run because of its ability
to match the depths of data from each run. An advan-
tage of the gamma ray log over some other types of
well logs is that it works through the steel and cement
walls of cased boreholes and is insensitive to drilling
fluids. The unit of gamma ray log is API (American
Petroleum Institute).
The gamma radiation originates from potassium
(K40) and the isotopes of uranium-radium and thorium
Fig. 16.10 Facies identification using the SP log. A typical
fining-upwards, channel sandstone giving a bell-shaped SP curve series. Potassium is by far the most abundant of the
three elements but its contribution to the overall radio-
activity in relation to its weight is small. Each of the
environment. Characteristic SP shapes are produced in three sources emits gamma rays spontaneously. They
channels, bars, and other depositional sequences emit photons with no mass and no charge but great
where sorting, grain size or cementation changes energy. One of the characteristics of gamma rays is
with depth (Fig. 16.10). These shapes are called that when they pass through any material their energy
bells, cylinders or funnels. A typical fining-upwards, is progressively absorbed. The effect is known as
channel sandstone gives a bell-shaped SP curve. The Compton scattering, and is due to the collision
SP log is sometimes useful for stratigraphic correla- between gamma rays and electrons that produces a
tion, but is rarely used alone. Nowadays it has been degradation of energy.
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 397

Fig. 16.11 Some typical responses of gamma ray and spectral gamma ray logs against different lithologies. The spectral gamma
ray responses show individual contributions of thorium, potassium and uranium to the overall radioactivity

16.5.4.2 Uses of Gamma and Spectral gamma tool to distinguish between shales and non-shales.
Gamma Ray Logs Care must be taken not to overgeneralise these rules. For
The gamma ray is a simple but very useful log. High example a clean sandstone may contain feldspars (arkosic
vertical resolution makes it particularly well suited for sandstones), micas (micaceous sandstones) or both
depth matching and fine-scale correlation. The other (greywackes), or glauconite, or heavy minerals, any of
most common uses of gamma and spectral gamma ray which will give the sandstone higher gamma ray values
logs are (1) lithology discrimination, (2) shale volume than would be expected from a pure quartzitic sandstone.
estimation, and (3) analysis of facies and depositional Black shales (e.g. hydrocarbon source rocks) in
environment. particular, with their substantial organic content, pro-
duce marked responses on the gamma ray log because
Lithology Discrimination they normally have a higher uranium content than
A prime application of the gamma ray log is for discrimi- other shales. The Kimmeridge (Upper Jurassic) shale
nation of different lithologies (Fig. 16.12). While it can- in the North Sea contains 2–10 ppm uranium and is
not uniquely define any lithology, the information it often referred to as the “hot shale”. Normally shales
provides is invaluable when combined with information contain <1 ppm uranium, but 10–12 ppm thorium,
from other logs. Shales, organic-rich shales and volcanic which represents ~50% of the total radioactivity.
ash show the highest gamma ray values, while halite, Limestones have very low concentrations of U, Th
anhydrite, coal, clean sandstones, limestone and dolomite and K, and give very low gamma-ray responses. In
have the lowest values. This difference in radioactivity evaporite sequences, however, gamma logs are very
between shales and sandstones/carbonates allows the sensitive indicators of potassium salts.
398 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.12 Gamma ray log responses for common lithologies. (Modified from Rider 2004)

Shale Volume Estimation (Vsh) volume is often used to help discriminate between
In most reservoirs the lithologies are quite simple, reservoir and non-reservoir rocks. Shale volume is
being cycles of sandstones and shales or carbonates calculated in the following way: First the gamma ray
and shales. Once the main lithologies have been index (IGR) is calculated from the gamma ray log data
identified, the gamma ray log values can be used to using the following relationship
calculate the shaliness or shale volume (Vsh) of the 
 
rock. This is important, as a threshold value of shale I GR ¼ GRlog  GRmin =ðGRmax  GRmin Þ (16.5)
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 399

Fig. 16.13 The chart for corrected Vsh estimation

where GRlog is the gamma ray reading at the depth of Facies and Depositional Environment Analysis
interest, GRmin is the minimum gamma ray reading Gamma ray logs help to identify thin beds and so are
(usually the mean minimum through a clean sandstone widely used for lithological correlation and depth
or carbonate formation), GRmax is the maximum matching between different logging runs. As men-
gamma ray reading (usually the mean maximum tioned earlier, the gamma ray log is often used to
through a shale or clay formation). Many measure the shaliness of a formation. In reality the
petrophysicists assume that Vsh ¼ IGR though there shaliness often does not change suddenly, but gradu-
is no scientific basis for assuming a linear relation of ally with depth. Such gradual changes are indicative of
Vsh and IGR. However, to be correct the value of IGR the litho-facies and the depositional environment of
should be entered into the chart shown as Fig. 16.13, the rock, and are associated with changes in grain size
from which the corresponding value of Vsh may be and sorting that are controlled by facies and deposi-
read. tional environments. Figure 16.14 analyses the shape
It should be noted that the calculation of shale of gamma ray log responses for various depositional
volume is a ‘black art’ as much depends upon the environments. All possible combinations of these
experience of the geoscientist in defining the GRmin shapes may be encountered.
(sand line) and the GRmax (shale line) values The cylinder shapes represent uniform deposition
(Fig. 16.13), noting that the sand line and/or shale and are interpreted as aeolian dune, tidal sand, fluvial
line may be at one gamma ray value in one part of and turbidite channel and proximal deepsea fan
the well and at another gamma ray value at another deposits. The bell shapes represent the fining-upward
level. Once the shale volume has been calculated, a sequences and are interpreted as tidal sand, alluvial
threshold shale volume may be defined which will sand, fluvial channel, point bar, lacustrine, delta, tur-
divide the well into a number of reservoir and non- bidity channel and proximal deepsea fan deposits. The
reservoir zones. funnel shapes represent coarsening-upward sequences
400 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.14 The gamma ray

log responses and their
application to interpret
depositional facies and
depositional environments

that are interpretated as barrier bar, beach sand and with potassium. The radiation from KCl-based muds
crevasse splay, distributary mouth bar and distal contributes to the gamma ray and increases signifi-
deepsea fan deposits. cantly the total gamma ray count (Fig. 16.15).
For standard GR logs the value measured is calcu-
16.5.4.3 Uncertainties of Gamma and lated from thorium in ppm, uranium in ppm and potas-
Spectral Gamma Ray Logs sium in percent. Due to the mass of uranium
The gamma ray log usually runs centered in the bore- concentration in the calculation, anomalous concen-
hole. If the borehole suffers from caving, the gamma trations of uranium can cause clean sand reservoirs to
ray log can be badly affected and underestimated appear shaly. The spectral gamma ray log is used to
(Fig. 16.15). The measured underestimation should provide an individual reading for each element,
be corrected from the caliper log. The mud density enabling concentration anomalies to be identified and
affects the gamma ray as higher density muds (e.g. interpreted. Sometimes non-shales also have elevated
barite) attenuate the gamma ray and will give an levels of gamma radiation. Sandstone can contain
anomalously low gamma ray reading. KCl-based uranium, potassium feldspar, clay filling or rock
muds have a natural gamma radioactivity associated fragments that cause it to have higher-than-usual
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 401

Fig. 16.15 Effect of caving

and KCl drilling mud on the
gamma ray log readings

gamma readings. Coal and dolomite may contain rays are absorbed by rock, and particularly by the water
absorbed uranium. Evaporite deposits may include in the formation. This is due to collisions with atomic
potassium minerals such as carnallite. When this is nuclei, and the absorption of the neutron radiation is
the case, spectral gamma ray logging can be done to primarily a function of hydrogen atom concentrations
identify these anomalies. (hydrogen index). Since most of the hydrogen in rocks
is present as water, neutron logs provide an expression
of the water content and thereby the porosity of a rock.
16.5.5 Porosity Logs The common density tools are GNT (gamma-ray neu-
tron tool), SNT (sidewall neutron tool), CNL (compen-
16.5.5.1 Generalities and Basic Principles sated neutron log) and DNL (dual neutron log). Neutron
Evaluating porosity is an important petrophysical task logs are displayed as neutron porosity and common
in formation evaluation. The porosity of a formation units are p.u. (porosity unit), decimal or %.
can be estimated either from neutron, density, sonic or In shales and sandstones with high clay content the
NMR logging. None of these logs measure porosity neutron logs record higher porosity because hydrogen
directly. The density, neutron and NMR logs are is also present in the clay minerals which are part of
nuclear measurements whereas the sonic log uses the solid phase. This is called the shale effect and is
acoustic measurements. When using a single porosity most pronounced in shales with high content of smec-
log, the true porosity is calculated from interpolation tite and kaolinite compared to those with mostly illite
between the values for the matrix mineral and the pore and chlorite. Limestones however give very reliable
fluid. A combination of porosity logs gives more accu- porosity values because carbonate minerals contain
rate estimates of porosity and valuable indications for little hydrogen. Calculation of porosity based on neu-
lithology. The basic principles of four porosity logs tron logs (neutron porosity) results in too low porosity
are given below: values when the pores are filled with gas because they
contain less hydrogen per volume compared to water
Neutron Log and oil. This is called the gas effect. Gas is less dense
A neutron log is obtained using a neutron source, which and has fewer hydrogen atoms per unit volume than
sends radiation into the rocks (Fig. 16.16). The neutron water and oil, and therefore has a lower hydrogen
402 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.16 The neutron tool and log response against mixtures of shales and sandstones. The gamma ray log responses for the
sequence are also presented

index. Neutron logs can therefore be used to detect gas A formation with a high bulk density has a high
and distinguish it from oil. number of electrons. It attenuates the gamma rays
significantly, and hence a low gamma ray count rate
is recorded at the sensors. A formation with a low bulk
Density Log
density has a low number of electrons. It attenuates the
The density tools are induced radiation tools. They
gamma rays less than a high density formation, and
bombard the formation with gamma radiation and mea-
hence a higher gamma ray count rate is recorded at the
sure how much radiation returns to the sensors. The tool
sensors.
consists of a radioactive source (usually caesium-137 or
cobalt-60) that emits gamma rays of medium energy (in
the range 0.2–2 MeV). The tool has short- and long- Sonic Log
spaced detectors (Fig. 16.17). The common density Sonic logs measure how sound travels through rocks,
tools are FDC (formation density compensated), LDT and in particular provide information about porosity.
(litho-density tool), CDS (compensated density) and With this method a probe sends out acoustic pulses
PDS (photoelectric density). Returning gamma rays which travel through the rock surrounding the well to
are measured at two different energy levels: (1) higher the other end of the logging tool, and the velocity of
energy gamma rays (Compton scattering) determine sound in the rock is recorded (Fig. 16.18). This also
bulk density and therefore porosity (e.g. FDC, CDS indicates whether a liquid or gas phase occupies the
tools) and (2) low energy gamma rays (due to photo- pore spaces. The velocity is also dependent on how the
electric effect) are used to determine formation lithol- rock is compacted, i.e. the pore distribution and the
ogy (e.g. LDT and PDS). The low energy gamma rays nature of the cements. The common sonic tools are
show little dependence on porosity and fluid and so are BHC (borehole compensated sonic), LSS (long spaced
very useful for lithology identification. The density log sonic), array sonic/full waveform sonic and DSI
unit is g/cm3 or kg/m3. The unit of the photoelectric log (dipole shear imager). The velocity measured by the
is b/e (barns per electron, equal to 1028 m2). sonic log is however not a direct function of the
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 403

Fig. 16.17 The formation density tool and log response against shales and sandstones and their mixtures. The gamma ray log
responses for the sequence are also presented

Fig. 16.18 The sonic tool and log responses against a sandstone-shale sequence. The gamma ray log responses for the sequence are
also presented
404 N.H. Mondol

porosity. The log record is usually presented as the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Δt which is the inverse of velocity (i.e. slowness). This NMR logging exploits the large magnetic moment of
is called interval transit time, and is presented on the hydrogen, an element which is abundant in rocks in the
logs on a scale of 40–140 μs/ft (μs ¼ 106 s) or μs/m. form of water. The NMR signal amplitude is propor-
100 μs/ft corresponds to 10,000 ft/s, or 3,048 m/s. The tional to the quantity of hydrogen nuclei present in a
interval transit time (t) is the reciprocal of the sonic formation and can be calibrated to give a value for
transit velocity (v). porosity that is free from lithology effects (Fig. 16.19).
Since the velocity of sound in water, which here A petrophysicist can also analyse the rate of decay of
means porewater, is considerably lower than it is in the NMR signal amplitude to obtain information on
minerals and rocks, the measured velocity will be the permeability of the formation. Using NMR logs
more or less inversely proportional to the rock porosity. one can distinguish between free water in the pore
In sandstones a small amount of cement (i.e. quartz space and H2O and OH groups in minerals. Also
cement) may produce a grain framework with high bound water on mineral surfaces has a different
stiffness and velocity despite it retaining a relatively NMR signature (T2 distribution). The T2 distribution
high porosity. In mudstones and shales the porosity and has several petrophysical applications:
velocity vary greatly as a function of the clay mineral- • T2 distribution mimics pore-size distribution in
ogy and the presence of carbonate or quartz cement. water-saturated rock.

Fig. 16.19 A comparison of NMR total porosity (MPHI) and distributions (NMR response), Gamma Ray, Caliper and SP
Neutron (Nϕ) and Density (Dϕ) porosities. Also shows T2 logs. (Adapted from Coates et al. 1999)
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 405

• The area under the distribution curve equals NMR

porosity.
• Permeability is estimated from the logarithmic-
mean T2 and NMR porosity.
• Empirically derived cutoffs separate the T2 distri-
bution into areas equal to free-fluid porosity and
irreducible water porosity.

16.5.5.2 Uses of Porosity Logs

The main use of porosity logs is to provide porosity
information. In combination with sonic and density logs,
the important applications are compaction trend and uplift
estimation, overpressure detection, seismic data calibra-
tion and synthetic seismogram generation. Furthermore,
the combination of density and neutron logs give the best
ways of identifying lithologies and detecting gas-bearing
zones. Numerous uses of porosity logs are given below:

Porosity Estimation Fig. 16.20 Correction chart for obtaining porosity values for
When using a single porosity log, lithology must be lithologies other than limestone (re-drawn, courtesy of
specified through the choice of a matrix value, to avoid Schlumberger)
ambiguity in calculating porosity. Combinations of poro-
sity logs may unravel complex matrix (e.g. quartz, calcite, Table 16.5 Grain (matrix) densities of some common rock-
dolomite) and fluid (e.g. brine, oil, gas) compositions, forming minerals
providing a more accurate porosity determination. Grain density Grain density
3 3
Mineral (g/cm ) Mineral (g/cm )
Porosity from Neutron Log Quartz 2.65 Halitea 2.16
The neutron tool is sensitive to the amount of hydrogen Calcite 2.71 Gypsuma 2.30
ions in the formation and to a less extent also other Dolomite 2.87 Anhydritea 2.96
Biotite 2.90 Carnalitea 1.61
elements. It is assumed that the contribution to the
Chlorite 2.80 Sylvitea 1.99
measurement by elements other than hydrogen is negli-
Illite 2.66 Polyhalitea 2.78
gible, and that the contribution to the measurement from
Kaolinite 2.594 Glauconite 2.30
hydrogen comes entirely from the fluids fully occupying
Muscovite 2.83 Kainite 2.13
the pore space. However, in real rocks, elements other a
Evaporites
than hydrogen that exist in the rock matrix do contribute
to the measurement, and hydrogen is also present in the
matrix itself (e.g. bound water in shales). The problem is the solid phase (ρmatrix) and is used to compute density
partially overcome by calibrating the tool against lime- porosity (ϕD) using the following relation:
stone. Pure limestone saturated with freshwater is used
for calibration because it contains no elements which  

ϕD ¼ ρmatrix  ρlog = ρmatrix  ρfluid (16.6)
contribute significantly to the neutron measurements
other than hydrogen. Therefore, the porosities that are
read by the tool are accurate in limestones containing The value of the matrix density taken depends upon
freshwater. The porosities that are read by the tool in the lithology of the target zone. The most common
other lithologies or with other fluids need to be corrected reservoir rocks are sandstone (ρmatrix ¼ 2.65 g/cm3),
by a chart given in Fig. 16.20. limestone (ρmatrix ¼ 2.71 g/cm3) and dolomite
(ρmatrix ¼ 2.87 g/cm3). Clay minerals have varied
Porosity from Density Log grain densities (Table 16.5). The input of fluid density
The bulk density log (ρlog) measures the combined (ρfluid) is usually that of formation brine (1.025 g/cm3).
effects of the fluid density (ρfluid) and the density of The porosity may also be in error if the fluid density
406 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.21 Calibration of the density porosity (in %) calculated from formation density log (in g/cm3) against core porosities (in %)
measured in the laboratory

is misjudged. If oil or gas is present in the formation, where ϕN and ϕD are neutron and density porosities. It
porosities can be overestimated by the density has been suggested that the square-root equation is
log. Remember that the tool measures the invaded preferable as a means of suppressing the effects of
zone, so the relevant fluid is the mud filtrate in any residual gas in the flushed zone.
most circumstances. If available, the fluid densities
should be corrected to borehole temperature conditions. Porosity from Sonic Logs
The most accurate porosity determinations are The velocity of elastic waves through a given lithology
obtained from laboratory measurements on cores and is a function of porosity. Wyllie proposed a simple
so core data is used to provide accurate matrix mixing equation to describe this behaviour and called
densities for particular intervals. If there is a database it the time average equation. It can be written in terms
of core porosities for a given well, it is often advanta- of velocity
geous to plot the core porosity against the density log
derived porosity (Fig. 16.21). Δtlog  Δtmatrix
ϕs ¼ (16.8)
Δtf  Δtmatrix
Porosity from Neutron and Density Combination
The combination of density and neutron logs is also where Δtlog is the transit time in the formation of
used to determine porosity that is largely free of lithol- interest, Δtf is that through 100% of the pore fluid
ogy effects. Both porosity logs record apparent and Δtmatrix is that through 100% of the rock matrix
porosities that are only true when the zone lithologies (solid mineral grains), ϕs is the sonic porosity. A list of
match with predicted lithologies in porosity input values to these equations for common lithologies
calculations. By averaging the apparent neutron and and fluids is given in Table 16.6.
density porosities of a zone, effects of lithologies can
Lithology Discrimination
cancel out. The true porosity therefore is estimated
Lithology identification using the neutron-density log
either by taking an average of the two log readings
combination is a hugely important technique, and
or by applying the equation:
together with the litho-density log forms the best
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi downhole lithology identification technique available.
ϕ2N þ ϕ2D The measured neutron porosity in shales is consider-
ϕ¼ (16.7)
2 ably higher than the measured neutron porosity in
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 407

Table 16.6 Values for Dt and P-wave velocities for use in density, and its presence will give rise to
Wyllie’s equation underestimations in porosity. On the neutron-density
Material Δt (μs/ft) V (ft/s) V (m/s) combination, gas stands out very distinctly, giving a
Compact sandstone 55.6–51.3 18,000–19,500 5,490–5,950 large negative separation (Fig. 16.23).
Limestone 47.6–43.5 21,000–23,000 6,400–7,010
Dolomite 43.5–38.5 23,000–26,000 7,010–7,920 Detection of Overpressure
Anhydrite 50.0 20,000 6,096 Sonic logs can be used to detect overpressured zones
Halite 66.7 15,000 4,572
in a well. An increase in pore pressures causes a clear
Shale 170–60 5,880–16,660 1,790–5,805
drop in sonic velocity (i.e. an increase in sonic travel
Bituminous coal 140–100 7,140–10,000 2,180–3,050
time). Fluid overpressure works against any compac-
Lignite 180–140 5,560–7,140 1,690–2,180
tion trend caused by the overburden pressure. Hence, it
Casing 57.1 17,500 5,334
Water: 200,000 ppm, 180.5 5,540 1,690
is likely that overpressured zones will retain a greater
15 psi porosity than normally pressured zones. If a normal
Water: 150,000 ppm, 186.0 5,380 1,640 compaction or no compaction is observed in a shale
15 psi over some depth interval, and below it the bulk density
Water: 100,000 ppm, 192.3 5,200 1,580 begins to decrease (or the derived porosity begins to
15 psi increase) without change in lithology, it is likely that
Oil 238 4,200 1,280
one has entered a zone of overpressured fluids. In this
Methane, 15 psi 626 1,600 490
zone the overpressured fluids keep the porosity open,
stopping any compaction trend and reversing it
(Fig. 16.24).
carbonate or sandstone. This unrealistically high
porosity is a good indicator of shale, and can become Uplift Estimation
diagnostic when combined with the gamma ray log. As sediments become compacted, the velocity of elas-
One can see from the neutron-density crossplot that tic waves through them increases. If one plots the
there will be a separation of the density and the neu- interval transit time on a logarithmic scale against
tron logs for sandstone and dolomite, but no separation depth on a linear scale, a straight line relationship
for limestone (Fig. 16.22). The sandstone separation is emerges. This is called compaction trend. Compaction
called negative and the dolomite separation, which is trends are constructed for single lithologies, compar-
in the other direction and slightly larger, is called ing the same stratigraphic interval at different depths.
positive. If shale is present in the formation, the neu- It is possible to estimate the amount of erosion at
tron log reads much higher porosities and gives a large unconformities or the amount of uplift from these
positive separation. If the shale volume decreases due trends. This is because compaction is generally
to the intermixture of sandstone, the large positive accompanied by diagenetic changes which do not
separation decreases, crosses over and becomes even- alter after uplift. Hence the compaction of a sediment
tually the small negative separation associated with represents its deepest burial. Figure 16.25 compares
pure sandstone. Thus, a sequence of clearly defined the compaction trend for the same lithology in the
sand and shale formations shows switching between same stratigraphic interval in one well with that in
positive and negative separations in a neutron-density another well. The data from the well represented by
crossplot. the circles shows the interval to have been uplifted by
800 m relative to the other well because it has lower
Detection of Gas interval transit times (means more compact) but
The rules governing the relationship between neutron occurs at a shallower depth.
log porosity and the true porosity in clean formations
are valid when either water or oil fills the pores (the Seismic Data Calibration and
two fluids have essentially the same hydrogen index, Synthetic Seismogram Generation
Rider 2004). However, hydrocarbon gas has a much A sonic log in a well located on a seismic line or in a
lower hydrocarbon index resulting from its low 3D survey enables the log data to be used to calibrate
408 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.22 The density and neutron log responses for shale, separation occurs in shale compared to dolomite. Negative
sandstone, limestone, dolomite sequence on a compatible scale. separation against sandstone may indicate gas. (Modified from
No separation observed in limestone but a large positive Rider 2004)

and check the seismic data. In general, the sonic log seismogram with the real seismic trace measured at
resolution is about 60 cm compared to seismic the well location to improve the picking of seismic
10–50 m. Therefore, the sonic log must be averaged horizons, and to improve the accuracy and resolution
when comparing it with seismic measurement. How- of formations of interest. It should be remembered that
ever, the much higher resolution of the sonic log may the observed seismic trace is primarily a record of the
enable the log information to resolve indications of ability of interfaces between formations to reflect elas-
beds that are just beyond the resolution of the seismic tic waves. This ability is called the reflection coeffi-
technique. Note that the sonic log gives a one-way cient R. The reflection coefficient depends upon the
travel time, and the seismic technique gives a two- properties of the rock either side of the interface, and
way travel time. in particular on its acoustic impedance. The acoustic
A synthetic seismogram is a seismic trace that has impedance is the product of the seismic velocity and
been constructed from various parameters obtainable the density of the rock. Thus, if we can derive the
from log information. It represents the seismic trace density and seismic velocity of a set of formations
that should be observed with the seismic method at the from logs, we can produce a synthetic seismogram
well location. It is useful to compare such a synthetic (Fig. 16.26).
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 409

Fig. 16.23 The gas effect in the neutron-density crossplot shows large negative separation in reservoir zone. On the other hand
large positive separations occur in shales (top and bottom of the reservoir). (Modified from Rider 2004)

Fig. 16.24 Recognition of shale compaction and overpressure in shale sequences using the formation density and sonic logs.
(Adapted from Mondol et al. 2008)
410 N.H. Mondol

16.5.5.3 Uncertainties of Porosity Logs

Enlarged and rough boreholes, formation fracture,
gas in the borehole and formation, or improper
centralisation can produce signal attenuation in poros-
ity log measurements resulting in higher porosity
values. In rough holes or in heavy drilling muds, the
density data might be invalid. Porosity calculated from
density and sonic depends on the choice of matrix
density and matrix transit time, which varies with
lithology. Porosity calculations for unconsolidated
formations may yield porosity values higher than the
actual values when using the Wyllie equation (Wyllie
et al. 1956). Porosity calculated from density depends
on the choice of fluid density, which varies with fluid
type and salinity. Porosity calculated in gas-bearing
zones will be higher than the actual values because the
traveltime in gas is higher than in water. Presence of
gas (light HC) in the pore space causes density-derived
porosity to be more than the actual porosity. If the
actual lithology is sandstone, the measured neutron
porosity is less than the actual porosity. If the actual
lithology is dolomite, the log porosity is greater than
Fig. 16.25 Estimation of uplift and erosion from sonic log the actual porosity. If gas is present in the formation,
derived shale compaction trends porosities can be overestimated (Fig. 16.27).

Fig. 16.26 Synthetic seismic trace constructed from impedance and reflectivity convolved with wavelet. (Adapted from Mondol
et al. 2010)
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 411

Fig. 16.27 Effect of gas on measured neutron porosity (NPHI) and bulk density logs. (Re-drawn, courtesy of Schlumberger)

16.5.6 Photoelectric Factor/Litho-density 1 σe

Pe  (16.9)
Log K Z

16.5.6.1 Generalities and Basic Principles where Pe is the photoelectric absorption index (barns/
The photoelectric factor (PEF) or litho-density log is a electron), σe is the photoelectric cross-section (barns),
new form of the density log with added features. The Z is the atomic number (number of electrons) and K is
tool is physically very similar to the density tool but it a coefficient dependent upon the energy at which the
has enhanced detectors, and the distance between the photoelectric absorption is observed (no units). A log
long spacing and the short spacing detectors has been scale running from 0 to 10 barns/electron is most often
decreased. This decrease has increased the vertical used (Fig. 16.28). The photoelectric log values of
resolution of the tool and improved its overall common minerals and fluids are given in Table 16.7.
counting accuracy. The photoelectric tool has a
caesium-137 source emitting gamma rays at 16.5.6.2 Uses of Photoelectric/Litho-density
0.662 MeV. The more efficient detectors in the litho- Log
density tool have the ability to recognise and count The PEF/litho-density log is one of the most useful logs
separately gamma rays which have high for lithology discrimination. This is simply because the
(0.25–0.662 MeV) and low (0.04–0.0 MeV) energies. tool is sensitive only to the mean atomic number of the
The high energy gamma rays are those that are formation, and at the same time is insensitive to changes
undergoing Compton scattering. The low energy in porosity and fluid saturation in the rock. Hence, the
gamma rays are those that are undergoing photoelec- absolute Pe value may often be used to indicate directly
tric absorption. The probability that a gamma ray is the presence of a given lithology, which may then be
adsorbed by the process of photoelectric absorption checked against the other tool readings for consistency.
depends upon the characteristic photoelectric cross- Uses of PEF to discriminate lithologies are shown below:
section of the process (σe). Characteristic photoelec-
tric cross-sections are measured in barns, where 1 barn Identification of Reservoir Rocks
¼ 1024 cm2. A specific photoelectric absorption The addition of the photoelectric log to the gamma ray
index Pe is defined with the relationship and neutron-density logs provides both additional
412 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.28 Measurements of the photoelectric (litho-density) log for common lithologies. (Modified from Rider 2004)

validation of simple lithology picks and the resolution If there is a mixture of two mineralogies, for exam-
of ambiguities in interpretation of “complex” (multi- ple a sandy limestone, a crossplot technique or a
mineral) lithologies. The generalised expectations of simple mixing rule can be applied to calculate the
log patterns for shales and endmember reservoir relative proportions of the two mineralogies. In the
lithologies of limestone, dolomite and sandstone are crossplot technique, the Pe value is plotted on the
shown in Fig. 16.29. In the examination of the x-axis against bulk density on the y-axis. The point
neutron-density log overlay, dolomites and siliceous lies between lines that indicate the relative proportions
rocks (either sandstones or cherts) can be recognised of three lithologies (sandstone, dolomite and
by the curve separations. However, the close overlay limestone).
of the two could be caused either by a limestone or a
cherty dolomite (or a cherty dolomitic limestone!). Evaporite Identification
The inclusion of the photoelectric index can be used The geological interpretation of log overlays is easily
to choose between these alternatives. Similarly, a extended to sedimentary lithologies other than the com-
dolomite reading on the photoelectric index curve mon reservoir lithologies of sandstone, limestone and
could also be caused by a cherty or sandy limestone. dolomite. The common evaporite minerals of gypsum,
The simultaneous consideration of the neutron-density anhydrite and halite each have highly distinctive PEF
log overlay resolves the more likely of these two properties as shown in Fig. 16.29. Halite and anhy-
interpretations. drite have markedly low and high bulk densities,
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 413

Table 16.7 Common photoelectric log values (adapted from borehole wall, one can see that most types of drilling
Rider 2004) mud will not have a great effect on the PEF measure-
Pe ρb ments. The exception is barite which has a huge PEF
Quartz 1.81 2.65 value and will swamp all other log responses if the tool
K-feldspar 2.86 2.62 sees barite drilling mud. Therefore, in practice the PEF
Calcite 5.08 2.71 log is not used in holes drilled with barite mud.
Dolomite 3.14 2.87
Shale 3.42 2.65
Shaly sand 2.70 2.41
16.5.7 Resistivity and Conductivity Logs
Muscovite 2.40 3.29
Biotite 6.30 3.34
Glauconite 5.32 3.95
16.5.7.1 Generalities and Basic Principles
Halite 4.65 2.07 Resistivity is a fundamental material property that
Anhydrite 5.10 2.98 represents how strongly a material opposes the flow
Gypsum 4.00 2.35 of electric current (Fig. 16.30). Most rock-forming
Coal Anthracite 0.16 1.75 minerals are essentially insulators, while their
Coal Bituminous 0.18 1.47 enclosed fluids are conductors. Almost all conduction
Coal Lignite 0.20 1.19 takes place through the liquid phase, and the resistance
Barite 266.8 4.50 therefore depends primarily on the pore fluid and its
Pyrite 16.97 5.00 salt content. Hydrocarbon fluids are an exception,
Hematite 21.48 5.24 because they are almost infinitely resistive. When a
Magnetite 22.24 5.18 formation is porous and contains salty water, the over-
Pure water 0.358 1.00 all resistivity will be low. When the formation
Salt water (NaCl 120,000 ppm) 0.81 1.19 contains hydrocarbon, or contains very low porosity,
Oil 0.13 0.97 its resistivity will be high. Resistivity is also a function
Methane 0.095 0.25
of the amount of porewater relative to rock volume
(hence porosity) and the distribution of pores in the
respectively, while the very high neutron porosity of rock (permeability).
gypsum is caused by hydrogen in its water of The resistivity log must run in holes containing
crystallisation. electrically conductive mud. Each of the electric log
measurements depends on the degree to which drilling
mud invades the formation, because this will influence
Coal Identification
the electrical properties surrounding the borehole
In combination with density and neutron logs, PEF can
(Fig. 16.31). The resistivity or conductivity
be useful to identify coal (Fig. 16.29). Clastic
measurements are, of course, measuring the same
successions containing coals were commonly devel-
property of the rock, and can be interconverted by
oped in deltaic environments with shales, siltstones
Resistivity ¼ 1/Conductivity. The resistivity units
and sandstones, as well as occasional ironstones (typi-
are ohm-m2/m or simply ohm-m (Ω m). The resistivity
cally siderite). The clay mineralogy of the finer-
of a formation depends on the resistivity of the forma-
grained rocks is quite variable and can show elevated
tion water, the amount of water present, and the struc-
contents of kaolinite, particularly in palaeosols. The
ture and geometry of the pores, and can be expressed
PEF response of coals varies according to their rank
by
(0.20 for lignite, 0.17 for bitumin and 0.16 for
anthracite).
rA
R¼ (16.10)
L
16.5.6.3 Uncertainties of Photoelectric/
Litho-density Log where R is the resistivity (ohm-m), r is the resistance
Most drilling fluids have very low PEF values. When (ohms), A is the cross-sectional area (m2) and L is the
this information is combined with the fact that the litho- length (m). Most formations have resistivities in the
density tool is pad-mounted and pressed against the range 0.2 to 1,000 ohm-m. Resistivities higher than
414 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.29 A comparison of litho-density (photoelectric), density and neutron log responses to identify reservoir rocks (sandstone,
limestone, dolomite), evaporate (halite and anhydrite) and coal

Fig. 16.30 A general trend of electrical resistivity of reservoir rocks and fluids
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 415

Fig. 16.31 The borehole environment showing zones of electrode disposition in several body-mounted, focused
invasion of drilling fluids and measured resistivity in dif- laterologs (e.g. LLD, LLS, LLM) and induction log (IL) tools
ferent zones (left, courtesy of Schlumberger). Schematic (right, courtesy of Schlumberger)

1,000 ohm-m are uncommon in most permeable current can pass through a formation because it
formations but are observed in impermeable, low contains water with enough dissolved ions to be con-
porosity formations such as evaporites. A few low ductive. With a few rare exceptions, such as clay
porosity hydrocarbon-bearing formations with almost minerals, metallic sulphides and graphite, rock matrix
no formation water can have resistivities as high as is a good electrical conductor. The resistivity and
20,000 ohm-m. Because resistivities cannot be read conductivity tools have many varieties that are com-
accurately over the entire measurement range when monly used to investigate resistivity in different zones
displayed on a linear scale, all resistivity logs are around the borehole (Table 16.8).
presented on logarithmic grids (Fig. 16.32). Laterologs (LLS, LLM and LLD) contain three
electrodes on the tool – a central electrode and two
Resistivity and Conductivity Tools guard electrodes to focus current (Fig. 16.31). Cur-
To measure electrical rock properties, there are two rent in the guards is adjusted to maintain the same
main types of logging tool available: one measures potential as the centre electrode. The lack of poten-
resistivity (resistivity tools) and the other measures tial difference between electrodes means that current
conductivity (induction tools). Formation resistivities flows outwards horizontally. In an induction tool
are measured either by passing a known current (IL), the vertical component of the magnetic field
through the formation and measuring the electrical from the transmitting coil induces ground loop
potential (electrode or galvanic devices) or by induc- currents. The current loops in the conductive forma-
ing a current distribution in the formation and measur- tion produce an alternating magnetic field detected
ing its magnitude (induction devices). An electric by the receiver coil (Fig. 16.31).
416 N.H. Mondol

Fig. 16.32 Example of dual

(ILM and ILD) induction logs
through a hydrocarbon zone.
The drilling mud is
freshwater-based (Rmf > Rw)
where muds invade a
hydrocarbon-bearing
formation (e.g. Sw <60%).
There is high resistivity in the
flushed zone (Rxo) due to
freshwater as well as residual
hydrocarbon, high resistivity
in the invaded zone (Ri), and a
very high resistivity in the
uninvaded hydrocarbon zone
(Rt)

Table 16.8 Types of resistivity and conductivity logging tools

Flushed zone (Rxo) Invaded zone (Ri) Uninvaded zone (Rt)
Microlog (ML) Short Normal (SN) Long Normal (LN)
Microlaterolog (MLL) Medium Induction Log (ILM) Deep Induction Log (ILD)
Proximity log (PL) Shallow Laterolog (LLS) Deep Laterolog (LLD)
Micro Spherically Focused Log (MSFL) Spherically Focused Log (SFL)

16.5.7.2 Uses of Resistivity and Conductivity It also helps to determine hydrocarbon saturation.
Logs Once we know the resistivity of the drilling mud, the
Resistivity/conductivity measurements have immense porosity of the rock can be calculated from the resis-
value for detection and quantitative evaluation of tivity of that part of the rock which has been invaded
hydrocarbon productive zones and correlation of geo- by the mud. In addition, resistivity log is also useful to
logical strata. High resistivity values may indicate a identify source rocks.
hydrocarbon-bearing formation. Oil and gas have far
higher resistivity than water, so resistivity logs can be Detection of Hydrocarbon
used to locate the contacts between oil/water (OWC), By far the most important use of resistivity logs
gas/water (GWC) and gas/oil (GOC) in the reservoirs. is the determination of hydrocarbon-bearing versus
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 417

water-bearing zones. Because the rock’s matrix or Table 16.9 Sources of data for calculation of water saturation
grains are non-conductive and any hydrocarbons in the by Archie’s equation
pores are also non-conductive, the ability of the rock to Parameter Source
transmit a current is almost entirely a function of for- Rt Deep resistivity tool
mation brine in the pores. As the hydrocarbon saturation Rw SP log
of the pores increases (causing the water saturation to Calculated from water zone
Measured on RFT (repeated formation tester)
decrease), the formation’s resistivity increases. As the sample
salinity of the water in the pores decreases (as Rw ϕ Neutron, density, sonic, NMR
increases), the rock’s resistivity also increases. F Guessed
When sufficient quantities of hydrocarbons are m Measured in laboratory, Guessed
present, the deep resistivity (ILD) will show extremely n Measured in laboratory, Guessed
high resistivity because of the high saturation in
hydrocarbons (Fig. 16.32). When hydrocarbons are
present, the borehole environment becomes three equation. Table 16.9 summarises the sources of the
phase and much more complex compared to a water parameters that go into the Archie’s equation to calcu-
zone. The freshwater mud will replace the late the Sw.
hydrocarbons immediately around the borehole,
essentially replacing them through the flushed and Formation resistivity factor (F) The bulk resistivity
invaded zones, while the original hydrocarbon satura- of a rock (R0) saturated with a formation fluid of
tion is only found in the uninvaded (virgin) zone. resistivity Rw is directly proportional to the resistivity
of the fluid and can be expressed by the following
equations
Determination of Water Saturation (Sw)
Archie’s law laid the foundation for modern well log R0 ¼ FRw (16.13)
interpretation as it relates borehole electrical resistiv-
ity measurements to hydrocarbon saturations. It is a or
purely empirical law attempting to describe flow in
clean, consolidated sandstones, with varying inter- F ¼ R0 =Rw (16.14)
granular porosity. Archie’s law relates the in-situ elec-
trical resistivity of a rock to its porosity and brine where F is the formation resistivity factor and
saturation and is expressed by the following equation: describes the effect of the presence of the rock matrix.
Note that the formation factor (F) has no units because
Rt ¼ aϕm Sn
w Rw (16.11) of the ratio of two resistivities. It can be seen that
F ¼ 1.00 for a rock with 100% porosity, i.e. no

1=n
a  Rw matrix, just 100% fluid. If we take 100% fluid and
Sw (16.12)
Rt  ϕ m slowly add grains of rock, the porosity decreases.
However, the insulating grains of rock have negligible
where Sw is the water saturation, a is the tortuosity conductivity (infinite resistivity) compared to the
factor, m is the cementation exponent (usually in the conducting fluid. Hence, R0 will increase, which
range 1.8–2.0 for sandstones), n is the saturation expo- implies that F is always greater than unity in a porous
nent (usually close to 2), Rw is the resistivity of forma- medium. In real rocks F varies between 20 and 500. It
tion water, ϕ is the porosity and Rt is the true is a function of the porosity and permeability of the
formation resistivity as derived from a deep resistivity rock and is an expression of rock properties indepen-
log (e.g. ILD). A geoscientist, by knowing (or deter- dent of the conductivity of the porewater. For
mining) several parameters (F, a, m, and n described in sediments with a high primary porosity the formation
the following paragraphs), and by determining from factor will be an expression of the diagenetic alteration
logs the porosity (ϕ), formation water resistivity (Rw) of the rock and the relationship can be expressed as
and true formation resistivity (Rt), can determine the
formation’s water saturation (Sw) using the Archie F ¼ a=ϕm (16.15)
418 N.H. Mondol

where ϕ is the porosity and m is the cementation Porosity in a water-bearing formation can be related
exponent which varies from 1 for porous rock to 3 to shallow resistivity (Rxo) by the following equation:
for very well cemented rock (average value is 2.0). a is

a constant (tortuosity factor) which for carbonate a  Rmf 1=m

rocks is about 1.0 depending on the permeability (or ϕ¼ (16.16)
Rxo
tortuosity).
Cementation exponent (m) The cementation expo- where ϕ is the formation porosity, Rmf is the resistivity
nent expresses how much the pore network increases of mud filtrate at formation temperature, Rxo is the
the resistivity. The cementation exponent has been flushed-zone resistivity, a is the tortuosity factor and
observed near 1.3 for unconsolidated sands, and is m is the cementation exponent. In hydrocarbon-
believed to increase with cementation. Common bearing zones, the shallow resistivity (Rxo) is affected
values for this cementation exponent for consolidated by the unflushed residual hydrocarbons left by the
sandstones are 1.8 < m < 2.0. In carbonates, the invading mud filtrate. These residual hydrocarbons
cementation exponent shows higher variance due to result in a value for shallow resistivity (Rxo) that is
strong diagenetic affinity and complex pore structures. too high because hydrocarbons have a higher resistiv-
Values between 1.7 and 4.1 have been observed. The ity than formation water. Therefore, the calculated
cementation exponent is usually assumed not to be resistivity porosity in hydrocarbon-bearing zones is
dependent on temperature. too low. To correct for residual hydrocarbons in the
Tortuosity factor (a) The tortuosity factor is an flushed zone, water saturation of the flushed zone (Sxo)
important parameter of formation resistivity factor must be known. Then, a formation’s shallow resistiv-
calculations in the Archie formula, which is used to ity (Rxo) can be related to porosity by the following
predict water saturation. It is equal to the square root (Sxo < 1.0):
of tortuosity, is a function of the average angle of
electrical movement with respect to the bulk fluid  1=m
a Rmf
flow and cementation exponent (m) and is related to ϕ¼ 2  (16.17)
the flow area difference between pore throat and pore sxo Rxo
body.
Saturation exponent (n) The saturation exponent
expresses the dependency on the presence of non- Source Rock Investigations
conductive fluid (hydrocarbons) in the pore-space, A source rock can significantly influence the resistiv-
and is related to the wettability of the rock. Water- ity log, depending on the maturity of the organic content:
wet rocks will, for low water saturation values, main- it has little effect when immature, but causes a large
tain a continuous film along the pore walls making the effect when it is mature. A typical shale with matrix
rock conductive. Oil-wet rocks will have discontinu- dominated by clay minerals and silts has a certain
ous droplets of water within the pore space, making water-filled porosity, whereas typically 5–15% of
the rock less conductive. The saturation exponent usu- the matrix of a source shale is comprised of organic
ally is fixed to values close to 2. matter. If the source rock is immature the pore space is
filled with water, but if the source rock is mature, the
Resistivity-Derived Porosity pores contain both water and hydrocarbons and so give
The minerals that make up the grains in the matrix of high resistivity values compared to the normal shale or
the rock, and the hydrocarbons in the pores of the rock, immature source shale. The high resistivity anomaly is
are non-conductive. Therefore, the ability of rock to thus related to the degree of maturity of source rocks
transmit an electrical current is almost entirely the (Passey et al. 1990). A high resistivity in a shale
result of the water in the pore space. Thus, resistivity interval can also be interpreted as carbonate-rich
measurements can be used to determine porosity. Nor- zones, or as highly compacted shales with very low
mally, measurements of a formation’s resistivity close porosity. If the hydrocarbon effect is to be highlighted,
to the borehole (flushed zone, Rxo, or invaded zone, Ri) the resistivity log is crossplotted with either sonic or
are used to determine porosity. When a porous, per- density logs (Fig. 16.33).
meable, water-bearing formation is invaded by drilling It is even possible to calculate the amount of TOC
fluid, formation water is displaced by mud filtrate. in a source rock from the resistivity and sonic logs.
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 419

Fig. 16.33 Sonic/resistivity overlay showing ΔlogR separation compared to measured TOC plotted against depth. The
in the organic-rich interval (zone of high gamma ray value). The measured TOC values are from sidewall cores
estimated TOC (using Passey et al. 1990 ΔlogR method)

The sonic log is plotted on a normalised scale with the 16.5.7.3 Uncertainties of Resistivity
resistivity log. When the normalised scales are correct, and Conductivity Logs
the sonic and resistivity logs track one another, regard- Temperature effects The resistivity of formation
less of compaction and compositional changes, but fluids and drilling muds varies greatly with tempera-
separate when a source rock is present (Passey et al. ture. The temperature in a borehole can be found
1990). The degree of separation is said to be related to directly from temperature logs up the entire borehole,
both degree of maturity and magnitude of TOC%, so or more traditionally, from the geothermal gradient. In
that if the level of maturity is known, the TOC% can the former case the temperature is given directly at a
be calculated using the following empirical relational: given depth. However, this is not used to calculate the
mud resistivity.
TOC% ¼ ðΔlogRÞ  10ð2:2970:1688LOMÞ (16.18) Effects of drilling mud The resistivity is strongly
influenced by the invasion of drilling mud into the
where TOC% is the total organic carbon in %, LOM is flushed and invaded zones. At least three resistivity
the level of maturity and ΔlogR is the curve separation measurements, each sensitive to a different distance
in resistivity unit. This method seems to be useful away from the borehole, are needed to measure a resis-
qualitatively, but quantitatively is cumbersome and tivity transitional profile. These three measured values
its validity is doubtful. represent the resistivity of flushed (Rxo), invaded (Ri)
420 N.H. Mondol

and uninvaded zones (Rt) (Fig. 16.32). Note that the (Fig. 16.34). A software program is used to correlate
degree of underestimation or overestimation in Rt and deviations on the logs and calculate the amount and
Rw leads to significant error in saturation calculation. direction of bedding dip. As a result structural dip is
Estimation of m and n In attempting to reduce errors determined. The common dipmeter tools are FMS (For-
in Sw calculation we must ensure that the m and n mation MicroScanner Sonde), SHDT (Stratigraphic
parameters in Archie’s equation are measured using High-resolution Dipmeter Tool), HDT (High Resolution
independent methods. Laboratory determined m and n Dipmeter Tool) and OBDT (Oil-based Dipmeter Tool).
values are the best ones to take, though early in a As the dipmeter is brought up the hole, the electrodes on
reservoir’s life these are not available, and so guesses each arm are in contact with the rock layers. If the rock
are used instead. Note that 20% underestimations and layer is dipping, different arms will contact the layers at
overestimations of m and n lead to an underestimation different depths. The sequence of contacts between
and overestimation of the water saturation by 0.11 and individual arms and each layer is used to compute the
0.12 respectively. These are huge errors when dip of the layer. If the layer is horizontal, all arms of the
progressed through to the STOOIP (stock tank oil dipmeter contact the layer at the same level.
originally in place) calculation. There are two common ways to present dipmeter
data; stick and tadpole plots (Fig. 16.34). A stick plot
16.5.8 Dipmeter Logs uses lines (sticks) to show the dip measurements.
Depth is recorded on the vertical axis. The angle on
16.5.8.1 Generalities and Basic Principles the stick is the dip measurement. In a tadpole plot, dip
The dipmeter is essentially a multi-arm is plotted on the horizontal axis with zero dip on the
microresistivity logging tool that provides data used left. Depth is in the vertical axis. Conventional
to compute formation dip. Three to eight spring- dipmeter tadpole plots show the four common dip
loaded arms record separate microresistivity tracks, motifs, that is uniform (green) pattern, upward-
while within the sonde, a magnetic compass records decreasing (red) pattern, upward-increasing (blue) pat-
the orientation of the tool as it is drawn up the hole tern and random (bag o’nails) pattern. Each motif can

3 4 DIP ANGLE
0 10 20 30 40°
1
2
PAD – Uniform (green)
TRAJECTORIES pattern

Upward-decreasing (red)
pattern
PLANES
OF BED
BOUNDARIES Upward-increasing (blue)
pattern

APPARENT
DIP
PLANE OF Random (bag o’ nails)
ELECTRODES
pattern
q

PAD
PAD No 1
No 2
STICK PLOT TADPOLE PLOT

Fig. 16.34 Sketch of a four-arm dipmeter tool (HDT) with the trajectories the pads take when the tool is pulled uphole (modified
from Hepp and Dumestre 1975). Also shown are two common ways (stick plot and tadpole plot) to present the dipmeter data
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 421

Fig. 16.35 The dip vs depth, and dip direction vs depth, plots The well does not penetrate the main fault, although several
from a well show an example of flattening drag towards a main minor faults are encountered. (Modified from Hesthemmer
fault. Bedding is dragged from westerly dip at shallower and Fossen 1998)
reservoir (Ness FM) to easterly dip at the base (Cook FM).

be produced by several quite different geological phe- fracture detection, directional data to provide TVD,
nomena. The position of the tadpole head shows the drift surveys and bottom hole location. Because the
amount of dip and the tail shows the direction of dip. dipmeter measures the spatial orientation of physical
properties in rocks, this method is also used to measure
16.5.8.2 Uses of Dipmeter Logs tectonic deformation of rocks, and not least the pri-
Dipmeter data reflect dip and azimuth of bedding. mary orientation of sediment particles (fabric). This is
Variations of these parameters down the boreholes useful in beach sediments as the long axis of sand
help improve our understanding of the structural geol- grains tends to be parallel with the shoreline, while
ogy in faulted reservoirs (Fig. 16.35). The dipmeter in fluvial sandstones the sand grains will be oriented
data is used to evaluate magnitude and direction of parallel with the transport direction. Dipmeter logs can
structural and stratigraphic dips, improving the evalu- therefore be very useful for reconstructing sedimen-
ation of thinly laminated sand/shale sequences, tary environments, transport direction, etc.
422 N.H. Mondol

16.5.8.3 Uncertainties of Dipmeter Logs An applied voltage causes an alternating current to

There are many uncertainties involved in interpreting flow from each electrode into the formation and then
dipmeter logs. The quality of the dipmeter data varies to be received at a return electrode on the upper part of
with the hole conditions, temperature and depth, type the tool. The microelectrodes respond to current den-
of mud used, rock type and tools. Generally FMS data sity, which is related to localised formation resistivity.
are of better quality than SHDT data due to the The tool, therefore, has a high-resolution capability in
increased button density and borehole coverage. Simi- measuring variations from button to button.
larly, SHDT gives better results than HDT due to Acoustic borehole-imaging devices are known as
improvements of the tool and the algorithms used in “borehole televiewers”. They provide 100% coverage
processing. Data from the OBDT are generally of of the borehole wall. Modern acoustic borehole imag-
poorer quality than any of the resistivity tools (related ing tools contain a magnetometer to provide azimuthal
to the use of oil-based mud), and results must accord- information. The borehole televiewer operates with
ingly be treated with care. Also it is not always possi- pulsed acoustic energy so that it can image the bore-
ble to find dipmeter patterns that are compatible with hole wall in the presence of opaque drilling muds.
sedimentological models of cross-bedded strata. Short bursts of acoustic energy are emitted by a rotat-
ing transducer in pulse-echo mode. These travel
through the drilling mud and undergo partial reflection
16.5.9 Image Logs at the borehole wall. Reflected pulses are received by
the transducer. The amplitudes of the reflected pulses
16.5.9.1 Generalities and Basic Principles form the basis of the acoustic image of the borehole
Borehole imaging has been one of the most rapidly wall. Data are usually presented as depth plots of
advancing technologies in wireline well logging. The enhanced images of amplitude and borehole radius
term “borehole imaging” refers to those logging and (Fig. 16.36). To some extent, the acoustic and electri-
data-processing methods that are used to produce cal images are complementary because the ultrasonic
centimetre-scale images of the borehole wall and the measurements are influenced more by rock properties,
rocks that make it up. The context is, therefore, that of whereas the electrical measurements respond primar-
open hole, but some of the tools are closely related to ily to fluid properties.
their cased-hole equivalents.
Borehole imaging can be performed by optical 16.5.9.2 Uses of Image Logs
imaging, electrical imaging and acoustic imaging. A Borehole image logs provide high-resolution direc-
wide range of imaging tools is available, among them tional data sets and are powerful tools in subsurface
CBIL (Circumferential Borehole Imaging Log), UBI reservoir characterisation. They span the scale gap
(Ultasonic Borehole Imaging) and CAST (Circumfer- between core and seismic observations and although
ential Acoustic Scanning Tool), with LWD imaging they do not replace cores, they provide key sedimen-
tools becoming increasingly important. Optical imag- tological and sub-seismic structural information,
ing tools were the first borehole imaging devices. allowing quantification of subsurface fracture
Today they furnish a true high-resolution colour networks and providing inputs to geomechanical and
image of the wellbore. Video cameras may record petrophysical studies. The applications of image logs
the lamination and bedding and because they are ori- range from detailed reservoir description through res-
ented, palaeocurrent direction may be inferred. This ervoir performance to enhanced hydrocarbon recov-
method may also be very useful for recording fractures ery. Specific applications are fracture identification,
and large vuggy pores. analysis of small-scale sedimentological features,
Electrical (microresistivity) imaging devices were evaluation of net pay in thinly bedded formations,
developed as an advancement on dipmeter technology. and the identification of breakouts (irregularities in
Traditionally, they have required a conductive bore- the borehole wall that are aligned with the minimum
hole fluid, but this requirement has since been obviated horizontal stress and appear where stresses around the
by oil-based mud imaging tools. In the microresistivity wellbore exceed the compressive strength of the rock).
imaging tool, the pads and flaps contain an array of It is important to detect open fractures and also partly
button electrodes at constant potential (Fig. 16.36). healed fractures which cannot be closed by increased
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 423

Fig. 16.36 (a) Measurement principle of electrical imaging Breakouts are indicated by the low acoustic amplitude of the
(microresistivity imaging) devices illustrated by Schlumberger’s reflected signal, shown here as darker areas. The breakouts are
Formation MicroImager (FMI) and (b) Example of breakout rotated because of a drilling-induced slippage of localised faults.
detection using an acoustic imaging borehole televiewer. (Courtesy of Schlumberger)

stress. Electrical images are similar to those obtained fraction of an inch. In theory, any feature that is as
by dipmeter logs. Modern image logs provide a good large as the buttons will be resolved. If it is smaller, it
overview of the lamination and also fractures. This might still be detected.
may be compared with sedimentological logging of a Acoustic imaging amplitudes are governed by sev-
core (Fig. 16.37). eral factors. The first is the shape of the borehole wall
itself: irregularities cause the reflected energy to scat-
16.5.9.3 Uncertainties of Image Logs ter so that a weaker reflected signal is received by the
The principal drawback of optical imaging is that it transducer. Examples of these irregularities are
requires a transparent fluid in the borehole. Unless fractures, vugs and breakouts. Borehole televiewers
transparent fluid can be injected ahead of the lens, work best where the borehole walls are smooth and
the method fails. This requirement has limited the the contrast in acoustic impedance is high. The scat-
application of downhole cameras. The electrical imag- tering or absorption of acoustic energy by particles in
ing tool does not provide an absolute measurement of the drilling mud can affect image resolution. This
formation resistivity but rather a record of changes in problem is more serious in heavily weighted muds,
resistivity. The resolution of electrical microimaging which are the most opaque acoustically and cause loss
tools is governed by the size of the buttons, usually a of image resolution.
424 N.H. Mondol

hydrocarbon. There are many physical parameters that

can be recorded, depending upon requirements.
Well logging is the most abundant data acquisition
technique available to help evaluate formation and
determinate fluid saturation. Modern tools may record
up to ten different types of measurement simulta-
neously during a single run. The most common
measurements are radioactive, electric and acoustic
logging. Rock properties are sensitive to changes in
lithology and fluid content. Changes in rock properties
are used to mark different formations. Well logs may
be used both as a visual qualitative tool to identify the
main rock types and also as a basis for sedimentologi-
cal and stratigraphic interpretation.
In addition to providing information about the poros-
ity and permeability of rock types, well logs can be used
directly for interpreting depositional environments.
Gamma logs and self-potential logs record characteris-
tic coarsening-upward and fining-upward sequences
very efficiently. We can therefore often recognise flu-
vial channels (fining-upward) and shallow marine
deposits (coarsening-upward). Turbidities give a char-
Fig. 16.37 Recognition of sedimentary and structural features acteristic alternation between coarse and fine material.
in microresistivity images (left). These Formation MicroImager
(FMI) images have been used to generate the dip information In delta sequences coal or lignite beds give characteris-
(middle). The combination of FMI images and dip data clearly tically strong deflections on the resistivity log. It is
differentiates the aeolian and interdune sands (right). (Courtesy important, however, to bear in mind that the response
of Schlumberger) of the logs is not due to sedimentological parameters
such as grain size and sorting, but can be indirectly
correlated with these parameters.
16.6 Summary Physical measurements are related to rock
properties such as lithology, porosity (fracture, vugs,
Well logs are the results of several geophysical primary and secondary), permeability, shaliness, and
measurements recorded in a well bore. Logging the type (oil, gas or condensate) and saturation of
provides continuous recording of a physical parameter hydrocarbons. More quantitative calculations of
of the formation as a function of depth. The primary porosity, shaliness and hydrocarbon saturation can
objectives of the well logging are (1) identification of also be made based on log data. Crossplots which are
source, reservoir and cap rocks, (2) determination of calibrated for different types of lithologies are then
depth, thickness, temperature and pressure of the reser- required. Correlation between wells can map units
voir, (3) to distinguish between oil, gas and water zones across a reservoir. Sonic and density logs provide a
in the reservoir, (4) estimation of hydrocarbon in place, link between seismic and petrophysics.
and (5) estimation of recoverable hydrocarbon. Well In conclusion, when logging is properly applied, it
logging is broadly classified into open-hole logging, can help to answer many questions from a wide spec-
cased-hole logging, MWD and LWD. In open-hole trum of special interest groups on topics ranging from
logging, the tool is lowered to the desired depth and basic geology to petroleum economics. A single tool
data is acquired as the tool is pulled up. Logs are cannot perform a complete diagnosis of lithology and
recorded to measure different physical parameters of a fluids. Usually a group of log measurements is made
well to ascertain the capacity of the well to flow in the same hole to improve interpretation. Of equal
16 Well Logging: Principles, Applications and Uncertainties 425

importance, however, is the fact that logging by itself Mondol, N.H. 2010. Seismic exploration. In: K. Bjørlykke (ed.),
cannot provide answers to all questions. Coring, core Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to
Rock Physics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. doi:10.1007/978-3-
analysis, and formation testing are also integral parts 642-02332-3_17.
of any formation evaluation effort. Mondol, N.H., Fawad, M., Jahren, J. and Bjørlykke, K. 2008.
Synthetic mudstone compaction trends and their use in pore
pressure prediction. First Break 26(12), 43–51.
Passey, Q.R., Creaney, S., Kulla, J.B., Moretti, F.J. and Stroud,
J.D. 1990. A practical model for organic richness from
Further Reading porosity and resistivity logs. AAPG Bulletin 74(12),
1777–1794.
Asquith, G. and Krygowski, D. 2004. Basic Well Log Analysis. Pickett, G.R. 1963. Acoustic character logs and their applica-
Methods in Exploration Series 16, AAPG Tulsa, OK, 244 pp. tion. Journal of Petroleum Technology 15(6), 659–667.
Coates, G.R., Xiao, L. and Prammer, M.G. 1999. NMR Logging Plint, A.G., Norris, B. and Donaldson, W. 1990. Revised
Principles and Application. Halliburton Energy Services definitions for the Upper Cretaceous Bad Heart Formation
Publication H02308, Houston, TX, 234 pp. and associated units in the foothills and plains of Alberta and
Ellis, D.V. and Singer, J.M. 2008. Well Logging for Earth British Columbia. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology
Scientists (2nd ed.). Springer, Dordrecht, 685 pp. 38(1), 78–88.
Hepp, V. and Dumestre, A.C. 1975. Cluster—A method for Raymer, L.L., Hunt, E.R. and Gardner, J.S. 1980, July. An
selecting the most probable dip results from dipmeter improved sonic transit time-to-porosity transform. In
surveys. SPE Paper 5543, Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPWLA twenty-first annual logging symposium, paper P.
Dallas, TX. Rider, M.H. 2004. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs.
Hesthemmer, J. and Fossen, H. 1998. The use of dipmeter data Blackie, Glasgow, 280 pp.
to constrain the structural geology of the Gullfaks Field, Wyllie, M.R.J., Gregory, A.R. and Gardner, L.W. 1956. Elastic
northern North Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology 15(6), wave velocities in heterogeneous and porous media. Geo-
549–573. physics 21(1), 41–70.