Business Logic To understand the term, it should

be rooted or defined based on

Logic according to Aristotle etymology.
- is an instrument to formulate There are numerous thinkers of
language properly in analyzing logic and Aristotle is one of those.
what is science involved; the
language should capture the Aristotle is the point of departure
thing. because the development of logic
started in him, it reaches the point
Language – term to name object or of logic in computer.
things, to understand, and to
communicate. Before the logic of Aristotle, there
comes first the Nyaya logic of
Purpose of logic – the use of Indian. However, the problem of
language or proper name to analyze Nyaya logic is that it does not
things. develop because Indians choose to
resort to religion.
How to know that the language,
name, or term is proper? Although the Easterns first discover
the knowledge, the Westerns are the
- When referring to something,
ones who continue to improve and
it needs to capture, or it
develop the disciplines.
captures the true and real
identity/description/character Other definition of logic
istic of the thing or subject
- In such a way that it creates a - theory of involution
concept of object in our minds - it is concerned with
arguments
There are instances that the term
used to describe a thing do not Arguments – consists of statements
coincide to its exact description. premise and conclusion.

Example: Name of a person do not

match to its characteristic as a
Premise and Conclusion
person.
Premise – given knowledge (ex.
A person’s name is Jesus
There are footprints on the floor)
(Holy name) but has bad
attitude and behavior Conclusion – new knowledge being
derived from the premise (ex.
Therefore, there is someone who
entered the room)
 Simply, not all logic are in the actual
world.

Computer logic and Mathematical

logic – modern logic than we use
Valid and Invalid today.

The argument cannot be recognized

as valid and consistent if the Significance of logic
premise is True and the conclusion
is False. - All of our knowledge is the
product of logic.
For it to be valid and consistent, the - We infer premise and we
result of premise and conclusion conclude.
should be the same (both true). - In our daily lives, we are
Structure of Aristotelian Logic committed to do logic because
we are always in the process
- it is called logic of reality of inferring.
because it is concerned in
proper use of language when Structure of Aristotelian logic is also
analyzing things. called categorical syllogism because:
- It is also called syllogism (an - Statements involved in an
argument – as long as there is argument are all categorical.
premise and conclusion).
Categorical Statement – there is
Not all logic is a logic of reality. direct assertion and direct
When it comes to modern and denial/affirmation.
mathematical logic, the argument
doesn’t need to see in actual reality. The concept of subject and
predicate.
Example: Zeus is the God of the
Greeks. Example: Peter is a Christian or
Peter is not a Christian.
Zeus is not in the actuality, but it
can still be recognized as logic. Example: All Filipinos are hospitable
Same goes when uttering or No Filipino is a Christian.
statements which are not existing in
Example: All Filipinos is a Christian.
reality.
Peter is a Filipino, therefore, he is a
Logic is not always a logic of Christian.
actuality, there are logic of
statements and propositions.
If there is at least one statement The statements are all conditional
that is not categorical, therefore, the then this is an example of
argument is not a categorical hypothetical syllogism.
syllogism.
Hypothetical Syllogism – was
invented by the Stoics thinker
because they saw that the structure
Statement that is not categorical is a
of Aristotelian logic is incomplete,
conditional statement.
that is why they developed it.
Conditional or Hypothetical
Disjunctive Syllogism – also
Statement
invented by stoics; if there is at least
- “if” and “then” statement one statement involved that has
- Can be converted to “either” “or”.
categorical
Example: Either Peter is a Christian
Example: If you are beautiful, then I or he is a Muslim. But he is not a
love you. Christian, therefore, he is a Muslim.

Example: If Peter is a Christian, Medieval age – the logic has

then he is good. developed; there has been Latinize
terms of logic.
If there is at least one conditional
statement, then it is not categorical Modern times – logic has been
syllogism but hypothetical syllogism. mathematicised; has mathematical
structure and operations that is
Example: If Peter is a Christian, used in computer.
then he is good. But Peter is a
Christian, therefore, he is good.

The first statement is conditional, Deductive and Inductive Logic

the second statement is categorical.
- Process of reasoning
Therefore, the argument is not
- A logic that gives a different
categorical but a hypothetical
way of defining
syllogism.
Deductive – either valid or invalid;
Example: If Peter is a Christian,
the task is to determine the validity;
then he is good. If Peter is good,
it provides absolutely conclusive
then he is godly. Therefore, if Peter
ground (the argument is said to be
is a Christian, then he is godly.
valid) or it provides some ground
only (there are possible ways of
drawing a conclusion)
Inductive – all process is all invalid;
there is no absolute conclusive
ground; concerned with what is less
or more acceptable claim and is
used in experimentation.

Words and Terms

Formal and Natural Language
To remain in the region of formal
Main role of logic is to test if an language and not in the natural
argument is valid or invalid or to language, we use terms not words.
test the relationship of statements Instead of using words, we use terms.
in an argument if it is consistent or Those arguments with terms, in order
inconsistent. Also if the conclusion to avoid treating them as words, we
necessarily follows the premise. must not use the pragmatic meaning of
those terms.
Derivation – the task of determining
the relationship of statements. Example: All stars are heavenly body.
Marian Rivera is a star. Therefore,
Definition – the task of determining Marian Rivera is a heavenly body.
the relationship of terms.
Star here is the star we see in the sky
not a showbiz career. This are both
words but different terms.
Clarity of definition and assertion
Words are composed of letters and
The definition of terms and syllables while terms are concepts.
assertion of the statements should
be clear and shouldn’t change.
Declarative and Proposition
Why logic needs clarity?
In order to make statements in an
To calculate exactly the validity of
argument calculable, as to whether the
the statements. argument is valid or invalid, we must
use terms not words. When we use
Natural language consists of double-
words in a sentence, we must treat
meaning and terms. Arguments are
them as terms not as words.
incalculable.
When it comes to sentences, instead of to the other information for it to be a
treating them as declarative sentences, true statement.
we treat them as proposition.

For a statement to be calculable in an

argument, we must be committed to the Necessity (Necessary Truth) and
use of formal language instead of a Contingency (Contingent Truth)
natural one.
- Possible or possibly true and
Idiomatic Expression, Provincialism,
impossible
Colloquial, and Figures of speech are
- Concepts in modal logic
not used in logic.
Modal logic – logic of necessity and
Sense and Reference
contingency
Gottlob Frege said that sense and
- Logic not in actual world
reference are different.
(traditional logic)
Sense – thoughts and meanings are the
same. Necessary Truth – true in all
possible worlds (including the actual
Reference – truth value and true or world) or instances; you cannot
false conceive of a possible instance in
Example: Morning Star and Evening which that could have been false.
Star. They are different but referring to
How to know if truth is necessary?
only one word which is Venus. One
reference but different sense. By testing its truthfulness if there is
Mathematical statement: X=X and Y=Y difficulty to conceive of a particular
is also the same as X=Y if X and Y has instance. If it remains true and
the same value. X=X is an analytic cannot be false.
judgment while X=Y is a synthetic
judgement. Examples:

1. Metaphysical Truth – going

beyond the appearances of
Analytic and Synthetic things

Analytic Statement – when you know Physics - the study of the

the subject, the predicate automatically physical appearances of things
follows without consulting the material
world for it to be a true statement. Why do we go beyond the
appearances of things?
Synthetic Statement – when you know
the subject, but you are unsure about It’s because we need to know the
the predicate, and you need to consult true nature of things, and in order
for us to understand the true nature conceiving these infinite possible
of things, we must not depend on worlds or universes.
what we see.
Among those possible worlds, there
2. Arithmetical Truth is only one world that is actualized
by God; our world (Material World).
5 + 5 = 10, it cannot be false According to Leibniz, our world is
the best possible world.
3. God’s existence, goodness,
All those remaining possible worlds
and power
are still possible worlds that are not
Contingent Truth – true only in at actualized.
least one possible world or instance
(can be in actual world or other
possible worlds); sometimes true
and sometimes false
Actually True Vs. Possibly True
Example:
Possible True – true in possible
1. Law of gravity (it is true
worlds but not necessarily true in
only in actual world but
actual world; contingent true
not in other possible
worlds) Actually True – possible true in
2. Handsomeness and actual world but not necessarily
beautifulness true in all other possible worlds

Actual world is a possible world, but Impossible – always false in all

possible world is not necessary an possible worlds; it cannot be true in
actual world. all possible instances

These concepts came from Gottfried Example:

Leibniz, who invented the calculator.
Contradictory statements – if you
Being a protestant, he brought the
assert the truthfulness of the
catholic theology of God being
affirmative statement (affirmation)
omniscient, omnipotent, and
and negative statement (denial)
omnipresent.
Contradiction – paradigm or model
According to Leibniz, there are
of the impossible; it cannot be true
infinitely possible worlds, and it
in all possible worlds
exists in the mind of God. It is also
possible, that people are capable of Logically True is different from
Physically True
The only way to make contradictory
statements to be true is to remove
the contradiction or by separating
the statements and taken
independently.