1.

Intonation is variation in spoken pitch when used, not for distinguishing words as sememes, but,
rather, for a range of other functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the
speaker, signalling the difference between statements and questions, and between different
types of questions, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also
helping to regulate conversational interaction.

2. Prosody - non-segmental phenomena, i.e. those which do not enter into the system of
segmental phonemes.

3. Functions of intonation by David Crystal

Emotional to express a wide range of attitudinal meanings -
excitement, boredom, surprise, friendliness,
reserve. Intonation works along with other
prosodic and paralinguistic features to provide
the basis of all kinds of vocal emotional
expression.
Grammatical to mark grammatical contrasts. The identification
of such major units as clause and sentence often
depends on the way pitch contours break up
an utterance; Many languages make the
important conversational distinction between
’asking’ and ’telling’ in this way, e.g. She’s here,
isn’t she? (where a rising pitch is the spoken
equivalent of the question mark) vs She’s here,
isn’t she! (where a falling pitch expresses the
exclamation mark).
Information structure To convey what is new and what is already
known in the meaning of an utterance - what is
referred to as the ‘information structure’ of the
utterance.
Textual to construct larger than an utterance stretches of
discourse. Prosodic
coherence is well illustrated in the way
paragraphs of information are
given a distinctive melodic shape, e.g. in radio
news-reading.
Psychological to organize language into units that are more
easily perceived and memorized. Leaming a long
sequence of numbers, for example, proves
easier if the sequence is divided into rhythmical.
Indexical to serve as markers of personal identity. In
particular, they help to identify people as
belonging to different social groups and
occupations (such as preachers, street vendors,
army sergeants).

4. The sentence possesses definite phonetic features: variations of pitch or speech melody,
pauses, sentence stress, rhythm, tempo and timbre.

5. The pitch is the relative highness or lowness of a tone as perceived by the ear, which depends
on the number of vibrations per second produced by the vocal cords. Pitch Range is the interval
 between two pitch levels. It may be normal, wide and narrow. The use of this or that pitch (and
range) shows the degree of its semantic importance.

6. Rhythm is a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables at definite intervals.

7. The characteristic features of English speech rhythm may be summed up as follows:

1. The regularity of the recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables results in the
pronunciation of each rhythmic group in a sense-group in the same period of time
irrespective to the number of unstressed syllables in it. Which in its turn influences the
length of sounds, especially vowels.

2. The alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables results in the influence of rhythm upon
word-stress and sentence-stress.

8. Sentence stress is the manner in which stresses are distributed on the syllables of words
assembled into sentences.

9. Timbre is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or tone.

10. An intonation group may be a whole sentence or a part of it. In either case it may consist of a
single word or a number of words. An intonation group has the following characteristics: 1) it
has at least one accented (stressed) word carrying a marked change in pitch (a rise, a fall etc.); 2)
it is pronounced at a certain rate and without any pause within it.

11. The pitch-and-stress pattern or the intonation pattern of the intonation group consists of
the following elements:
1. the pre-head – unstressed or partially stressed syllables which precede the first full stressed
syllable;
2. the head (scale, body) – the intonation pattern extending from the first stressed syllable up to
(but not including) the nuclear syllable;
3. the nucleus – the syllable bearing the nuclear (terminal) tone;
4. the tail – unstressed or partially stressed syllables following the nucleus.

12. There are two types of pre-head or pre-nucleus.

1. If unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced lower than the first stressed syllable
of the head, the pre-head is called low.

E.g. There was  something  wrong with the  trains.

In low pre-nucleus these syllables are lower than the start of the nuclear tone.

E.g. It was  obvious.

2. If unstressed syllables or partially stressed syllables are pronounced higher or on the same level
as the first stressed syllable of the head the pre-head is called high .In High Pre-Nucleus these
syllables are higher than the start of the nuclear tone or they are pronounced on the same level.

E.g. ˉI  don’t  want to  watch this  movie.

13. Types of heads

 Descending heads move down from a medium or a high pitch level to the low one. The
first stressed syllable is the highest.

 Ascending heads are the opposite of the descending heads: their stressed syllables
move up by steps with the intervening unstressed ones continuing the rise and in this
case it is a rising head.

 In level heads all the syllables are pronounced on the same level (or gradually ascends
towards the nucleus) either high or medium or low. So there are three level heads
correspondingly. It is shown by the tone mark before the first stressed syllable.

14. Types of tails

There are two types of tails: the low tail and the rising tail.

 The low tail goes after the falling tone and is pronounced at a low pitch. (Show me)

 The rising tail occurs after the rising tone and gradually rises in pitch producing the very
effect of the rising tone whilst the word carrying the syntagmatic stress is pronounced on
the lowest level in the sense-group. (Really?)

15. Types of nuclei

 the Low Fall

 the Low Rise

 the High Fall

 the High Rise

 the Fall-Rise

 the Mid-Level.

16. The Low Fall in starts somewhat higher than the mid level and usually reaches the lowest pitch
level.

The High Fall in starts very high and usually reaches the lowest pitch. The High Fall sounds lively,
interested and airy in statements. It sounds very emotional and warm, too.

The Low Rise starts from the lowest level and reaches the medium level. Phrases pronounced
with this tone sound non-categoric, non-final, encouraging further conversation, wondering,
mildly puzzled, soothing.

The High Rise rises from a medium to a high pitch, if there is no tail. It is often used in echoed
utterances, calling for repetition or additional information or with the intention to check if the
information has been received correctly. Sometimes this tone is meant to keep the conversation
going.
 The Fall-Rise is called a compound tone as it actually may present a combination of two tones:
either the Low Fall-Low Rise or the High Fall-Low Rise. The speaker using this tone leaves
something unsaid known both to him and his interlocutor. It is often used in statements and
imperatives.

The Rise-Fall is also a compound tone, in syllables pronounced with the Rise-Fall the voice first
rises from a fairly low to a high pitch, and then quickly falls to a very low pitch; The Rise-Fall
denotes that the speaker is deeply impressed (favorably or unfavorably). Actually the Rise-Fall
sometimes expresses the meaning of “even”: You aren’t trying. (You aren’t even trying).

The Mid-Level tone in the nucleus is pronounced on the medium level with any following tail
syllables on the same level. The Mid-Level is usually used in non-final intonation groups
expressing non-finality without any expression of expectancy: e. g. Couldn’t you help me? ‘At
present | I’m too busy.

17.

The nuclear tone of the final intonation-group is determined by the communicative type of the whole
sentence. The communicative types of sentences are differentiated in speech according to the aim of
the utterance from the point of view of communication, i.e. in order to show if the sentence expresses a
statement of fact, a question, a command or an exclamation.

There are four communicative types of sentence:

1. Statements

2. Questions

3. Imperative questions or commands

4. Exclamations

The falling nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation-group is complete, important by itself and is
not closely connected with the following intonation - group. A longer pause after an intonation-group
pronounced with the falling tone makes the intonation-group even more significant.

The rising nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation-group is closely connected in meaning with
the following intonation-group, is not important by itself and implies continuation.

18. Phonostylistics is a branch of phonetics which studies the way phonetic units (both segmental
and suprasegmental) are used in particular extralinguistic situations.

19. Intonational style can be defined as a system of interrelated intonational means which is used
in a social sphere and serves a definite aim of communication.
20. 1) Informational Style

It seems to be the most neutral as its main purpose is to convey information without expressing any
emotions or attitudes. It is the least marked kind of situationally influenced English. This kind of style is
used mostly in broadcasting, press reporting, oral representation of any information or a written text, in
formal business conversations and classroom teaching.

Among the prosodic features characteristic of this style we should mention the following:
  Low Fall/Rise with Descending Heads and High Level Head;
 stable and normal loudness;
 normal or relatively slow speed;
 mostly syntactic pauses;
 systematic and properly organised rhythm.

2) Scientific Style

It is used in lectures, scientific discussions, conferences, etc. Its purpose is to inform, to win the
attention and interest of the public, to establish a contact with the audience. As it is an intellectual and
volitional type of speech (the speaker appeals to the intellect and will of the listener) it requires some
emotional colouring. It is achieved by varying prosodic features, by the alternation of pauses, types of
heads and terminal tones, by using tempo contrasts:

 High/Low Falls and Fall-Rises with Stepping Head;

 rather high loudness;
 a large proportion of pauses that serve to bring out semantic centres;
 normal or relatively slow speed
 systematic and properly organized rhythm.

3) Declamatory Style

It is used on stage, TV screen or in class in reading aloud prose or poetry. Its aim is to appeal
simultaneously to the mind and emotions of the listener, so this style is highly emotional and expressive.
It requires special training. On the prosodic level the following features are the most common:

 falling, level nuclear tones with Low/High Level or Stepping Head;

 varied loudness;
 rather slow speed;
 properly organized and stable rhythm.

4)  Publicistic Style

This is the style of public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary
debates. Its aim is to persuade, to influence, to involve the audience into the talk and to make the
listeners take the speaker’s point of view. It is never spontaneous and is often even rehearsed. This style
is extremely emotional, mimics and gestures are widely applied.

The prosodic features are the following:

 a lot of High Falls and Fall-Rises with Descending and Ascending Heads;
 changes of loudness from fortissimo to whispering;
 rather slow speed;
 intonation groups are not short, separated with rather long mostly syntactical and emphatic
pauses;
 properly organized rhythm.

5) Conversational Style

This is the style of every-day communication between friends, relatives, well-acquainted people. It is
relaxed, characterized by the lack of planning, so it is unpredictable, there are a lot of errors, slips,
hesitations, elliptical constructions:
 falling or rising tones with Level or Falling Heads;
 normal loudness;
 varied speed;
 intonation groups are rather short separated by pauses, mostly hesitations, which can be both
silent and filled;
 irregular rhythm.