Sociology Sample

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Sociology
English Language
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International Examinations. for Cambridge International AS & A Level
Features:
COURSEBOOK
COURSEBOOK
• Written in accessible language with the international learner in mind
• Activities to help students develop practical and investigative skills
• Key terms are highlighted throughout with definitions found in the glossary Chris Livesey and Jonathan Blundell
• Students can check their progress through self-assessment questions and
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exam-style questions at the end of each chapter
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Author names
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© Cambridge University Press 2019
Chris Livesey and Jonathan Blundell
Cambridge International AS & A Level
Sociology
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Contents
Introduction iv
Syllabus coverage v
How to use this book vi
1 Socialisation and the creation of social identity 2
2 Methods of research 42
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3 The family 81
4 Education 120
5 Globalisation 159
6 Media 204
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iii
7 Religion 246
8 Preparing for assessment 284

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Bibliography 290
Index 320
Acknowledgements 00
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Introduction
This book aims to provide you with the knowledge and Chapter 3: The family. This considers theories of the
understanding to aid your learning of Sociology and to family and social change and family roles and changing
help you prepare for your AS and A Level exams. It has relationships.
been designed and written to reflect changes to the
The first two of these, Socialisation and the creation of
Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology syllabus
social identity and Methods of Research, are examined on
(9699) for examination from 2021. This book has been
Paper 1. The Family is examined on Paper 2.
designed to:
For A Level, as well as the AS Level content, there is one
• help you understand exactly what is required by the
compulsory topic and three optional topics. You will need
structure of the new syllabus in terms of content and
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to study at least two of the optional topics.
skills
• provide content clearly focused on this structure; a Chapter 4: Education (compulsory). This considers
central feature of the text is complete coverage of the education in social context and structures and processes
syllabus content. within schools.
Chapter 5: Globalisation (optional). This considers
This book can be used both for individual work and if you
globalisation and social change and the consequences of
are part of a larger teaching group.
globalisation.
Chapter 6: Media (optional). This considers ownership
Content and control of the media and media representations and
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The structure of each chapter reflects the order of the effects.
iv content of the syllabus. This allows you to track your Chapter 7: Religion (optional). This considers religion
progress through the syllabus in a logical way. and social change and religious movements.
AS Level consists of three compulsory topics, covered in Education is assessed on Paper 3, and the three optional
the first three chapters of this book. topics are assessed on Paper 4.
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Chapter 1: Socialisation and the creation of social Chapter 8 offers tips and techniques for preparing for
identity. This considers the process of learning and assessment. These range from basic revision through
socialisation, and social identity and change. assessment techniques, to timing and planning.
Chapter 2: Methods of research. This looks at the Throughout the topics, there are key concepts
range of methods available to sociologists, including the which will help you develop a deep understanding of
methods’ strengths and limitations, and the process of sociology and make links between different parts of the
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designing research. It also covers key ideas used to assess course. These are inequality and opportunity; power,
the value of different research methods, the issues raised control and resistance; social change and development;
about research design and the debate about whether socialisation, culture and identity; and structure and
sociology can and should be based on the natural human agency.
sciences.

Syllabus coverage
Syllabus reference Chapter number Coursebook section heading
Paper 1 – Socialisation, identity and methods of research
1. Socialisation and the creation of social identity
1.1 The process of learning and socialisation 1.1 The process of learning and socialisation
Chapter 1
1.2 Social control, conformity and resistance 1.2 Social control, conformity and resistance
1.3 Social identity and change 1.3 Social identity and change
2. Methods of research
2.1 Types of data, methods and research design 2.1 Types of data, methods and research design
Chapter 2
2.2 Approaches to sociological research 2.2 Approaches to sociological research
2.3 Research issues 2.3 Research issues
Paper 2 – The family
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3. Theories of the family and social change
3.1 Perspectives on the role of the family 3.1 Perspectives on the role of the family
3.2 Diversity and social change 3.2 Diversity and social change
Chapter 3
4. Family roles and changing relationships
4.1 Gender equality and experiences of family life 3.3 Gender equality and experiences of family life
4.2 Age and family life 3.4 Age and family life
Paper 3 - Education
5. Education and society
5.1 Theories about the role of education 4.1 Theories about the role of education
5.2 Education and social mobility 4.2 Education and social mobility
5.3 Influences on the curriculum 4.3 Influences on the curriculum
6. Education and inequality Chapter 4
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6.1 Intelligence and educational attainment
6.2 Social class and educational attainment
4.4 Intelligence and educational attainment
4.5 Social class and educational attainment
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6.3 Ethnicity and educational attainment 4.6 Ethnicity and educational attainment
6.4 Gender and educational attainment 4.7 Gender and educational attainment
Paper 4 – Globalisation
7. Key debates, concepts and perspectives
7.1 Perspectives on globalisation 5.1 Perspectives on globalisation
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7.2 Globalisation and identity 5.2 Globalisation and identity
7.3 Globalisation, power and politics 5.3 Globalisation, power and politics
Chapter 5
8. Contemporary issues
8.1 Globalisation, poverty and inequalities 5.4 Globalisation, poverty and inequalities
8.2 Globalisation and migration 5.5 Globalisation and migration
8.3 Globalisation and crime 5.6 Globalisation and crime
Paper 4 – Media
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9. Ownership and control of media

9.1 The traditional and the new media 6.1 The traditional and the new media
9.2 Theories of the media and influences on media content 6.2 Theories of the media and influences on media content
9.3 The impact of the new media 6.3 The impact of the new media
Chapter 6
10. Media representation and effects
10.1 Media representations of class, gender, ethnicity, and age groups 6.4 Media representations of class, gender, ethnicity, and age groups
10.2 Different models of media effects 6.5 Different models of media effects
10.3 The impact of the media on behaviour 6.6 The impact of the media on behaviour
Paper 4 – Religion
11. Religion and social order
11.1 Religion and society 7.1 Religion and society
11.2 Religion and social order 7.2 Religion and social order
11.3 Religion as a source of social change 7.3 Religion as a source of social change
Chapter 7
12. The influence of religion
12.1 The secularisation debate 7.4 The secularisation debate
12.2 Gender, feminism and religion 7.5 Gender, feminism and religion
12.3 Religion and postmodernity 7.6 Religion and postmodernity

Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology
Direct political rule has ended but the underdeveloped Dependency theori
countries remain tied to the former colonial powers through: relationship betwee
not only or always t
• indirect political rule through the support of (corrupt)
may benefit from th
How to use this book

local elites who make political and economic decisions
economic infrastru
that favour the interests of dominant nations
developing countrie
• trade agreements that give exclusive access to raw with former colonis
materials, such as oil, to TNCs access to technolog
Chapter 1 •Cambridge
aid only being provided onAS
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Sociology
underdeveloped society allows access to its internal
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investment.
Dependency theory
Socialisation
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This book contains a number of features to help you in your study.
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ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_03.indd 78 9/28/18 2:40 AM
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Cambridge International AS & A Level Sociology • attitudes or behaviour in positive ways
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ASAL_Sociology_FM.indd 6 08-Jan-19
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5:21:50 PM
Conventional analysis of the media’s impact on behaviour
Group interviews are also at risk from another type
Figure 3.11: of do women
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do more domestic labour and
thanparticipant.
Design a short questionnaire for members of your class,
‘interview effect’, which has been called ‘Groupthink’.
men?
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is particularly what Weber
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with dependent verstehen – ‘toAnalyse
children. understand How to use this book
your findings. What factors might explain the
a ‘group consensus’ rather than revealingWomen by experiencing’
whatin this situation generally or, asof
perform many Mead
the (1934) described it, the
results?
individuals really believe; individuals may notaspects
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such
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as playing with their children. Willmott (2000), however, forms: overt and covert.
argues there is less dependence on ‘traditional roles WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE?
THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST
Overt participant observation involves participating
100 when dividing up tasks in the home’. Changing family (and
in the behaviour of people who know they Technology,
are being Culture, Family: Influences on Home Life
wider social) relationships mean that domestic labour is
In what ways is conducting a focus group interview like studied. The researcher joins the group openly,
By and usually
Elizabeth Silva, Palgrave 2010
‘negotiated by every couple depending on their individual
chairing a business meeting? conducts the research with the permissionSilva
and used
cooperation
interviews and participant observation with a
circumstances’. The significant factors in deciding ‘who does
of the group (or significant members of thesmall
group).
sample of families in the United Kingdom to research
What’s the evidence? boxes highlight what’ in the important
family are timecase studiesnot
and preference, thatgender. how technology affected the domestic division of labour
you may find useful for keeping trackbeliefs
Cultural of pieces of evidence
about male and femaleand
abilities and roles in relation to gender. Homes now have more technology
may also help explain domestic labour differences. Pilcher than in the past, and many devices are marketed as ‘time
understanding their purpose.
KEY SOCIOLOGIST
saving’ and reducing effort. Silva found that the saving of
52 (1988) found that older people, unlike their younger
time was unequal between men and women. The washing
Max Weber (1864–1920) widely used. He argued
peers (counterparts), did not talk about ‘equality’ but that social life was complex so that
machine was chosen by nearly all the women in the
The German sociologist Max Weber is, withinstead
Marx thought
and it is pointless
about gender to look for singleand
roles, responsibilities causes. He is also known for
sample as the most useful piece of technology, with most
Durkheim, seen as one of the ‘founding fathers’ of modern
relationships hisways.
in traditional essayThis
‘The reflected
Protestanttheir
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’,
using it many times a week, depending on the numbers of
sociology. Much of his work develops ansocialisation in which he argued that
anti-positivistand life experiences, where men undertook capitalism developed in parts of
children. But their male partners had very different ideas
approach, rejecting the idea that there are social facts to Europe because religious beliefs encouraged people to
limited household work, save married women
money, ratherhad limited
than
about what technology was useful, and little interest in
spend it on worldly goods, and
be discovered and instead focusing on understanding the washing machines; as far as some were concerned, the
involvement in paid workthis andsaved
domestic
money labour
was wasinvested as capital
then in business.
meanings that people attach to their actions. This led to the washing machine was too complicated to use and they left
divided by gender.
social action and interpretivist approaches within sociology. This challenges the Marxist view that ideology cannot bring
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all the laundry to their wives. So the technology reinforced
Weber’s concept of ‘verstehen’ (meaningSullivan
‘empathy’) is still about social change.
Key sociologist boxes highlight et al.
important (2008) suggest that industrial
sociological figures societies
that you have a gendered division of tasks in the home and placed
experienced a ‘quiet revolution’ in conjugal roles based on further demands on women.
need to remember. a general acceptance of gender equality. Evidence for this
can be seen in:
KEY SOCIOLOGIST Functionalism
• men doing a greater share of housework and
Harriet Martineau (1802–76) women less of women, and also issues which tended toTraditional
be ignored functionalist approaches see family
The idea of ‘founding fathers’ of sociology plays down the at the time, such as race relations and development
domestic life. She in evolutionary terms. From this
• men spending more time on childcare
role of women such as Harriet Martineau, who helped shape campaigned for women’s rights and the perspective,
emancipation ofuneven gender relationships, where
• the family group becoming
slaves.more home-centred.
She thus belongs at the start of a long tradition,
males and females have separate roles characteristic
sociology today. Martineau introduced sociology to Britain
by translating Comte, and also conducted her own research involving many feminists, race theorists and others, of
while travelling around the United States. She argued that sociologists combining the study of society with advocating
the study of society must include understanding the lives change and progress towards a better society.
AASAL_Sociology_Chapter_03.indd 100 Chapter 6: Media 9/28/18 2:40 AM
Each chapter ends with a Summary, Exam-style questions and a Sample answer and vii
activity. The Summary is a brief summary of the main points in the chapter to help you revise.
Summary
You should know:
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ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_02.indd 52 28-Sep-18 3:41:15 AM
■ Trends affecting the organisation of the The new media have an impact on
■
media include: social identities and interpersonal

■ cross media ownership
Cambridge International AS &relationships.
A Level Sociology
■ digitalisation ■ Class, gender, ethnicity and age groups
■ media conglomerates
are represented in the media.
■ The media contribute to gender
Exam-style questions provide an
■ social media.
Exam-style questions
socialisation.
■ There are debates about who controls
opportunity to relate your learning Paper
■ There 4: 1have
hourbeenandmoral45 minutes
panics around
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the media.
to■the formal assessment and
There are differences between the
practise class, gender, ethnicity and age groups.
All questions on globalisation are 35-mark essay questions.
■ There is a relationship between media
writing longermedia
traditional answers.
and new media. 1 ‘Globalisation is leading to a single homogenous global culture.’ Evaluate this view.
Chapter 3: The fami
and popular culture.
■ One view is that the traditional media
2 ■ ‘There
Directiseffects
no agreement
models ofon who influence
media benefits from globalisation.’ Evaluate this view.
have been undermined by the growth
3 includestates
‘Nation the hypodermic
are unable syringe
to model.
tackle global social and environmental problems.’
of new media.
The Sample answer and activity ■ Evaluate Sample answer and activity
Indirectthis view.
effects models of media
■ Theories of the media and of influences
provide an example
on media answer to one of
content include:
influence include:
4 ‘Globalisation is improving life chances in developing countries.’ Evaluate this view.
■ the uses and gratifications model
the exam-style
■ pluralism questions, with an Set 1 Questionorganisations
5 ‘Transnational 3b answer have been successful in tackling global inequalities.’
■ the two-step
Evaluate this view. flow model
explanation
■ Marxism ofand
why that answer is
neo-Marxism 3 ‘Marriage has become less important in modern societies.’
■ the normative model
■ postmodernism. 6 ‘Global migration has more positive effects than negative ones.’ Evaluate this view.
successful, and an activity to help you (b) Using sociological material, give one argument against this view.
■ the cultural effects model.
[6]
■ The selection and presentation of news 7 ‘The new types of crime created by globalisation are difficult to239 police and prosecute.’
buildison your understanding.
influenced by a range of factors.
Having explained this view in
■ There are debates about the strengths
Evaluate this view.
an answer to 3a, you now have to give an argument against this
view.and Thelimitations
answer to of 3athese
may have included, for example, points about the increase in divorce,
models.
■ The product of media content can be 8
the ‘Globalisation involves the
increase in cohabitation universal
and spread
the growth of democracy
of alternatives to and humanand
the family rights.’ Evaluate
marriage. Here
■ There are different arguments and
understood through the concepts of is anthis view. of a good answer to 3b. Notice that the answer is clear and developed, and
example
evidence about the extent to which
mass manipulation and hegemony. uses sociological termsiswhen appropriate.
human behaviour influenced by the
■ Media content is also influenced by
media.
One argument
Sample answer and activity
against this view is that although there has been a decline in the
censorship.
number
■ There ofare
marriages, this does and
different arguments not mean marriage is no longer important. There
■ Ways in which the media influence the
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could not be
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were getting married first. Those who divorce often
to which
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marry again,
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■ agenda setting
1 ‘Globalisation is leading to a single homogenous global culture.’ Evaluate this view.
198 is■important
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and people being married for significant parts of
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theculture
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Chapter 1
Socialisation and the creation
of social identity FT
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2
Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter you will understand:
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■ The process of learning and socialisation
■ Social control, social conformity and resistance
■ Social identity and change
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Before you start

This chapter starts with questions about how it is that we become members of human groups. These include:
• How do we learn to get on with others?
• Are the ways we behave shaped more by nature or by the way we are brought up?
• How do we learn to judge what others think of us and how they will react to what we do and say?
• Are we able to affect the social reality around us?
• Think about each of these questions in relation to your own life, then share your ideas with a partner.
Reflection: How much control have you had over things that have happened in your life so far?
How much has been decided for you by others?
ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 2 08-Jan-19 4:20:48 PM

Chapter 1: Socialisation and the creation of social identity
1.1 The process of learning and • a sense of belonging and identification that involves
developing the view that ‘our’ society is different from
socialisation other societies; Indians, for example, may see themselves
Culture, roles, norms, values, beliefs, customs, as different from Pakistanis or Bangladeshis.
ideology, power and status as elements in the
social construction of reality The social construction of reality
Societies are mental constructions, therefore their reality
Defining society is socially constructed. To understand how this occurs,
While ‘a society’ is a simple concept – we all probably we need to explore the concept of culture. Culture refers
understand what is meant by Indian, Mauritian, Nigerian to a ‘way of life’ that has to be taught and learnt through
or British society – it is more difficult to define. One key primary and secondary socialisation. We can develop
feature, however, is that people see themselves as having this concept to understand how culture contributes to
something in common with others in their society and, by the social construction of reality. Cultures are ‘dynamic’
FT
extension, they consider themselves to be different from and constantly changing. All cultures have two basic
people in other societies. In this respect, different societies parts:
involve two types of space: 1 Material culture involves the physical objects
1 Physical space, in the sense of a distinctive (‘artefacts’), such as cars, phones and books that a
geographical area marked by either a physical border, society produces and that reflect cultural knowledge,
such as a river, or a non-physical border – perhaps a skills and interests.
made up line that marks where one society ends and 2 Non-material culture consists of the knowledge
another begins. and beliefs valued by a particular culture. This
2 Mental space, which separates people based on the includes religious and scientific beliefs, as well as the
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beliefs they have about the similarities they share meanings people give to material objects. Merton
with people in ‘their’ society and the differences from (1957) suggested that objects such as cars, houses 3
people in other societies. and clothes can function in two ways. Their manifest
function refers to the purpose for which they exist;
It seems straightforward to define a society in terms of clothes, for example, function to keep you warm. Their
physical space – Mauritius occupies a certain geographic latent function, however, may be hidden. For example,
area, Nigeria another and India yet another. Yet in itself
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material objects may function as status symbols –
this space is a mental construction; we are simply giving a owning something a culture feels is desirable says
particular meaning and importance to what is effectively a something about you to others.
line on a map.
Anderson (1983) describes societies as ‘imagined KEY TERMS
communities’ – things that exist only in the mind. He Customs: established and accepted cultural practices and
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points out that ‘the members of even the smallest nation behaviours.
will never know most of their fellow members, meet Culture: the way of life of a particular group of people, taught
them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives and learnt through socialisation.
the image of their communion’. Societies are mentally Socialisation: the process through which people learn the
constructed by: various forms of behaviour that go with membership of a
particular culture. Young children, for example, must learn the
• geographic borders that set physical boundaries – we roles, norms and values they will need to become full members
might, for example, consider that everyone born within of their society; these are things children do not acquire
these borders belongs to a particular society ‘naturally’.
• a system of government, which may involve, for Social construction: the idea that our perception of what
example, a royal family (monarchy), parliament and is real is created through a variety of historical and cultural
processes, rather than something that is fixed and naturally
civil service
occurring. Different societies, for example, construct male and
• common language, customs and traditions that female identities differently.
people share

Reflection: Compare your examples of objects with a

partner. Discuss to what extent your examples are the same
and how you have identified other objects. Revisit your list
and see whether there is anything you would change.
The idea that cultural objects can have different

meanings suggests that cultural interaction, especially
in contemporary societies, is both sophisticated and
complex. The more sophisticated the interaction in any
society, the more open it is to misunderstanding.
In order to make sense of cultural interaction, therefore,
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we need to create common meanings and establish
a structure within which behaviour can happen in
predictable ways. For a society to function it must
have order and stability, and for these to exist people’s
behaviour must display patterns and regularities. While
cultures may develop differently, they are all constructed
from the same basic materials: roles, values and norms.
Figure 1.1: A map of Mauritius, an island in the Indian
Ocean, which has an ethnically diverse population: about KEY TERMS
68% are Indo-Mauritian, 25% are Creole (African descent
Roles: expected patterns of behaviour expected with each
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or mixed race) with smaller numbers of Franco-Mauritian position that we hold, such as being a friend, student or teacher.
4 and Sino-Mauritians. How are societies ‘imagined
Values: beliefs or ideas that are important to the people
communities’? who hold them. A value always expresses a belief about how
something should be.
Norms: socially acceptable ways of behaving in different
roles.
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ACTIVITY 1.1
Roles
Roles are a building block of culture for two reasons:
1 They are always played in relation to other roles. For
someone to play the role of teacher, for example,
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others must play the role of student. Roles contribute

to the creation of culture because they demand
both social interactions – people have to cooperate
to successfully perform certain tasks – and that
people are aware of others. In this respect, roles help
Figure 1.2: This phone is at individuals develop the ability to form groups and
the same time an example communities. This is particularly the case when they
both of material and non- involve role-sets; that is, when the role involves a set of
material culture. different relationships with different types of people,
1 Explain how the phone can at the same time be such as a doctor’s relationship with patients, nurses,
an example both of material and non-material other doctors, patient’s relatives and so on. This adds a
culture. further dimension to the cultural framework because it
2 Identify other objects to which this also applies. locks people into a range of relationships, each with its
own routines and responsibilities.

2 Every role has a name (or label). This name identifies

a particular role and carries with it a sense of how
people are expected to behave in any situation.
Values
These common expectations provide a sense of order and
predictability because role play is guided by behavioural
rules in two ways:
1 All roles have a prescribed aspect based on beliefs
about how people should behave. Playing a role is
guided (governed) by values that provide general
behavioural guidelines – a teacher should teach their
students, a parent should care for their child and so on. Figure 1.3: How do different teachers interpret their roles
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2 Values provide only broad guidance for role behaviour. differently?
For example, it is understood that someone playing
the role of teacher should teach, but values do not tell Beliefs
them how to play this role. The specific behavioural Roles, values and norms provide an important framework
guides that tell people how to successfully play a role within which relationships can be ordered and made
are known as norms. mainly predictable. A further layer of cultural structuring
involves beliefs. These are the important, deep-rooted
Norms ideas that shape our values and are, in some respects,
Norms are specific rules showing how people should shaped by them. While all values express a belief, beliefs
act in a particular situation (whereas values give only a do not necessarily express a value. They are more general
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general idea). Norms, therefore, are rules used to perform behavioural guidelines that include ideas, opinions,
5
roles predictably and acceptably. This is important, views and attitudes. These may, or may not, be true;
according to Merton (1938), because without order and what matters is that they are believed to be true. Beliefs
predictability, behaviour becomes risky and confusing. in contemporary societies are many and varied, but they
He used the term anomie to describe a condition where perform a significant structuring role when combined with
people who fail to understand the norms operating in ideologies, which are discussed later in the chapter.
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a particular situation react in a range of ways – from
confusion, through anger to fear. The importance of socialisation in influencing
human behaviour, including the nurture
KEY TERM
versus nature debate
Anomie: a situation in which people are unable to predict the Socialisation is a process that describes how we are taught
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behaviour of others because the system of norms and values is

the behavioural rules we need to become both a member
not being followed.
of a particular society/culture and an able social actor.
Goffman (1959) argues that norms are more open to Biology, rather than culture, may influence some of the
interpretation and negotiation than either roles or values. ways people behave. Like all animal species, humans
This means that they can quickly adapt to changes in seem to be programmed by their genes to some extent, for
the social environment. There are many ways to perform example, there seem to be ‘drives’ for procreation and for
a teaching role, depending on a range of personal and self-preservation. Genetics suggests that behaviour may
cultural factors, including the behaviour of those in the be guided by instincts based on biological instructions that
teacher’s role-set. Some teachers interpret their role can be seen as part of ‘human nature’.
as meaning that they need to be strict; others adopt a Instincts are fixed human features. These are things we
more friendly approach. However, these interpretations are born knowing and our cultural environment plays
can change; even the strictest teacher may relax their little or no role in the development of these instincts,
approach at certain times. for example many females have a ‘mothering instinct’.

A weaker expression of this idea is that people are born to by her parents since infancy. She was malnourished,
with certain capabilities that are then put into practice abused, unloved, bereft of any toys or companionship’.
through environmental experiences. ‘Nature’ gives us When Genie was found, ‘she could not stand erect … she
strong hints about behavioural rules, but people are free was unable to speak: she could only whimper’.
to ignore those hints. If women have greater child-caring
Feral children are sociologically significant for two
capabilities than men, then it makes genetic sense for
main reasons. First, when children are raised without
them to take on a caring role within a family. However,
human contact they fail to show the social and physical
this is not something their genes force them to do. One
development we would expect from an ordinary raised
way to test whether nature, in the form of instincts, or
child – for example, walking upright, talking, using a knife
nurture, in the form of socialisation, is the more important
and fork. Children raised by animals behave as the animals
factor is to take advantage of a naturally occurring form
do, suggesting that they learn by imitation. Second, if
of experimentation – the study of unsocialised or feral
human behaviour is instinctive it is not clear why children
children.
such as Genie should develop so differently from children
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raised with human contact. We would also expect that,
Feral children
once returned to human society, feral children would
Feral children have missed out on primary socialisation
quickly pick up normal human behaviours. This, however,
by humans. Examples attract a lot of media attention, but
is not the case, suggesting that if children miss out on
in most cases the evidence is very unclear (for example,
socialisation by humans at an early stage in their life this
it is usually uncertain how long the child was away from
cannot be corrected later.
people) and some, often noted, cases have been proved
fake. Feral children can be raised by animals or survive on Further evidence for the significance of socialisation is
their own. the fact that different cultures develop different ways
of doing things. If human behaviours were governed
Evidence of human infants raised by animals is rare and
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not always reliable. One recent example is Saturday
by instinct, we would expect there to be few, if any,
6 differences between societies. In fact, of course, there
Mthiyane, who was discovered in 1987, aged five, living
are huge variations between cultures, Sometimes, these
with a pack of monkeys in South Africa and who years
cultural differences are relatively trivial. Billikopf (1999)
later still behaved in ways associated with monkeys rather
discovered through his own experience that ‘in Russia,
than humans. However, evidence of children raised with
when a man peels a banana for a lady it means he
little, or no, human contact is more common. A well-
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has a romantic interest in her’. At other times, cultural
documented example is ‘Genie’, a 13-year-old Californian
differences are more fundamental. Wojtczak (2009)
girl discovered in 1970. Pines (1997) notes that Genie had
argues that in Victorian Britain most women ‘lived in a
been ‘isolated in a small room and had not been spoken
state little better than slavery’. As she notes: ‘women’s
sole purpose was to marry and reproduce.’ This is not a
situation we would recognise in British society today. If
human behaviour was instinctive, it would be much the
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same, in any place or time.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Suggest ways in which feral children can be used to test

the influence of nature or nurture on human behaviour.
Reflection: Consider the ‘Think like a sociologist’ box

on page 7 and then come back to this activity. Looking at it
again, would you define the problems in the same way, or is
Figure 1.4: Dani (above), often described as a feral child there anything you would do differently?
because she was severely neglected for years. How do feral
children demonstrate the importance of socialisation?

E THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST

The presentation of self
If the social context of an act changes both its meaning
Thinking about what you have learnt about feral children and how people react, it follows that an awareness of self
and the importance of primary socialisation, how would is constructed and developed socially. Goffman (1959)
this knowledge and understanding be useful to people argues that who we believe ourselves to be – our sense
working with children, such as nannies and nursery of identity – is also constructed socially through how we
teachers? present ourselves to others.
Goffman proposed a model of self and identity in
The ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ which he described social life as a series of dramatic
Basic human skills have to be taught and learnt. The episodes. People are actors. Sometimes, they write
symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead (1934) and speak their own lines – this is their personal
argued that the same was true of more advanced identity. Sometimes, they follow lines that are written
social skills. He claimed that the social context in which
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for them – the external influences that inform how
behaviour occurs conditions how people behave. While people behave in particular situations and roles. For
self-awareness – the ability to see ourselves as others see example, because we understand how our society
us and react accordingly – is often seen as an instinctive defines masculinity and femininity, we know how we are
human skill, Mead argued that it is in fact learnt. It involves expected to behave if we are male or female. We can also
developing a concept of Self and this is what sets humans work out how others will react to our behaviour; we can
apart from animals. For Mead, ‘the Self’ (an awareness of see ourselves as others do and adjust our behaviour so
who we are) has two related aspects: as to try to make the impression on them that we want
• an ‘I’ aspect based around our opinion of ourselves as to achieve.
a whole. We each respond to the behaviour of others The idea of creating an impression is also significant
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as an ‘I’. Mead called this the ‘unsocialised self’. in relation to how we present ourselves in different
• a ‘Me’ aspect that consists of an awareness of how situations. Goffman suggests that when we adopt a 7
others expect us to behave in a given situation. Mead particular identity, we ‘perform’ to others in order to
called this the ‘social self’ because it develops through ‘manage’ the impression they have of us. Identity
socialisation. performance, therefore, is about achieving a desired
result: when you want to create a favourable impression
We can illustrate these ideas in the following way. If you
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on someone, you ‘act’ in ways you believe they will like.
accidentally put your hand in a fire, the ‘I’ is expressed by For example, if you want to be seen as a good Sociology
how you react to the pain. The ‘Me’, however, specifically student, you could carry around a textbook and a full
conditions how you choose to express that pain; your folder of notes.
reaction will be conditioned by factors such as:
Fifty years before Goffman, Cooley (1909) suggested that
• who you are – whether you are adult or child, male or in the majority of social encounters other people are used
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female and so on as a looking-glass self. They are like mirrors reflecting our
• where you are – alone at home or in a public place self as others see us; when we ‘look into the mirror’ of how
• who you are with – such as family, friends or strangers. others behave towards us, we see reflected an image of
the person they think we are.
If you are a young child, for example, your reaction to being
The presentation of self always involves:
burnt may be to cry. If you are a young man, you may feel
that crying is not a socially acceptable reaction – so you may • The importance of interpretation: identities are
swear loudly instead. Swearing loudly may be acceptable broad social categories whose meaning differs both
if you are at home by yourself, but may not be acceptable historically and across different cultures.
if you are fixing a stranger’s fire as part of your job. Similarly, if • The significance of negotiation. Identities are always
you had been messing around with friends when you burnt open to discussion; what it means to be male, female,
your hand, their reaction may be to laugh and make fun young, old and so on, is constantly changing as people
of your pain. Laughter would though not be an appropriate ‘push the negotiated boundaries’ of these identities.
reaction if it was your child who had burnt their hand.

KEY SOCIOLOGISTS
Erving Goffman (1922–82) most notably participant observation as an assistant

The Canadian-American social psychologist, Erving in a mental institution, published as Asylums: Essays on
Goffman, built on the earlier work of Mead, Cooley and the Condition of the Social Situation of Mental Patients
others, developing theories of social interaction. He and Other Inmates. His other best-known books are The
developed the dramaturgical approach to studying Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life, Stigma and Gender
interaction, exploring the ways in which individuals Advertisements. His daughter Alice is also a sociologist,
perform actions in a similar way to performers in a play. known for her ethnographic work On the Run: Fugitive Life
He was interested in everyday life and, as well as his in an American City, about low-income African-American
theoretical work, he carried out ethnographic research, communities.
E For example, he believed that men and women are
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THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST
biologically programmed with different traits that lead
Try to extend Goffman’s ideas about social life being like them to perform different cultural roles:
acting in a play. Think about stage and backstage areas, • Women are passive, nurturing and caring, which makes
being off stage, other members of the cast, who the
them best suited to child-rearing.
audience is and so on.
• Male traits of aggression best suit them to a ‘providing
role’ that translates into paid work in contemporary
ACTIVITY 1.3 societies.
With a partner, suggest ways that you try to manage the These arguments influenced sociology in, for example,
impression people have of you. How can this impression the work of functionalist sociologists such as Parsons
be negotiated?
A (1959a). He argued that in most societies, family roles
8 are organised to reflect the belief that women play an
expressive role – that of caring for others. Men, however,
play an instrumental role – with a focus on providing
Reflection: Think about who you have talked to this for the family. Both of these roles are based, in part, on
week – have you modified your behaviour with them? If you evolutionary biological principles.
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had done something differently would it have changed your
interaction with them?
While males and females can choose not to take these
roles, Parsons believed, over-riding the biogrammar,
behaviour that opposes this biological instinct is seen as a
Alternatives less efficient way of organising human cultural relationships.
Not all scientific disciplines place the same emphasis So, for example, men can take on the expressive role and
women the instrumental role, but this is likely to cause
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on socialisation as sociology does when explaining how

individuals become competent social actors. For example, social problems because it is not making the best use of the
biological ideas about evolution have sometimes been different capabilities of males and females.
used to explain social development. These ideas range Evolutionary psychology explains contemporary
from relatively simple forms of ‘social Darwinism’, based psychological and social traits in terms of the general
on the idea that social life simply involves ‘the survival principles of natural selection: those behaviours that are
of the fittest’, to the more sophisticated arguments of evolutionarily successful are selected and reproduced. In
sociobiology. In these, biological principles of natural this way, various forms of social behaviour, such as family
selection and evolution are applied to the ‘human animal’ development and gender roles, can be explained as
to produce what Wilson (1979) argued is a ‘biological basis’ evolutionary adaptations occurring over many centuries.
for all human behaviour. He claimed that although human They represent successful adaptations to problems common
behaviour is not genetically determined, it is strongly to all human societies, such as how to raise children while
influenced by ‘biological programming’ or ‘biogrammars’. also providing the things family members need for survival.
Wilson believed that these ‘biogrammars’ suggest Psychology is, however, a diverse field and there are
that humans are likely to behave in particular©ways. manyPress
Cambridge University different explanations for human development.
2019

These range from those focused on genetics (such as culture. We do not just need to learn general
evolutionary psychology), through disciplines such as human behaviours, we must also learn about social
neuropsychology, to social psychological approaches relationships, how to play roles and so on.
broadly similar to the interactionist theories found in the 2 Secondary socialisation involves secondary groups
works of Mead and Goffman. and is characterised, according to Berger and
Social psychology places greater stress on how Luckmann (1967), by ‘a sense of detachment from the
environmental factors, such as family and work ones teaching socialisation’. Secondary socialisations
relationships, affect the development of genetic or are situations in which we do not necessarily have
psychological predispositions. Meins et al. (2002) noted close, personal contacts with those doing the
that although there exists a genetic instinct for babies to socialising. Parsons (1959a) argued that one of the
become attached to their primary care-giver, this can be main purposes of secondary socialisation is to ‘liberate
affected by environmental factors. The most important the individual from a dependence on the primary
of these is the ability of the care-giver to recognise and attachments and relationships formed within the
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understand the needs of the child. family group’. In contemporary societies, where the
majority of people we meet are strangers, it would
ACTIVITY 1.4 be impossible and undesirable to treat them in the
same way that we treat people we love or know well.
Make a list of anything you think might be instinctive
This is why we develop instrumental relationships –
human behaviour (such as eating, sleeping, crime,
childcare and so on). Remove an item from the list if
those based on what people can do for us, or what we
people have a choice about whether or not to do it (such can do for them, in particular situations. Berger and
as crime) or how and when we do it (such as eating). What Luckmann suggest that while primary socialisation
do the remaining items on your list tell you about the involves ‘emotionally charged identification’ with
influence of instincts and culture on human behaviour? people such as our parents, secondary socialisation
A is characterised by ‘formality and anonymity’. You do
not, for example, treat a stranger who asks you for 9
directions as your closest friend.
Reflection: Compare your list with a partner's to see
whether you have the same remaining items. Looking at
ACTIVITY 1.5
your list, do you think your own personal experience or
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unconscious bias has affected your judgement?
Identify differences between primary and secondary
socialisation. Why does primary socialisation have to take
place before secondary socialisation?
Agencies of socialisation and social control,
including family, education, peer-group,
media and religion
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The socialisation process takes two main forms:

1 Primary socialisation occurs mainly within the
family and is the first stage of socialisation. This
type of socialisation is essential to the development
of behaviours we recognise as fundamentally
human, such as learning language. The first primary
relationship we form is usually with our parents. This
is followed by primary attachments to other family
members, people of our own age (friends) and,
subsequently, to other adults such as work colleagues.
Primary socialisation is necessary because human
infants need other people in order to develop both Figure 1.5: How does requiring people to dress identically
as human beings and as members of a particular contribute to their socialisation?

Social control
The process of socialisation brings order, stability and
predictability to people’s behaviour. If a child is socialised
into a perceived ‘right’ way of doing something, such
as eating with a knife and fork, there must also be a
perceived ‘wrong’ or deviant way (in this example perhaps
eating with their fingers), which should be discouraged.
Socialisation, therefore, is also a form of social control
– it involves limiting the range of behaviours open to
individuals. Social control is linked to the idea that human
behaviour involves a life-long process of rule-learning,
built on sanctions – the things we do to make people
conform. The agencies of socialisation described below
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are also agencies of social control. Figure 1.6: Within a family, how do children play their roles
differently from adults?
Agencies of socialisation
and sleep, and definitions of acceptable behaviour are
We can look at selected agencies of socialisation in terms
normally taught within the family. Sanctions are mainly
of the roles, values and norms they try to teach and the
informal, with positive sanctions involving things such as:
sanctions they set/impose.
• facial expressions (for example, smiling)
Primary socialisation • verbal approval/reinforcement (‘good boy/girl’)
Family: Although there are only a small number of family • physical rewards (such as gifts).
roles, these tend to be played out over long periods and
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involve complex forms of role development, especially in Negative sanctions are similarly wide-ranging – from
10 showing disapproval through language (such as shouting)
societies that allow divorce and remarriage. Adults may
have to learn roles ranging from husband/wife to parent/ to physical punishment.
step-parent. Child development also involves a range of
roles: baby, infant, child, teenager and, eventually perhaps, KEY TERMS
an adult with children of their own.
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Social control: ways in which members of society are made
The ability to develop roles within the context of a to conform to norms and values.
group mainly governed by relationships based on Sanctions: ways of rewarding or punishing acceptable
love, responsibility and duty, means that we can make or unacceptable behaviour; usually used in the sense of
punishments (negative sanctions).
mistakes and learn lessons as we go without causing
Agencies of socialisation/social control: The social
too much harm. Mead refers to parents as significant
institutions and groups, such as family and the media, which
others. They shape both our basic values, such as how
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influence behaviour by providing guidance, examples and

to address adults, and our moral values, for example our sanctions.
understanding of the difference between right and wrong. Family: a social institution comprising a group of people
Basic norms, such as how to address family members linked by kinship ties.
(for example, ‘Mum’, ‘Dad’), when, where and how to eat
KEY SOCIOLOGISTS
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) of notes from his lectures, records of courses he
Mead can be seen as the ‘forgotten’ father of sociology; taught and unpublished papers. He was interested in
he developed the symbolic interactionist approach social action and the micro scale, with his work often
which became the alternative tradition within sociology to was seen as social psychology rather than sociology. He
the structural approaches of functionalism and Marxism. developed the idea of the self as made up of the ‘me’,
He did not publish any books. His ideas were spread after based on how the individual understands they are seen
his death when some of his students at the University of by the ‘generalised other’ and the ‘I’, based on the
Chicago in the USA put together several volumes made up individual’s impulses.

Functionalists often see primary socialisation as a one-

way process that passes from adults to children. However,
socialisation involves more than an unquestioning
acceptance of the behaviours we learn within the
family group. Although children are socialised by being
encouraged to copy behaviour, they are also actively
involved in negotiating their socialisation. For example,
children do not always obey their parents; they may even
choose not to obey as part of a test of the limits of social
control. Children may also receive different socialisation
messages: a relative may reward behaviour that a parent
would punish. Children have to learn that the same
behaviour may receive different reactions from different
FT
people in different situations. Faced with a new situation, Figure 1.7: How do your friends influence your behaviour?
they need to be able to judge what the reactions are likely
to be. We play a range of peer-related roles, depending on our
Peers: Peer-groups are made up of people of a similar age group and situation. ‘Friend’, for example, expresses
age, for example, teenagers. They can be considered very personal role play, whereas at school or work we
primary agencies of socialisation because we usually may have a variety of people we don’t know very well
choose friends of a similar age, and personal interaction (acquaintances). In the workplace, too, we are likely to
with them influences our behaviour – from how we dress play the role of colleague to at least some of our peers.
and talk to the things we love or hate. Peer-groups can Similarly, the values we are taught within a friendship or
also be secondary agencies because they may be used peer-group vary with age and circumstances. However,
A
as a reference group – what Hughes et al. (2002) call ‘the we will probably carry the value of friendship with us
models we use for appraising and shaping our attitudes, throughout our lives. 11
feelings and actions’. In the recent past, this has included Peer-group norms often relate to ideas about age-
youth sub-cultures such as hippies and punks. Although appropriate behaviour. Young children, for example, are
most people do not interact with groups as specific as usually not permitted by law to smoke cigarettes or to buy
this, we all have reference groups of people we identify alcohol. Also, it is generally not considered age-appropriate
R
with and whose appearance and behaviour we model our for the elderly to take part in extreme sports or wear clothes
own on. Our behaviour may be influenced by things such designed for younger people. Peer-group sanctions, or social
as the fashions and the general behaviour of people our sanctions, are generally informal and include things such as
own age or status. This is an example of peer pressure as a disapproving looks and negative comments. This is mainly
form of social control. because peer-group norms vary considerably, and the same
behaviour may result in different responses depending on
D
the situation. Swearing at a grandparent will probably be met

KEY TERM
with disapproval; swearing among friends may be perfectly
Marxism: political, sociological and economic school of acceptable. Approving gestures and language, laughing at
thought based on the work of Karl Marx. your jokes and seeking out your company may represent
Peers: People of similar status, and usually age, with whom a positive sanctions. Refusing to speak to someone, rejecting
person has frequent contact. friendship or engaging in physical violence are negative
Sub-cultures: a culture within a larger culture. Sub-cultures sanctions associated with peer-group.
take many forms, such as religious groups, fans of a particular
singer or actor, school gangs and so on. Sub-cultures usually Secondary socialisation
develop their own norms and values, although these do not
necessarily conflict with those of the wider culture within Agencies of secondary socialisation include schools,
which they exist. religious organisations and the media. In some cases,
such as education, we are in daily contact with other

members of the group without ever developing a primary Like any institution, schools involve a range of roles, such
attachment to them. In other examples, such as admiring as teacher and student, which are themselves linked to a
a particular actor or musician, we may never meet the range of related roles called a role-set. This further extends
rest of the group, yet we might be influenced by their the idea of cultural relationships because we become fixed
behaviour in several ways. into a range of expected behaviours. A student, for example,
plays this role in relation to the roles that others are playing
Education: Education involves two kinds of curriculum:
in the school environment:
• the formal curriculum that specifies the subjects,
• other students in their class
knowledge and skills that children are explicitly taught
in school • students of different ages
• a hidden curriculum: the things we learn from the • their subject teachers
experience of attending school, such as how to deal • teachers of other subjects
with strangers, listen to adult authority and have • school buildings’ staff such as caretakers
FT
respect for the system.
• administration staff
School is also a place where we ‘learn to limit our • parent(s)/guardian(s).
individual desires’ – to think about the needs of others
rather than our own. School may be one of the first Schools teach a range of values. These range from
times that children are separated from their parent(s) the idea that students should work hard to achieve
for any length of time. It provides both opportunities (to qualifications, to ideas about individual competition for
demonstrate talents to a wider, non-family, audience) and academic rewards, teamwork, conformity to authority
challenges – the need to learn, for example, how to deal (not questioning what is being learnt and why it is
with people who are not family and with authority figures necessary to learn it) and achievement on the basis of
such as teachers. merit. Sometimes values are openly taught (for example,
A an assembly may be all about the importance of helping
12 Parsons (1959a) argued that school plays a particularly others, or why bullying is wrong), but more often they
significant role in secondary socialisation for two reasons: are present in the way that schools and education are
1 It ‘emancipates the child from primary attachment’ to organised.
their family. It moves children away from the affective In many education systems, for example, one hidden value
relationships found in the family and introduces them is that academic ability, such as a talent for writing essays,
R
to the instrumental relationships they will meet in is more highly valued than work-related ability, such as
adult life. It is in effect a bridge between the family bricklaying. Another value is individual achievement;
home and the wider social world. working with others may be valued in the workplace but in
2 It allows children to ‘internalise a level of society’s school may be seen as ‘copying’ and wrong. Many of these
values and norms that is a step higher than those values relate not just to education but also to the wider
learnt within families’. Through interaction with social world.
D
‘strangers’ in the educational system, a child begins

From a Marxist perspective, Bowles and Gintis (2002) argue
to adopt wider social values into their personal value
that there is a correspondence between school norms and
system. This process loosens the hold of primary
workplace norms: Schools prepare students for adult work
groups and allows children to gradually mix into adult
by socialising them into values and norms that will make
society, something that also promotes social solidarity
them uncomplaining workers. This correspondence theory
and value consensus.
is shown through school norms such as:
KEY TERM • the daily need for attendance

• always being in the place you are supposed to be at
Consensus: general agreement across a society on a set
certain times
of values; seen by functionalists as essential for society to
be stable. • the right of those in authority to give orders that must
be obeyed.

These ideas are backed up by positive sanctions that There is also some evidence for indirect long-term effects,
include the gaining of grades, qualifications and prizes, in that people come to accept as ‘natural’ values or other
as well as more personal things such as praise and aspects of social life that are socially constructed:
encouragement. On the negative side, schools use
• consumerism – advertising, and much other media
punishments: detentions, suspensions and exclusions.
content, takes as natural the active and ever-increasing
Failure to achieve qualifications or gaining a reputation for
pursuit of goods and services that define lifestyles and
being unintelligent also function as negative sanctions.
identities in contemporary capitalist societies
These sanctions prepare children for sanctions at work –
from bonuses for good work to the threat of being sacked. • fear – experience of negative and violent media leads
some people to overestimate things such as the extent
of crime or their chances of being a victim of terrorism
ACTIVITY 1.6
or of a disaster
Suggest two further examples of the connection between • agenda setting – Philo et al. (1982) argue that the
FT
school and work. media determine how something will be debated; in
Are there any ways in which school may not help prepare the UK, for example, immigration is discussed in the
people for the world of work? media mainly in terms of numbers of immigrants, with
an assumption that high numbers are bad. This gets
in the way of consideration of the qualitative effects of
Mass media: The media are slightly unusual secondary
immigration on British society.
agencies because our relationship with it is impersonal;
we are unlikely to meet those doing the socialising. While KEY TERM
there is little evidence that the media have a direct, long-
term effect on behaviour, there is stronger evidence of Consumerism: repeated experience of wealthy lifestyles and
short-term effects. Advertising, for example, aims to make desirable consumer goods that suggests that ‘happiness’ is
A
short-term changes in behaviour by encouraging people
something that can bought.
to try different consumer products. Potter (2003) suggests 13

that short-term effects include: The extent to which the media can enforce values is
uncertain. However, the media are undoubtedly influential
• imitation, such as copying behaviour seen on television
in supporting or weakening certain values. It has a loud
• desensitisation – the idea that constant and repeated voice in debates over nationality (for example, what it
R
experience of something, such as violence or poverty, means to be ‘Peruvian’ or ‘Chinese’). It also promotes
gradually lowers our emotional reaction certain values over others – for example, many English
• learning, in which we are introduced to new ideas and newspapers take an ‘anti-European Union’ stance. Potter
places. suggests that media influence comes about through
a process of habituation: the more people experience
certain images and ideas, the more likely it is that they
D
will add them to their personal value systems. In relation

to norms, the media have what Durkheim (1912) called
a ‘boundary-marking function’. It promotes acceptable
and unacceptable forms of behaviour to strengthen
perceptions of expected behaviours. The media may
try to preserve particular ways of behaving, through
campaigns to ‘save the family’, for example, but they may
also promote changes in behaviour, such as campaigns
against racism. To strengthen (reinforce) their message,
the media use a range of sanctions. Positive sanctions
involve the use of praise, positive pictures and uncritical
features. Negative sanctions might include being pictured
Figure 1.8: Does repeated experience of images of violence, in a negative pose, critical articles or behaviour being
poverty or racism reduce our reaction to such issues? publicly criticised.

E THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST KEY TERM
Young people increasingly use social media apps. In what Patriarchy: male-dominated unit or society.
ways can social media be an agency of socialisation, or
of social control? Religions apply positive sanctions on their followers in
different ways:
Religion: Whether or not we see ourselves as ‘religious’,
• Hinduism involves a belief in reincarnation (when you
religion plays a significant role in the general socialisation
die you are reborn into a new life) based on how well
process in many societies, particularly in relation to
you observed religious laws in your previous life; the
ceremonial functions, such as marriages and funerals. It
reward for good behaviour in one lifetime is rebirth into
can also be argued that important moral values – very
a higher social position.
strong beliefs about how people should behave – are
influenced by religious values. For example, several of the • Ideas of sin in Christian religions can also be significant
FT
Ten Commandments in the Christian religion are reflected features of religious control, because the believer
in legal systems around the world. The unacceptability of is encouraged to live a life free of sin in the hope of
some crimes, such as theft and murder, is emphasised in rewards in heaven.
world religions. Negative sanctions are also many and varied. Catholicism,
for example, has the sanction of excommunication
Religious values are powerful forces for those who believe.
(exclusion from the church), whereas some forms of Islam
Religion can be regarded as a ‘design for living’ – a force
specify a range of punishments for those who break
that provides help and guidance to live a life as God
Shari’ah law. Such punishments may also be applied to
wishes, but religious beliefs and values can also be a
‘non-believers’ in theocratic societies, such as Iran, where
source of conflict:
government is dominated by religious authorities.
A
• between religions, such as the history of conflict
14 between Christians and Muslims dating back to the ACTIVITY 1.7
11th century
• within the same religion: Northern Ireland, for example, Draw a spider diagram that describes any role you play.
Try to illustrate its role-set.
has experienced major conflicts between Protestant
and Catholic Christians over the past 50 years. What does this diagram tell you about how you present
R
yourself to society or a particular social group? What types
Religious values are frequently displayed through styles of of influence are making you take on the role, and why?
dress, such as the Muslim hijab or Sikh turban, something See an example below.
that indicates both religiosity (a measure of people’s
commitment to religion) and ethnic identity. Parent(s)/ Administrative
guardian(s) staff
Many of the world’s major religions, from Christianity to
D
Islam, have been said to promote patriarchy through both

their general organisation (many religions have an entirely
Other pupils Caretaking
male leadership) and the gender roles and values they A pupil plays staff
in class their role in
encourage. However, they also promote concepts of love
relation to:
and care that are attractive to some women, and can be
seen as providing women with a sense of shelter and safety
in a threatening world and belonging. Swatos (1998) argues Pupils of Other
different ages teachers
that religions are going through important changes that
are making them more ‘female friendly’. For example, God Subject
is increasingly shown as loving and consoling rather than teachers
as authoritarian and judgemental, and clergy are seen as

‘helping professionals’ rather than as ‘representatives of Figure 1.9
God’s justice’.

Note
Pages 15‐38 omitted in sample only.
Summary
You should know:
The process of learning and socialisation ■ Factors explaining why individuals conform to social
■ Culture, roles, norms, values, beliefs, customs, expectations include sanctions, social pressure, self-
ideology, power and status are elements in the social interest and social exchange.
construction of reality. ■ The mechanisms through which order is maintained
■ Socialisation is important in influencing human include power, ideology, force and consensus.
behaviour. ■ Sociologists explain deviance and non-conformity
■ There is a debate about the roles of nature and by reference to subcultures, under-socialisation,
nurture in influencing human behaviour. marginalisation, cultural deprivation and social
FT
■ Agencies of socialisation and social control include
resistance.
family, education, peer-group, media and religion. Social identity and change
Social control, conformity and resistance ■ Social class, gender, ethnicity and age are elements in
■ Structure and agency shape the relationship between the construction of social identity.
the individual and society. ■ Social class, gender, ethnicity and age identities may
■ There are differences between structuralist and

be changing due to globalisation, increased choice
interactionist views. and the creation of new/hybrid identities.
A
39
R
D

Exam-style questions
Choose one set of questions to answer in the time available.
Set 1
1 ‘Fixed gender roles are important for making societies stable’.
a Explain this view. [10]
b Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]
2 Evaluate the view that class identities are no longer as important as they
used to be. [26]
Set 2
FT
1 ‘Globalisation is changing gendered identities’.
2 Evaluate the view that nature is more important than nurture in shaping human
behaviour. [26]
Set 3
1 ‘Globalisation is giving people greater choice over their identities’.
A a Explain this view. [10]
40
2 Evaluate the view that families are the most important influence on an
individual’s identity. [26]
Set 4
R
1 ‘Nature is more important than nurture in explaining human behaviour’.
2 Evaluate the view that age identities are changing. [26]
D

Sample answer and activity

Set 1
1 Fixed gender roles are important for making societies stable.
You should make at least two clear and developed points in your answer.
Here is an example of a developed point:
The view that the family is the most important agency of social control is based on
the fact that socialisation within the family when a child is very young is the most
important stage of socialisation, referred to as primary socialisation. This is when
the child, at an impressionable age, learns and internalises the main norms and
FT
values of their society from their parents and others in their immediate family.
Parents are important in this because of the strong bond with their children. This
includes learning the limits of acceptable behaviour, and so socialisation also is
bound to involve social control. This learning is done in a variety of informal ways,
including imitation (when the child copies the behaviour of a parent, who is acting as a
role model), comments and smiles by parents that reinforce approved behaviour.
Point 1: Notice that this answer has already included a number of key sociological terms,
such as primary socialisation, internalises, social control and imitation. It is important to
demonstrate your sociological knowledge and understanding by using key terms whenever
possible.
A
Point 2: This point could be improved by including some sociological theory. In this case, 41
functionalism is the obvious choice, but both Marxists and feminists would have different
views on the norms and values transmitted during primary socialisation. This opens up
possibilities analysis and evaluation.
R
ACTIVITY 1.17
Now continue this answer by writing about the sanctions that can be used within families. Be
sure to include a range of sanctions, and to explain why these may be successful in ensuring
children conform to the norms and values of their family and of wider society.
D

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Cambridge IGCSE®

Cambridge International AS & A Level

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

notice to teachers in the uk

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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1 Socialisation and the creation of social identity 2

8 Preparing for assessment 284

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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© Cambridge University Press 2019

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9. Ownership and control of media

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How to use this book

media include: social identities and interpersonal

Before you start

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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© Cambridge University Press 2019

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Reflection: Compare your examples of objects with a

The idea that cultural objects can have different

others must play the role of student. Roles contribute

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 4 08-Jan-19 4:20:51 PM

2 Every role has a name (or label). This name identifies

behaviour of others because the system of norms and values is

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 5 08-Jan-19 4:20:51 PM

same, in any place or time.

Suggest ways in which feral children can be used to test

Reflection: Consider the ‘Think like a sociologist’ box

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E THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 7 08-Jan-19 4:20:51 PM

Erving Goffman (1922–82) most notably participant observation as an assistant

E For example, he believed that men and women are

on socialisation as sociology does when explaining how

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 8 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

The socialisation process takes two main forms:

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 9 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

influence behaviour by providing guidance, examples and

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 10 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

Functionalists often see primary socialisation as a one-

the situation. Swearing at a grandparent will probably be met

© Cambridge University Press 2019

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 11 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

‘strangers’ in the educational system, a child begins

KEY TERM • the daily need for attendance

© Cambridge University Press 2019

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 12 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

to try different consumer products. Potter (2003) suggests 13

will add them to their personal value systems. In relation

ASAL_Sociology_Chapter_01.indd 13 08-Jan-19 4:20:52 PM

E THINK LIKE A SOCIOLOGIST KEY TERM

Islam, have been said to promote patriarchy through both

as authoritarian and judgemental, and clergy are seen as

© Cambridge University Press 2019

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1 Socialisation and the creation of social identity 2