Name: Abhijit Dilip Mahale

PRN no.: 10303320181129310018

ASSIGNMENT– 1
UNIT 2
Q. 1 Discuss the armature winding of AC machines, their features and different types of
winding?
Ans:
Armature windings of AC machine –
In ac machines, the stator has an ac armature winding in which the alternating emf is induced.
The winding armature of a dc machine is closed and the closed winding are always double
layer. The armature used for armature of ac machine is open.
Open layer can be either single layer or double layer. The stator winding consists of single
turn or multi turn coils, arranged in slots and connected properly so as to obtained the
required phase grouping. The ac windings must be properly arranged, so that the emf induced
in all the phases are equal in magnitude and frequency. The emf of all the phase of ac
2Π
machine must have identical wave-shaped and displaced in time phase by .
m
In ac machine the wave shaped of the generated emf depends upon the flux distribution in the
air-gap of a machine. In ac winding the ends of the first coil and last coil or the beginning of
the first coil and the ending coil of the last coil is kept open, so that is known as open coil
winding.

Types of AC armature windings

There are different types of armature windings used in ac machines.
1. Single layer and double layer winding
2. Full pitch and short pitch windings
3. Concentrated and distributed windings

1) Single layer and double layer winding:

If a slot consists of only one coil side, windings is said to be a single layer. This is shown in
fig(a). while there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top the
winding is called double layer as shown in fig(b). A lot of space gets wasted in single layer
hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred

2) Full pitch and short pitch windings:

One pole pitch is 180 ̊ electrical. The value of ‘n’ slots per pole indicates how many slots are
contributing 180 ̊ electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is connected to a coil
Side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot, the windings is
said to be Full pitch winding.
e.g. – in 2 poles, 18 slots alternator the pole pitch is n =18/2 = 9 slots. So if coil side in a slot
no. 1 is connected to the coil side in slot no. 10 such that two slots no. 1 & 10 are one pole
pitch or n slots or 180 ̊ electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil.

The distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil is called coil
span.
If coil span is ‘n’ slots or 180 ̊ electrical the coil is called full pitch coil shown in fig(c). As
against this is if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e.
less than 180 ̊ electrical, the coils are called short pitch coil. Generally, coils are shorted by
one or two slots.
e.g. – in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator of connecting a coil side in slot no. 1 to slot no. 10. It is
connected to the coil side in slot no. 9 or slot no. 8, the coil is said to be short pitch coil and
winding are called. This is shown in the below fig(d).

3) Concentrated and distributed windings:

In three phase alternator, we have seen there are three different set of windings, each for a
phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain
slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as ‘m’.
m = slots per pole per phase
n n
= =
number of phases 3(generally no . of phases are3)
e.g.- in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have,
18 9
n = =9 and m = =3
2 3
so we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let ‘X’ is the number of conductors per
phase are to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 3 slots per pole per phase available.
But if all conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per
phase empty then the winding is called concentrated winding.
So in a concentrated winding, all conductors or coil belonging to a phase are placed in one
slot under every pole.
But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the ‘m’ slots per pole per phase available
for distribution of the windings. So if ‘X’ conductors per phase are distributed among the 3
slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding.
So in distributed type winding, all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the
‘m’ slots per phase, under every pole.
So in practice, double layer, short pitch and distributed type of armature winding is
preferred.

Q.2. Distinguish between concentrated and distributed winding.

Ans:
The winding used in electrical machine can be broadly classified into two types:
Concentrated Winding and Distributed Winding.
Concentrated Winding
In concentrated type of winding, all the winding turns are wound together in series to form
one multi-turn coil. Examples of concentrated winding are field winding for salient pole
synchronous machine and DC machine. In concentrated winding, all the turns have the same
magnetic axis. Primary and secondary winding of a transformer also form concentrated
winding. Figure below shows one example of concentrated winding.

Since the coils are concentric in this type of winding, there is no concept of pitch factor and
distribution factor for such winding. In fact, the value of pitch factor and distribution factor
for concentrated winding is unity. Thus the emf induced E by working flux Ø in such type of
winding having N series turns is given as below.
E = √2πfNØ
No rotational torque is produced if both field winding and armature winding are of
concentrated type. Example is transformer which does not rotate.

Distributed Winding
In distributed type of winding, all the winding turns are arranged in several full-pitch or
fractional pitch coils. These coils are then inserted into slots spread along the air gap
periphery. Stator and rotor of Induction Machine, armature winding of synchronous and DC
machine are some of the examples where distributed winding is used. Figure below depicts
distributed winding.
 It can be seen from above figures that; the three phase winding are distributed among the 12
slots. The induced emf in any phase is the phasor sum of individual emf induced in coils side
located at different slots. For better understanding of how emf is calculated in distributed
winding, please read Distribution Factor.

Difference between Concentrated and Distributed Winding

The major difference between the concentrated and distributed winding is that, concentric
oils are used in concentrated winding whereas coils are spread along the air gap periphery in
distributed winding.
Some of the important difference between concentrated and distributed winding are tabulated
below.
Sr. No. Concentrated Winding Distributed Winding

The coils of concentrated winding are co- The coils of distributed windings are not co-
1)      axial. This means, all the winding coils have axial. They are rather distributed in various slots
the same magnetic axis. along the air-gap periphery.

The emf induced in the distributed winding is

The emf induced in the such winding is
dependent on the value of pitch
2)      independent of pitch and distribution factor.
factor Kp and distribution factor Kd.
E = 1.414πfNØ
E = 1.414πKpKdfNØ

Distributed winding is used in armature winding

This type of winding is used in transformer,
3)      of induction machine, synchronous machine, DC
electromagnets etc.
machine etc.

For concentrated winding, the number of

4)      Number of pole is not equal to number of slots.
pole is equal to number of slots.

Q.3 Distinguish between single layer and multilayer winding.

Ans:

SR. Single layer winding Double layer winding

NO.
1 When critical voltage is low, single when critical voltage is low, multilayer
layer winding cannot start. winding can start.

2 The single layer winding is one side The multilayer winding is one side each of
of one coil embedded in each slot. two coils embedded in each slot.

3 In single layer winding, number of In multilayer winding, we have as many

coils is half of the number of slot. coils as a number of slot.

4 In single layer winding, all coils are In multilayer winding, all coil have the
in different shape so winding is same shape and winding is therefore easier.
difficult.

5 It can use semi-closed or closed It can’t use semi-closed or closed. It uses

slot. open slots.

6 Single layer machine can be The double layer winding is almost

popularly used in small machine universally used in large motors and
only. generators.
7 In this winding lesser amperes turns In these winding larger amperes turns
required to produce a given air gap required to produce a same air gap flux as
flux. compared to single layer winding

Q.4 With a neat diagram discuss the features of Lap and Wave winding.
Ans: 1) Lap winding –

1. The lap winding can be defined as a coil which can be lap back towards the
succeeding coil
 2. The concentration of lap winding is; the armature coil end is connected to the
commutators.
3. In lap winding, the number of the parallel path are equal to the total number of pole.
4. Another name of lap winding is multiple winding or parallel winding.
5. The e.m.f of lap winding is less.
6. The number of brushes in lap winding is equivalent to the no. of parallel path.
7. The types of lap winding are simplex lap and duplex lap winding.
8. The efficiency of lap winding is less.
9. The additions coil is used in lap winding is Equalizer ring for the improved
commutation
10. The winding cost of lap winding is high due to more conductor.
11. The lap winding is used for high current, low voltage machine.

2) Wave winding –

1. The wave winding can be defined as the loop of the winding can be form the signal
shape.
2. The connection of the wave winding is; the armature coil end is connected to
commutator section at some distance apart.
3. In wave winding, the number of parallel path is equal to two.
4. Another name of wave winding is series winding otherwise Two-Circuit
5. The emf of wave winding is more.
6. The no. of brushes in wave winding is equivalent to two
7. The types of wave winding are Progressive and Retrogressive.
8. The efficiency of the wave winding is high.
9. The additional coil used in the wave winding is Dummy coil to improve mechanical
stability towards the armature.
10. The winding cost of the wave winding is low.
11. The application of wave winding includes low current and high voltage machine.

Q.5 Explain the difference between;

i. Integral slot and Fractional slot winding
ii. Single layer and double layer winding
iii. Full pitch and short pitch winding
Ans:
i. Integral slot and fractional slot winding:
a. Integral-slots concentrated winding have a number of slot/pole/phase equal to
one or integer and have long been a preferred choice with machine designers
due to their simple layout. On the other hand, fractional-slot concentrated
windings have a no of slot/pole/phase less than one or fractional number.
b. Windings are generally designed on armature as a frictional pitch winding.
This common practice stems from the fact that the primary advantage of the
whole coil winding is that its permits the use of fractional pitch coil in order to
save copper.
c. The fractional pitch winding, when used in synchronous or asynchronous
generator armature, in addition to saving copper, (1) reduce the MMF
harmonic produced by the armature winding and (2) reduced the EMF
harmonics induced in the windings, without reducing the magnitude of
fundamental EMF wave to a great extent.
d. For these reason cited, frictional slot windings are almost universally used in
synchronous generator machine.
ii. Single layer and double layer winding:
a. A single layer winding also called as Half-coil winding. These windings are
sometimes used in small induction motor stator in the rotors of small wound-
rotor induction motor.
b. A cross section of a single layer winding shown in fig(a).
c. Like the DC dynamo armature winding, most commercial armature of
synchronous generator is of the full or whole coil two-layer type, shown in
cross section in fig (c)
d. The whole coil two-layer windings get its name from the fact that there are
two coil sides (one coil) per slot.
e. Fig (a) shows a single layer, half coil lap winding, fig(b) shows double layer,
full-coil lap winding. A cross section of a single layer (half-coil) shown in
fig(c)
iii. Full pitch and short pitch windings:

One pole pitch is 180 ̊ electrical. The value of ‘n’ slots per pole indicates how
many slots are contributing 180 ̊ electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one
slot is connected to a coil
Side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot, the
windings is said to be Full pitch winding.
e.g. – in 2 poles, 18 slots alternator the pole pitch is n =18/2 = 9 slots. So if coil
side in a slot no. 1 is connected to the coil side in slot no. 10 such that two slots
no. 1 & 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180 ̊ electrical apart, the coil is called
full pitch coil.

The distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil is
called coil span.
If coil span is ‘n’ slots or 180 ̊ electrical the coil is called full pitch coil shown in
fig(c). As against this is if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly
less than a pole pitch i.e. less than 180 ̊ electrical, the coils are called short pitch
coil. Generally, coils are shorted by one or two slots.
 e.g. – in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator of connecting a coil side in slot no. 1 to slot no.
10. It is connected to the coil side in slot no. 9 or slot no. 8, the coil is said to be
short pitch coil and winding are called. This is shown in the below fig(d).

Q.6 Derive the EMF equation for an AC machine. what are breadth distribution
factors? Derive expression for these.
Ans:
EMF Equation for AC Machine:
It is now possible to derive the computed or expected EMF per phase generated in a
synchronous generator. Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting
of a total no. of coil C, each coil having a given number of turns NC. then the total number of
turns in any given phase of a generator armature is
C NC
NP = ----------(1)
m

But Faraday’s law states that the average voltage induced in a single turn of two coil side is
Ø
EAV = -----------(2)
t
The voltage induced in one conductor is 2Ø(1/s) = 2Øs, where s = speed of rotation in r.p.s,
for a 2pole generator. Furthermore, when a coil consisting of NC turns rotates in a uniform
magnetic field, at a uniform speed, the voltage induced in an armature coil is
E av/coil = 4ØNCs volts -----------(3)

Where Ø is number of lines of flux (in Weber’s) per pole, NC turns and magnetic field Ø.
A speed of 1rps is produced a frequency of 1 HZ. since f is directly proportional and
equivalent to s, (for a 2pole generator) replacing the latter equation 3, for all the series turns
in any phase,
E av = 4ØNPf volts ----------(4)
phase

However, in the preceding section we discovered that the effective value of the voltage per
phase is made more completely sinusoidal by intentional distribution of armature winding.
The effective rms value of a sinusoidal ac voltage is 1.11 times the average value. The
effective voltage per phase is,
Eeff = 4.44ØNPf volts ----------(5)
But the eqn. 5 is still not representative of the effective value of phase voltage generated in
the armature in which frictional-pitch coils and a distributed windings are employed. Taking
the pitch factor KP and distribution factor KD into account, we may now write the equation
for the effective value of the voltage generated in each phase of an AC synchronous generator
as,
Egp = 4.44ØNpfkpkd volts

Distribution or breadth factor:

The distribution factor or breadth factor is defined as the ratio of the actual voltage
obtained to possible voltage if all the coils of a polar group were concentrated in a single slot.

Let m = slots per pole per phase, that is slots per phase belt

          β = angular displacement between adjacent slots in electrical degrees

Thus, one phase of winding consists of coils arranged in m slots. the voltages Ec1, Ec2 ,
Ec3 ....... are the individual coil voltages. each coil voltage E will be out of phase with next
coil voltage by the slots pitch β. 

Fig show the voltage polygon of the induced voltages in the four coils of a group (m =4). the
voltages Ec1, Ec2, Ec3 and Ec4 are represented by phasor AB, BC, CD, and DF respectively
in fig. each of these phasors in a chord of a circle centre O and subtends an angle β at O. The
phasor sum AF, representing the result winding voltage, subtends an angle mβ at the centre. 

Arithmetic sum of individual coil voltages

           = mEc = mAB = m(2AB)
      
           = 2mOAsin / AOM = 2mOAsin β/2

Phasor sum of individual coil voltages

                = AF = 2AG = 2OAsin / AOG = 2OAsin mβ/2              

Q.7 what are slot harmonics? How can they be curbed?

Ans:
Slots harmonics:
The voltage generated in armature windings is derived assuming that the surface of armature
to be smooth. However, in practice armature is not smooth but is made slotted. Due to this
slotting certain harmonics EMFs of undesirable order are produced.
The reluctance at any point in the air gap depends on whether there is a slot or teeth in the
magnetic path. Since in case of alternator armature is moving, the teeth and slots alternately
occupy position at this point. This will vary the reluctance. The ripple will be formed due to
the variations of reluctance from point to the field point in the air gap which is shown in the
below figure. These ripple will not move with respect to Armature conductors on the
distribution of flux.
These ripple due to slotting of the armature are always due to ripple opposite the slot and
teeth which are causing them. Thus the harmonic which are generated in the EMF due to
slotting is called slot harmonic. It can be seen that the main source of harmonic is the non-
sinusoidal field from which can be made sinusoidal and the harmonics can be eliminated.
The air gap maximum reluctance to the flux path. This air gap if made to vary sinusoidally
around the machine, the field from would also be sinusoidal. Even the air gap is made to vary
sinusoidal due to saturation in iron parts which is unavailable. But there should not be high
degree of saturation so that approximately sinusoidal waveform can be obtained.
Thus, in general, it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtained
whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical rotor construction.
To eliminate or minimize the harmonic from the voltage waveform, windings must be
properly designed. The different ways to eliminate the harmonic from generated voltage are,
1. Distribution of armature windings:
Instead of having concentrated type of winding, they should be distributed in different
slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less than that of
fundamental and hence magnitude of harmonic emf is small.

2. Chording :
The emf generated in the winding is proportional to cos(x/2) where a is angle of
chording and x is order of harmonic. if proper value of angle of chording is selected
then harmonic emf can be significantly.

3. Fractional slot winding:

The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating the use of
fractional slot winding as the distribution factor will be smaller. Compared to that
with the fundamental.

4. Skewing:
Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the slot harmonics.

5. Large length air gap:

The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot harmonics can be
reduced.

Q.8 Obtained an emf equation for three phase alternators. In its species and general
forms.
Ans:
EMF equation for three phase alternator :

An alternator or AC generator (also known as synchronous generator or dynamo) is a

device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
When we supply the magnetizing current by DC shunt generator through two slip rings (in
recent alternators, they use electronic starting system instead of slip rings and commutators)
because the field magnets are rotating. keep in mind that most alternators use a rotating
magnetic field with a stationary armature.
When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors which are static in case of alternator cut by
magnetic flux , they have induced EMF produced in them (according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction which states that if a conductor or coil links with any changing
flux, there must be an induced EMF in it.
This induced EMF can be found by the EMF equation of the alternator which as follow:
Lets,
P = No. of poles
Z = No. of conductors or Coil sides in series/phase i.e. Z = 2T…Where T is the number of
coils or turns per phase (Note that one turn or coil has two ends or sides)
f = frequency of induced EMF in Hz
Φ = Flux per pole (Weber)
N = rotor speed (RPM)
Kc = pitch factor
sin m β /2
Kd= Distribution factor =
msin β /2

e . m . f with distributed winding

Where Distribution factor = Kd =
e . m. f withcincentrated winding
Kc or KP = Cos α/2
If induced EMF is assumed sinusoidal then,
k f = Form factor = 1.11
In one revolution of the rotor i.e. in 60/N seconds, each conductor is cut by a flux of ΦP
Weber’s.
Φ = ΦP and also dΦ = 60/N seconds

dɸ ɸp ɸNP
then induced E.M.F per conductor (average) = = =
dt 60 /N 60
But we know that:
f = PN / 120 or N= 120f / P
Putting the value of N in Equation (i), we get,
ɸp 120 f
Average value of EMF per conductor = × =2 fɸ volts ∴ (N= 120f/P)
60 p
If there are Z conductors in series per phase,
 then synchronous generator average E.M.F per phase = 2 f Φ Z Volts = 4 f ΦT Volts ----(Z = 2T)
Also we know that;
Form Factor = RMS Value / Average Value
RMS value = Form Factor x Average Value,
RMS value of emf /phase = 1.11 x 4fΦT
E rms/phase = 4.44fΦT Volts.
This would have been the actual value of induced voltage if all the coils in the phase where
(i) full-pitched (ii) concentrated or bunch in one slot. But this is not being so, the actual
available voltage is reduced in the ratio of two factors.
therefore,
Actual available voltage / phase = 4.44kckdfɸT Volts

Q.9 Obtained an expression for i) pitch factor KC ii) Distribution factor KD. For ac
winding

Ans:
i) Pitch factor KC :

In short pitched coil, the induced emf of two coil sides get vectorially added and give
resultant emf of the loop. In short pitched coil, the phase angle between the induced emf of
two opposite coil sides is less than 180o (electrical). But we know that, in full pitched coil, the
phase angle between the induced emf of two coil sides is exactly 180o (electrical).

Hence, the resultant emf of a full pitched coil is just the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced
on both sides of the loop. We well know that vector sum or phasor sum of two quantities is
always less than their arithmetic sum. The pitch factor is the measure of resultant emf of a
short-pitched coil in comparison with resultant emf of a full pitched coil.
Hence, it must be the ratio of phasor sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of
induced emfs per coil. Therefore, it must be less than unity.

Let us assume that, a coil is short pitched by an angle α (electrical degree). Emf induced per
coil side is E. The arithmetic sum of induced emfs is 2E. That means, 2E, is the induced
voltage across the coil terminals, if the coil would have been full pitched.
Now, come to the short pitched coil. From the figure below it is clear that, resultant emf of
the short pitched coil.

Now, as per definition of pitched factor,

Resultant emf of short pitched coil

KC =
Resultant emf of full pitched coil
 phasor ∑ of coil side emfs
=
Arithmatic ∑ of coil side emfs
α
2 E cos
= 2
2E
α
KC = cos
2

This pitch factor is the fundamental component of emf. The flux wave may consist of space
field harmonics also, which give rise to the corresponding time harmonics in the generated
voltage waveform. A 3rd harmonic component of the flux wave, may be imagined as
produced by three poles as compared to one pole for the fundamental component.
In the view of this, the chording angle for the rth harmonic becomes r times the chording angle
for the fundamental component and pitch factor for the rth harmonic is given as,
rα
KC = cos
2
The rth harmonic becomes zero, if,

rα rα
cos = 0 or = 90 ̊
2 2
In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta connection as in the case
of 3 phase transformer. Total attention is given for designing a 3 phase alternator winding
design, for 5th and 7th harmonics.
For 5th harmonic
5α 180̊
= 90 ̊ ⇒ α = = 36 ̊
2 5
For 7th harmonic
7α 180̊
= 90 ̊ ⇒ α = = 25.7 ̊
2 7
Hence, by adopting a suitable chording angle of α = 30o, we make most optimized design
armature winding of alternator.

ii) Distribution factor KD :

The distribution factor or breadth factor is defined as the ratio of the actual voltage obtained
to possible voltage if all the coils of a polar group were concentrated in a single slot.

Let m = slots per pole per phase, that is slots per phase belt
          β = angular displacement between adjacent slots in electrical degrees

Thus, one phase of winding consists of coils arranged in m slots. the voltages Ec1, Ec2 ,
Ec3 ....... are the individual coil voltages. each coil voltage E will be out of phase with next
coil voltage by the slots pitch β. 

Fig show the voltage polygon of the induced voltages in the four coils of a group (m =4) . the
voltages Ec1, Ec2, Ec3 and Ec4 are represented by phasor AB, BC, CD, and DF respectively
in fig. each of these phasors in a chord of a circle centre O and subtends an angle β at O. The
phasor sum AF, representing the result winding voltage, subtends an angle mβ at the centre. 

Arithmetic sum of individual coil voltages

           = mEc = mAB = m(2AB)

      
           = 2mOAsin / AOM = 2mOAsin β/2

Phasor sum of individual coil voltages

                = AF = 2AG = 2OAsin / AOG = 2OAsin mβ/2              

Q.10 Discuss the effects od Kc and Kd on the emf induced in ac alternator.

Ans:
The emf equation derived in when the alternator is having full pitch coil and concentrated
winding. But when the alternator armature winding is distributed and short pitched then the
per phase emf equation will change and become-

Where Kp is called pitch factor and Kd is called distribution factor.

1. Pitch Factor or Coil Pitch

 The ratio of phasor (vector) sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of induced
emfs per coil is known as pitch factor (Kp)or coil span factor (Kc) which is always less than
unity.
 Let the coil have a pitch short by angle  q electrical space degrees from full pitch and
induced emf in each coil side be E,
 

• If the coil would have been full pitched, then total induced emf in the coil would have been 
2E
 • when the coil is short pitched by  q electrical space degrees the resultant induced emf, ER 
in the coil is phasor sum of two voltages,q apart
phasor ∑ of coil side emfs
Pitch Factor , Kc=
arithmetic ∑ of coil side emfs

Er = 2E cos α/2
2 E cos α /2
Pitch Factor = = cos α/2
2E
The pitch factor of the coil at the nth harmonic frequency can be expressed as
Kpn = cos a n where n is the order of harmonic
2. Distribution Factor
 The ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in a number of
slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced(or to the resultant of emfs
induced in all coils concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as breadth factor
(Kb) or distribution factor (Kd)
 The distribution factor is always less than unity.
 Let no. of slots per pole = Q and no. of slots per pole per phase = q
 Induced emf in each coil side = Ec
 Angular displacement between the slots,  γo
 The emf induced in different coils of one phase under one pole are represented by side AC,
CD, DE,
 EF Which are equal in magnitude (say each equal Ec) and differ in phase (say by γo) from
each other.

If bisectors are drawn on AC, CD, DE, EF they would meet at common point (O). The
point O would be the centre of the circle having AC, CD, DE, EF as the chords and
representing the emfs induced in the coils in different slots.
Let the number of slots per pole be n.
Number of slots per pole per phase = m = slots/(poles x phase)
Induced emf in each coil side = E.
Angular displacement between the adjacent slots in electrical degree
β = 180 /(slots/pole) = (180x poles) / slots

Q.11 What are harmonics how they are induced in ac waveform?

Ans:
Harmonics:

i) Harmonics are unwanted higher frequencies which superimposed on the fundamental

waveform creating a distorted wave pattern
ii) In an AC circuit, a resistance behaves in exactly the same way as it does in a DC
circuit. That is, the current flowing through the resistance is proportional to the
voltage across it. This is because a resistor is a linear device and if the voltage applied
to it is a sine wave, the current flowing through it is also a sine wave so the phase
difference between the two sinusoids is zero.

iii) Generally when dealing with alternating voltages and currents in electrical circuits it
is assumed that they are pure and sinusoidal in shape with only one frequency value,
called the “fundamental frequency” being present, but this is not always the case.
iv) In an electrical or electronic device or circuit that has a voltage-current characteristic
which is not linear, that is, the current flowing through it is not proportional to the
applied voltage. The alternating waveforms associated with the device will be
different to a greater or lesser extent to those of an ideal sinusoidal waveform. These
types of waveforms are commonly referred to as non-sinusoidal or complex
waveforms.
v) Complex waveforms are generated by common electrical devices such as iron-cored
inductors, switching transformers, electronic ballasts in fluorescent lights and other
such heavily inductive loads as well as the output voltage and current waveforms of
AC alternators, generators and other such electrical machines. The result is that the
current waveform may not be sinusoidal even though the voltage waveform is.

vi) switching circuits tend to draw current only at the peak values of the AC supply and
since the switching current waveform is non-sinusoidal the resulting load current is
said to contain Harmonics.

A Fundamental Waveform (or first harmonic) is the sinusoidal waveform that has the
supply frequency. The fundamental is the lowest or base frequency, ƒ on which the complex
waveform is built and as such the periodic time, Τ of the resulting complex waveform will be
equal to the periodic time of the fundamental frequency.
Let’s consider the basic fundamental or 1st harmonic AC waveform as shown.
Where: Vmax is the peak value in volts and ƒ is the waveforms frequency in Hertz (Hz).
We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current), which varies as
a sine function of angle, 2πƒ. The waveforms frequency, ƒ is determined by the number of
cycles per second. In the United Kingdom this fundamental frequency is set at 50Hz while in
the United States it is 60Hz.
Harmonics are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an integer (whole-
number) multiple of the fundamental frequency. So given a 50Hz fundamental waveform,
this means a 2nd harmonic frequency would be 100Hz (2 x 50Hz), a 3rd harmonic would be
150Hz (3 x 50Hz), a 5th at 250Hz, a 7th at 350Hz and so on. Likewise, given a 60Hz
fundamental waveform, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th harmonic frequencies would be at 120Hz,
180Hz, 240Hz and 300Hz respectively.
So in other words, we can say that “harmonics” are multiples of the fundamental frequency
and can therefore be expressed as: 2ƒ, 3ƒ, 4ƒ, etc. as shown.

Complex Waveforms Due To Harmonics

he values of the harmonics will be given as:
For a second harmonic:
E2 = V2max(2*2πƒt) = V2max(4πƒt), = V2max(2πt)
For a third harmonic:
E3 = V3max(3*2πƒt) = V3max(6πƒt), = V3max(3ωπt)
For a fourth harmonic:
E4 = V4max(4*2πƒt) = V4max(8πƒt), = V4max(4πt)
and so on.
Q.12 Solve the following :
1) An alternator has 18 slots/pole and the first coil lies in slot 1 and 16. Calculate the
pitch factor for (i) fundamental (ii) 3rd harmonic (iii) 5th harmonic and (iv) 7th
harmonic.
Solution:
Here, coil span is = (16 – 1) = 15 slots, which falls short by 3 slots.
3
Hence, α = 180 ̊ ×
18
(i) Fundamental
α
Kc1 = cos
2
30̊
KC1 = cos
2
KC1 = cos 15 ̊
KC1 = 0.966

(ii) 3rd harmonic

3α
Kc3 = cos
2
3× 30 ̊
Kc3 = cos
2
Kc3 = 0.707

(iii) 5th harmonic

5α
Kc5 = cos
2
5× 30
Kc5 = cos
2
Kc5 = cos 75 ̊
Kc5 = 0.259

(iv) 7th harmonic

7α
Kc7 = cos
2
7 ×30
Kc7 = cos ( )
2
Kc7 = cos 105 ̊
Kc7 = 0.259

2) A 3-phase, 12 pole, star-connected alternator has 180 slots with 10 conductors

per slot and the conductor of each phase are connected in series. The coil-span is 144̊
(electrical). Determine the phase and the line value of emf, if the machine runs at
600 r.p.m. and the flux pole is 0.06 Weber distributed sinusoidally over the pole.

Solution :
Given date

Phase – 3phase
Pole – 12
Slots – 180
Conductors – 10 conductors/slot
Flux – 0.04 wb
NS – 600 rpm
Find i) phase voltage ii) line voltage
120 f
NS =
p
NsP 600× 12
∴F= = = 60 Hz
120 120
Eph = 4.44 × ɸ × f × Tph × Kc × Kd ----------(1)

Zph
Tph =
2

∴ Total conductors (Zph) = (slots × conductors) /3

= (60 × 10)
= 600 conductors
600
Tph = = 300
2
Now,
α = 180 – 144
= 36 ̊
cos α
Kc or Kp =
2
 cos(36)
=
2
Kc = 0.404

sin m β /2
Kd =
msin β /2
180
Pole pitch = =15
12
180 180
∴ β= = =12
pole pitch 15
slots 180
m= = =5
pole× phsde 12 ×3
5 ×12
sin( )
sin m β /2 2
∴ Kd= =
m sin β /2 12
5 sin ⁡( )
2
Kd=¿ 0.956

Now equ. (1) becomes

Eph = 4.44× 0.04 ×60 ×900 × 0.404 ×0.956
= 3704 V
Phase voltage Eph = 3704 V

Line voltage El = √ 3 × Eph

= √ 3 ×3704
= 6415.5 V
Line voltage = 6415.5 V

3)A synchronous generator runs at 250r.p.m. and generates at 50 Hz. There are 216
slots, each containing 5conductors arranged in full-pitched winding for 3-phase star
connection.All the conductors of each phase are in series and the flux per pole at no-
load sinusoidally distributed over the pole pitch is 30 mWb. Deduce from first
principles ,e.m.f. induced in each phase winding and the terminal voltage after
determining the distribution factor analytically orgraphically.
Solution:
Ns = 250 r. p. m , f = 50 Hz

Ns = 120f/P

250 = (120 x 50)/P

⸫ P = 24
 n = Slots/Pole = 216/24 = 9

m = n/3 = 3

β = 180/9 = 20

3 ×20
sin( )
sin m β /2 2
∴ Kd= =
m sin β /2 20
3 sin ⁡( )
2

=0.9597

Kc = 1 as full pitch coils.

Total no. of conductors Z = 216 x 5 = 1080

Zph = Z/3 = 1080/3= 360

Tph = Zph/2 = 360/2 = 180

Eph=4.44Kp Kdf  ϕ Tph

=4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x (30x10-3) x180

=1150.48V

E1=(3)1/2 Eph=(3)1/2 x 1150.48 = 1992.70 V

4) The stator of –phase, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots and there are 4 conductors per
slot connected in two layers and the conductors of each phase are connected in series. If
the speed of the alternator is 375 r. p. m. calculate the e.m.f inducted per phase.
Resultant flux in air-gap is 5 x 10-3where per pole sinusoidally distributed. Assume the
coil span as 150degree electrical.
Solution:
. For sinusoidal flux distribution, Kf = 1.11; = (180°-150°) = 30° (elect)

kc = cos 30°/2 = 0.966

No. of slots/ pole , n = 144/16 = 9 ;

m = No. of slots/pole/phase = 144/ (16 x 3) = 3

3 ×20
sin( )
sin m β /2 2
∴ Kd= =
m sin β /2 20
3 sin ⁡( )
2
 = 0.96
f =16 x 375/120
= 50 Hz
No. of slots per phase = 144/3 = 48
No. of conductors /slot = 4
No. of conductors in series /phase = 48 x 4 =192
Turns/ phase = conductors per phase/2 = 192/2 = 96
Eph = 4.44 × ɸ × f × Tph × Kc × Kd × Kf
= 4.44 × 1.11 × 0.966 ×0.96 × 50×5 ×10-2 ×96 = 988 V.