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Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective

Fons Trompenaars Geert Hofstede


Universalism vs. Particularism Low power distance versus high power distance
“What is more important – rules or relationships?” The definition of power distance (Power Distance Index (PDI)) within the Hofstede
Universalism is the belief that one way of doing things Cultural Dimensions refers to the measure of inequality that exists- and is
suits everybody. In countries that have high accepted – by people with and without power. This represents the inequality (high
universalism, such as the UK and U.S., there are a lot versus low), but in the sense of acceptance. A high PDI score indicates that a high
of formal rules that everyone's expected to follow, and power distance can be observed in which the conclusion can be drawn that there
relationships come second. Particularism is for people is great inequality in society (culture). Strong hierarchical relationships, displays of
who believe that the relationships and circumstances little respect and authority can be traced back to most Asian countries. A low
are more important than rules, such as China and score represents a low power distance. Here equality can be perceived and this
South Korea. can mainly be traced back to European countries.
The extent to which power is distributed equally within a society and the degree
that society accepts this distribution. A high power distance culture prefers
hierarchical bureaucracies, strong leaders and a high regard for authority. A low
power distance culture tends to favour personal responsibility and autonomy.
Individualism vs. Communitarianism  Individualism versus collectivism
“Do we function as a group or as individuals?” The definition of Individualism (IDV) within the Hofstede Cultural Dimensions
Individualism is the belief in the freedom to make your refers to the strength of the mutual ties between individuals within a certain
own decisions, like in Canada, the U.S., and the community.
UK. Communitarianism values the group more than A high score represents ‘loose‘ (lack of interpersonal) connections and little
the individual, as in Africa and Japan. sharing of responsibility. The individuals value people’s time and their need for
For negotiations, this means that in the UK, U.S., and freedom highly. Respect for privacy and expectations of rewards for hard work are
Canada, decisions can be made more quickly than in also characteristics of a high score. A society with a low score (more collectivism)
high communitarianism countries where the group would have a strong group cohesion, a large amount of loyalty and respect for
decides. It also means that if a U.S. businessman is members within a certain community. The emphasis is on developing skills and
negotiating in Japan, he may be expected to be part becoming a kind of ‘guru’, master or expert of something. Working for intrinsic
of a team and need to allow others to take part in rewards is also an important characteristic. Harmony is more important than
decision making, even if he is the CEO and is used to honesty.
making decisions independently. The degree to which individuals base their actions on self-interest versus the
interests of the group. In an individual culture, free will is highly valued. In a
collective culture, personal needs are less important than the group's needs. This
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Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective

dimension influences the role government is expected to play in markets.


SPECIFIC versus DIFFUSE Masculinity versus feminity
“How far to we get involved? ” This definition (Masculinity – MAS) within the Hofstede Cultural Dimensions refers
The degree to which responsibility is specifically to how much a society complies with its values and traditional male and female
assigned or is diffusely accepted. In a specific culture, roles. For men the emphasis is on performance and success whereas for women
people first analyse the elements individually and the emphasis is on modesty, sensitivity and the quality of life. In high scores men
then put them together, the whole is the sum of its are masculine (tough, strong and assertive) and women are feminine (submissive,
parts. People’s lives are divided accordingly and, only subservient and kind). In Low MAS scoring countries, the distinction between the
a single component can be entered at a time. roles is not transparent. Women also work in male-dominated professions, there is
Interactions between people are very well-defined. much cooperation and men are allowed to be sensitive and kind. In addition,
Specific individuals concentrate on hard facts, powerful and successful women are admired and respected.
standards and contracts. A diffusely oriented culture A measure of a society's goal orientation: a masculine culture emphasises status
starts with the whole and sees individual elements derived from wages and position; a feminine culture emphasises human relations
from the perspective of the total. All elements are and quality of life.
related to one another. Relationships between
elements are more important than individual
elements.
AFFECTIVITY versus NEUTRALITY Low uncertainty avoidance versus high uncertainty avoidance
“Do we display our emotions?” The definition of ‘uncertainty‘ (Uncertainty/Avoidance Index – UAI) within the
In emotional cultures, people freely express their Hofstede Cultural Dimensions refers to the degree of anxiety that society
emotions, even at work. We find this in countries like members feel when they are faced with uncertain and unknown situations. High
Italy and Spain. However, in neutral countries, scoring nations avoid uncertain situations through control (rules and order). They
emotions are controlled as much as possible, as in seek a collective truth to which they link expectations with a certain degree of
Germany and Sweden. security. Low scoring nations enjoy, for example, new events and initiatives.
A Spanish man negotiating in Germany will be People have an informal attitude, and they accept change and risk.
expected to keep his emotions in check and stay on The degree to which individuals require set boundaries and clear structures: a
task during the negotiations. Conversely, a German high uncertainty culture allows individuals to cope better with risk and innovation;
negotiating in Spain will need to open up to build a low uncertainty culture emphasises a higher level of standardisation and greater
rapport and trust, as well as learn to manage conflict job security.
before it gets to the stage of being too personal.
The degree to which individuals display their
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Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective

emotions. In an affective culture, people display their


emotions and it is not deemed necessary to hide
feelings. However, in a neutral culture, people are
taught not to display their feelings overtly. The degree
to which feelings become manifested is therefore
minimal. While emotions are felt, they are controlled.
INNER DIRECTED versus OUTER DIRECTED Short term orientation versus long term orientation
“Do we control our environment or work with it? ” This dimension refers to society rules based on traditions and centuries-old
The degree to which individuals believe the traditions. These apply to both the short and the long term. The following
environment can be controlled versus believing that characteristics can be perceived in high scoring nations: family is the basis of
the environment controls them. In an inner-directed society, education and training are highly valued and elderly people and men have
culture, people have a mechanistic view of nature; more authority than young people and women. This is especially perceived in
nature is complex but can be controlled with the right Asian countries. Low scoring countries promote high creativity and individualism.
expertise. People believe that humans can dominate People treat each other as equals and they are willing to help each other execute
nature, if they make the effort. In an outer-directed the most innovative plans and ideas.
culture, people have an organic view of nature. The degree to which a society does or does not value long-term commitments and
Mankind is viewed as one of nature’s forces and respect for tradition. Long-term traditions and commitments hamper institutional
should therefore live in harmony with the change.
environment. People therefore adapt themselves to
external circumstances.
ACHIEVED STATUS versus ASCRIBED STATUS
“Do we have to prove ourselves to receive status or is
it given to us?”
The degree to which individuals must prove
themselves to receive status versus status simply
given to them. In a culture with achieved status,
people derive their status from what they have
accomplished. Achieved status must be proven time
and time again and status will be given accordingly. In
a culture with ascribed status, people derive their
status from birth, age, gender or wealth. Here status
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is not based on achievement but it is accorded on the


basis of the person’s being.
SEQUENTIAL TIME versus SYNCHRONIC TIME
“Do we do things one at a time or several things at
once?”
The degree to which individuals do things one at a
time versus several things at once. Cultures
developed their own response to time. Time
orientation has two aspects: the relative importance
cultures assign to the past, present and future, and
their approach to structuring time. In a sequential
culture, people structure time sequentially and do
things one at a time. In a synchronic time culture,
people do several things at once, believing time is
flexible and intangible.

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