2.

C++ Functions
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C++ program has at least one function,
which is main(), and all the most trivial programs can define additional functions.

You can divide up your code into separate functions. How you divide up your code among different functions is up
to you, but logically the division usually is so each function performs a specific task.

A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and parameters. A function
definition provides the actual body of the function.

The C++ standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your program can call. For example, function
strcat() to concatenate two strings, function memcpy() to copy one memory location to another location and
many more functions.

A function is knows as with various names like a method or a sub-routine or a procedure etc.

Defining a Function:
The general form of a C++ function definition is as follows:

return_type function_name( parameter list )

{
body of the function
}

A C++ function definition consists of a function header and a function body. Here are all the parts of a function:

 Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the data type of the value the function
returns. Some functions perform the desired operations without returning a value. In this case, the
return_type is the keyword void.

 Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name and the parameter list
together constitute the function signature.

 Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked, you pass a value to the
parameter. This value is referred to as actual parameter or argument. The parameter list refers to the
type, order, and number of the parameters of a function. Parameters are optional; that is, a function may
contain no parameters.

 Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements that define what the function
does.

Example:
Following is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes two parameters num1 and num2 and
returns the maximum between the two:

// function returning the max between two numbers

int max(int num1, int num2)

{
// local variable declaration
int result;

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1;
else
 result = num2;

return result;
}

Function Declarations:
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name and how to call the function. The actual body of
the function can be defined separately.

A function declaration has the following parts:

return_type function_name( parameter list );

For the above defined function max(), following is the function declaration:

int max(int num1, int num2);

Parameter names are not importan in function declaration only their type is required, so following is also valid
declaration:

int max(int, int);

Function declaration is required when you define a function in one source file and you call that function in another
file. In such case, you should declare the function at the top of the file calling the function.

Calling a Function:
While creating a C++ function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a function, you will have
to call or invoke that function.

When a program calls a function, program control is transferred to the called function. A called function performs
defined task and when its return statement is executed or when its function-ending closing brace is reached, it
returns program control back to the main program.

To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with function name, and if function
returns a value, then you can store returned value. For example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function declaration
int max(int num1, int num2);

int main ()
{
// local variable declaration:
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;

// calling a function to get max value.

ret = max(a, b);

cout << "Max value is : " << ret << endl;

return 0;
}

// function returning the max between two numbers

int max(int num1, int num2)
{
// local variable declaration
int result;

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1;
else
result = num2;

return result;
}

I kept max() function along with main() function and compiled the source code. While running final executable, it
would produce the following result:

Max value is : 200

Function Arguments:
If a function is to use arguments, it must declare variables that accept the values of the arguments. These
variables are called the formal parameters of the function.

The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and are created upon entry into the
function and destroyed upon exit.

While calling a function, there are two ways that arguments can be passed to a function:

Call Type Description

This method copies the actual value of an argument into the formal parameter
Call by value of the function. In this case, changes made to the parameter inside the function
have no effect on the argument.

This method copies the address of an argument into the formal parameter.
Call by pointer Inside the function, the address is used to access the actual argument used in
the call. This means that changes made to the parameter affect the argument.

This method copies the reference of an argument into the formal parameter.
Inside the function, the reference is used to access the actual argument used
Call by reference
in the call. This means that changes made to the parameter affect the
argument.

By default, C++ uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, this means that code within a function cannot
alter the arguments used to call the function and above mentioned example while calling max() function used the
same method.

Default Values for Parameters:

When you define a function, you can specify a default value for each of the last parameters. This value will be
used if the corresponding argument is left blank when calling to the function.
This is done by using the assignment operator and assigning values for the arguments in the function definition. If
a value for that parameter is not passed when the function is called, the default given value is used, but if a value
is specified, this default value is ignored and the passed value is used instead. Consider the following example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int sum(int a, int b=20)

{
int result;

result = a + b;

return (result);
}

int main ()
{
// local variable declaration:
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int result;

// calling a function to add the values.

result = sum(a, b);
cout << "Total value is :" << result << endl;

// calling a function again as follows.

result = sum(a);
cout << "Total value is :" << result << endl;

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Total value is :300

Total value is :120

C++ function call by value

The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the actual value of an argument into the
formal parameter of the function. In this case, changes made to the parameter inside the function have no effect
on the argument.

By default, C++ uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, this means that code within a function cannot
alter the arguments used to call the function. Consider the function swap() definition as follows.

// function definition to swap the values.

void swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;

temp = x; /* save the value of x */

 x = y; /* put y into x */
y = temp; /* put x into y */

return;
}

Now, let us call the function swap() by passing actual values as in the following example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function declaration
void swap(int x, int y);

int main ()
{
// local variable declaration:
int a = 100;
int b = 200;

cout << "Before swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "Before swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

// calling a function to swap the values.

swap(a, b);

cout << "After swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "After swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

return 0;
}

When the above code is put together in a file, compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Before swap, value of a :100

Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :100
After swap, value of b :200

Which shows that there is no change in the values though they had been changed inside the function.

C++ function call by pointer

The call by pointer method of passing arguments to a function copies the address of an argument into the formal
parameter. Inside the function, the address is used to access the actual argument used in the call. This means
that changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument.

To pass the value by pointer, argument pointers are passed to the functions just like any other value. So
accordingly you need to declare the function parameters as pointer types as in the following function swap(),
which exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to by its arguments.

// function definition to swap the values.

void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;
temp = *x; /* save the value at address x */
 *x = *y; /* put y into x */
*y = temp; /* put x into y */

return;
}

To check the more detail about C++ pointers, kindly check C++ Pointers chapter.

For now, let us call the function swap() by passing values by pointer as in the following example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function declaration
void swap(int *x, int *y);

int main ()
{
// local variable declaration:
int a = 100;
int b = 200;

cout << "Before swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "Before swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

/* calling a function to swap the values.

* &a indicates pointer to a ie. address of variable a and
* &b indicates pointer to b ie. address of variable b.
*/
swap(&a, &b);

cout << "After swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "After swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

return 0;
}

When the above code is put together in a file, compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Before swap, value of a :100

Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :200
After swap, value of b :100

C++ function call by reference

The call by reference method of passing arguments to a function copies the reference of an argument into the
formal parameter. Inside the function, the reference is used to access the actual argument used in the call. This
means that changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument.

To pass the value by reference, argument reference is passed to the functions just like any other value. So
accordingly you need to declare the function parameters as reference types as in the following function swap(),
which exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to by its arguments.

// function definition to swap the values.

void swap(int &x, int &y)
{
int temp;
temp = x; /* save the value at address x */
x = y; /* put y into x */
y = temp; /* put x into y */

return;
}

For now, let us call the function swap() by passing values by reference as in the following example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// function declaration
void swap(int &x, int &y);

int main ()
{
// local variable declaration:
int a = 100;
int b = 200;

cout << "Before swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "Before swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

/* calling a function to swap the values using variable reference.*/

swap(a, b);

cout << "After swap, value of a :" << a << endl;

cout << "After swap, value of b :" << b << endl;

return 0;
}

When the above code is put together in a file, compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Before swap, value of a :100

Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :200
After swap, value of b :100

Inline functions

Calling a function generally causes a certain overhead (stacking arguments, jumps, etc...), and thus
for very short functions, it may be more efficient to simply insert the code of the function where it is
called, instead of performing the process of formally calling a function.

Implementing a program as a set of functions is good from a software engineering standpoint, but
function calls involve execution-time overhead. C++ provides inline functions to help reduce function
call overheadespecially for small functions. Placing the qualifier inline before a function's return
type in the function definition "advises" the compiler to generate a copy of the function's code in
place (when appropriate) to avoid a function call. The trade-off is that multiple copies of the function
code are inserted in the program (often making the program larger) rather than there being a single
copy of the function to which control is passed each time the function is called. The compiler can
ignore the inline qualifier and typically does so for all but the smallest functions.

Preceding a function declaration with the inline specifier informs the compiler that inline
expansion is preferred over the usual function call mechanism for a specific function. This does not
change at all the behavior of a function, but is merely used to suggest the compiler that the code
generated by the function body shall be inserted at each point the function is called, instead of being
invoked with a regular function call.

For example, the concatenate function above may be declared inline as:

1 inline string concatenate (const string& a, const string& b)

2{
3 return a+b;
4}

This informs the compiler that when concatenate is called, the program prefers the function to be
expanded inline, instead of performing a regular call. inline is only specified in the function
declaration, not when it is called.

Note that most compilers already optimize code to generate inline functions when they see an
opportunity to improve efficiency, even if not explicitly marked with the inline specifier. Therefore,
this specifier merely indicates the compiler that inline is preferred for this function, although the
compiler is free to not inline it, and optimize otherwise. In C++, optimization is a task delegated to
the compiler, which is free to generate any code for as long as the resulting behavior is the one
specified by the code.

Figure uses inline function cube (lines 11-14) to calculate the volume of a cube of side
side. Keyword const in the parameter list of function cube (line 11) tells the compiler that
the function does not modify variable side. This ensures that the value of side is not changed
by the function when the calculation is performed. Notice that the complete definition of
function cube appears before it is used in the program. This is required so that the compiler
knows how to expand a cube function call into its inlined code. For this reason, reusable
inline functions are typically placed in header files, so that their definitions can be included in
each source file that uses them.

Figure inline function that calculates the volume of a cube.

1 //
2 // Using an inline function to calculate the volume of a cube.
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::cin;
6 using std::endl;
 7
8 // Definition of inline function cube. Definition of function appears
9 // before function is called, so a function prototype is not required.
10 // First line of function definition acts as the prototype.
11 inline double cube( const double side )
12 {
13 return side * side * side; // calculate cube
14 } // end function cube
15
16 int main()
17 {
18 double sideValue; // stores value entered by user
19 cout << "Enter the side length of your cube: ";
20 cin >> sideValue; // read value from user
21
22 // calculate cube of sideValue and display result
23 cout << "Volume of cube with side "
24 << sideValue << " is " << cube( sideValue ) << endl;
25 return 0; // indicates successful termination
26 } // end main

Enter the side length of your cube: 3.5

Volume of cube with side 3.5 is 42.875

Default values in parameters

In C++, functions can also have optional parameters, for which no arguments are required in the call,
in such a way that, for example, a function with three parameters may be called with only two. For
this, the function shall include a default value for its last parameter, which is used by the function
when called with fewer arguments. For example:

1 // default values in functions

2 #include <iostream>
3 using namespace std;
4
5 int divide (int a, int b=2)
6 {
7 int r;
8 r=a/b;
9 return (r);
10 }
11
12 int main ()
13 {
14 cout << divide (12) << '\n';
15 cout << divide (20,4) << '\n';
16 return 0;
17 }
In this example, there are two calls to function divide. In the first one:

divide (12)

The call only passes one argument to the function, even though the function has two parameters. In
this case, the function assumes the second parameter to be 2 (notice the function definition, which
declares its second parameter as int b=2). Therefore, the result is 6.

In the second call:

divide (20,4)

The call passes two arguments to the function. Therefore, the default value for b (int b=2) is
ignored, and b takes the value passed as argument, that is 4, yielding a result of 5.

Default Arguments

It is not uncommon for a program to invoke a function repeatedly with the same argument
value for a particular parameter. In such cases, the programmer can specify that such a
parameter has a default argument, i.e., a default value to be passed to that parameter. When a
program omits an argument for a parameter with a default argument in a function call, the
compiler rewrites the function call and inserts the default value of that argument to be passed
as an argument to the function call.

Default arguments must be the rightmost (trailing) arguments in a function's parameter list.
When calling a function with two or more default arguments, if an omitted argument is not the
rightmost argument in the argument list, then all arguments to the right of that argument also
must be omitted. Default arguments should be specified with the first occurrence of the
function nametypically, in the function prototype. If the function prototype is omitted because
the function definition also serves as the prototype, then the default arguments should be
specified in the function header. Default values can be any expression, including constants,
global variables or function calls. Default arguments also can be used with inline functions.

Figure demonstrates using default arguments in calculating the volume of a box. The function
prototype for boxVolume (line 8) specifies that all three parameters have been given default
values of 1. Note that we provided variable names in the function prototype for readability. As
always, variable names are not required in function prototypes.

Figure . Default arguments to a function.

1 // Fig. 6.22: fig06_22.cpp
2 // Using default arguments.
 3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6
7 // function prototype that specifies default arguments
8 int boxVolume( int length = 1, int width = 1, int height = 1 );
9
10 int main()
11 {
12 // no arguments--use default values for all dimensions
13 cout << "The default box volume is: " << boxVolume();
14
15 // specify length; default width and height
16 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
17 << "width 1 and height 1 is: " << boxVolume( 10 );
18
19 // specify length and width; default height
20 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
21 << "width 5 and height 1 is: " << boxVolume( 10, 5 );
22
23 // specify all arguments
24 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
25 << "width 5 and height 2 is: " << boxVolume( 10, 5, 2 )
26 << endl;
27 return 0; // indicates successful termination
28 } // end main
29
30 // function boxVolume calculates the volume of a box
31 int boxVolume( int length, int width, int height )
32 {
33 return length * width * height;
34 } // end function boxVolume

The default box volume is: 1

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 1 and height 1 is: 10

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 5 and height 1 is: 50

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 5 and height 2 is: 100
Random Numbers in C++:
There are many cases where you will wish to generate a random number. There are actually two functions you
will need to know about random number generation. The first is rand(), this function will only return a pseudo
random number. The way to fix this is to first call the srand() function.

Following is a simple example to generate few random numbers. This example makes use of time() function to
get the number of seconds on your system time, to randomly seed the rand() function:

#include <iostream>
#include <ctime>
#include <cstdlib>

using namespace std;

int main ()
{
int i,j;

// set the seed

srand( (unsigned)time( NULL ) );

/* generate 10 random numbers. */

for( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
{
// generate actual random number
j= rand();
cout <<" Random Number : " << j << endl;
}

return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Random Number : 1748144778

Random Number : 630873888
Random Number : 2134540646
Random Number : 219404170
Random Number : 902129458
Random Number : 920445370
Random Number : 1319072661
Random Number : 257938873
Random Number : 1256201101
Random Number : 580322989

#include <iostream>
#include <time.h>
using namespace std;
int add(int, int);
int main()
{
int k;
srand(time(0));
for (k = 0; k < 10; ++k)
cout<< rand()<<endl;
return 0;
}

We sometimes want to give random initial values to our variables in the program. We can use mod
(%) operator to produce random numbers for predetermined range.

rand() % 2 produce only 0 and 1

rand() % 6 produce random numbers between 0 - 5

rand() % 6 + 1 produce random numbers between 1-6

rand() % 6 + 3 produce random numbers between 3-8