A1 Cell Division
A1 Cell Division
■ The Cell Cycle and Mitosis Biol. Sci. Rev., ■ Human Cloning - Why Ban it? Biol. Sci. Rev.
14(4) April 2002, pp. 37-41. Cell growth and 11(4) March 1999, pp.8-9. The ethics of human
division, key stages in the cell cycle, and the cloning and the advantages to be gained from it.
Textbooks complex control over different stages of mitosis.
■ Rebels without a Cause New Scientist, 13 July
2002, (Inside Science). The causes of cancer: the Internet
See the ‘Textbook Reference Grid’ on uncontrolled division of cells that results in tumour
pages 8-9 for textbook page references formation. Breast cancer is a case example.
relating to material in this topic. ■ Dance of the Chromosomes Biol. Sci. Rev.,
11(2) Nov. 1998, pp. 11-14. Techniques to explore See pages 10-11 for details of how to access Bio
Supplementary Texts the role of chromosomes in the cell cycle help us Links from our web site: www.biozone.co.uk.
Additional details of these texts are provided in the to find out what happens when steps go wrong. From Bio Links, access sites under the topics:
introductory resources section (pp. 4-6): ■ Fast Tissue Culture Biol. Sci. Rev., 10(3) Jan.
GENERAL BIOLOGY ONLINE RESOURCES >
■ Adds, J. et al., 2000. Molecules and Cells, 1998, pp. 2-6. Techniques for plant propagation
(includes design for a tissue culture project). Online Textbooks and Lecture Notes: • S-Cool!
(NelsonThornes), pp. 69-76. A level biology revision guide • Learn.co.uk •
■ Jones, N., et al., 2001. Essentials of Genetics, ■ Human Cloning Biol. Sci. Rev. 11(3) Jan. 1999,
Mark Rothery’s biology web site … and others
(John Murray), pp. 9-25. pp. 7-9. Nuclear transfer and the ethics of the
issues surrounding human and livestock cloning. CELL BIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY: • Cell
& molecular biology online • Cell structure and
function web links … and others > Cell Division:
Periodicals TEACHER’S REFERENCE • Cell division: Binary fission and mitosis •
■ Out of Control - Unlocking the Genetic Mitosis in the onion root tip… and others
Secrets of Cancer Biol. Sci. Rev., 11(3) Jan. 1999, BIOTECHNOLOGY > Applications > Cloning
pp. 36-39. The control of cell division: oncogenes and Tissue Culture: • Conceiving a clone •
See page 6 for details of publishers of periodicals:
and their role in the development of cancer. Tissue culture in the classroom … and others
STUDENT’S REFERENCE ■ Cloning for Medicine Scientific American,
December 1998, pp. 30-35. An excellent article
■ To Divide or Not to Divide Biol. Sci. Rev.,
describing the techniques and applications of
11(4) March 1999, pp. 2-5. The cell cycle: cell
growth and stages of cell division and their control.
cloning technology, including nuclear transfer. Software and video resources are
■ Mechanisms of Meiosis Biol. Sci. Rev., ■ Into the Clone Zone New Scientist, 9 May provided on the Teacher Resource
15(4), April 2003, pp. 20-24. A clear and thorough 1998, pp. 25-30. Where will the breakthroughs in Handbook on CD-ROM
account of the events and mechanisms of meiosis. cloning and genetic engineering lead us?
151
Cell Division
The life cycle of diploid sexually reproducing organisms (such gametes for the purpose of sexual reproduction. The difference
as humans) is illustrated in the diagram below. Gametogenesis between meiosis in males and in females should be noted (see
is the process responsible for the production of male and female spermatogenesis and oogenesis in the box below).
Gamete production begins at puberty, and lasts until Meiosis Gamete Meiosis
menopause for women, and indefinitely for men. production
Gametes are produced by the special type of cell
division, called meiosis, which reduces the
Cell Division
chromosome number to half. Human males produce
about 200 million sperm per day (whether they are
used or not), while females usually release a single Egg Sperm
egg only once a month. 1N Fertilisation 1N
(a) Mitosis:
(b) Meiosis:
3. Describe the basic difference between the cell divisions involved in spermatogenesis and oogenesis:
Nucleolus DNA is replicated to DNA continues condensing into Chromosomes continue Metaphase
form 2 chromatids chromosomes and the nuclear to coil up and appear as
membrane begins to dissolve double-chromatids
Interphase: Stages G1, S, G2
1. The five photographs below were taken at various stages through the process of mitosis in a plant cell. They are not in any
particular order. Study the diagram above and determine the stage that each photograph represents (e.g. anaphase).
Photos: RCN
3. Briefly summarise the stages of the cell cycle by describing what is happening at the points (A-F) in the diagram above:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Zone of
specialisation
a Xylem vessel
Root tip
Cell Division
growing in
RCN
Zone of this direction
elongation
Zone of
cell division c
1. Briefly describe what is happening to the plant cells at each of the points labelled (a) to (c) in the diagram above:
(a)
(b)
(c)
2. The light micrograph (below) shows a section of the cells of an onion root tip, stained to show up the chromosomes.
(a) State the mitotic stage of the cell labelled A and explain your answer:
(b) State the mitotic stage just completed in the cells labelled B and explain:
(c) If, in this example, 250 cells were examined and 25 were found to be in the
process of mitosis, state the proportion of the cell cycle occupied by mitosis:
B
A
3. Identify the cells that divide and specialise when a tree increases its girth (diameter):
2. Explain how the cell cycle is normally controlled, including reference to the role of tumour-suppressor genes:
3. With reference to the role of oncogenes, explain how the normal controls over the cell cycle can be lost:
Cell Division
desirable qualities such as wool, meat, or milk into a surrogate. These are at the blastocyst stage the same characteristics as the parents.
productivity. (a mass of cells that have begun to differentiate).
Egg
Sperm
Zona pellucida: a
Zona pellucida
coating that promotes
normal cell division.
Egg cells are removed At the first stage of The zona pellucida is An artificial zona is The cells continue to divide,
from an animal and development, one of removed with an enzyme added, allowing forming genetically identical
fertilised in a petri dish. these fertilised eggs and the two cells are development to proceed. embryos. These are implanted
divides in two. separated. into surrogates.
2. Briefly describe the possible benefits to be gained from cloning the following:
3. Suggest one reason why it would be undesirable to produce all livestock using embryo splitting:
for this, the long term viability of animals cloned from non-embryonic cells has was a factor in Dolly contracting the disease.
still to be established.
Donor cells taken from udder: Cells from the udder of Unfertilised egg has nucleus removed: In preparation for
1 2
a Finn Dorset ewe were cultured in low nutrient medium the nuclear transfer, an unfertilised egg cell was taken from
for a week. The nutrient deprived cells stopped dividing, a Scottish blackface ewe. Using micromanipulation techniques,
switched off their active genes, and became dormant. the nucleus containing the DNA, was removed. This left a
recipient egg cell with no nucleus, but an intact cytoplasm and
the cellular machinery for producing an embryo.
Finn
Dorset ewe Donor cell with
nucleus intact A time delay improves
Second
the process by allowing electric pulse
Cells are fused: The two cells (the 3 as yet unknown factors
dormant donor cell and the recipient egg in the cytoplasm to
cell) were placed next to each other and activate the chromatin.
a gentle electric pulse causes them to
fuse together (like soap bubbles). Fused cells
Egg cell without
nucleus
PHOTO: Courtesy Roslin Institute ©
Blackface ewe
Cell division is triggered: A second electric
4
pulse triggers cellular activity and cell division,
effectively jump-starting the cell into
production of an embryo. This reaction can
also be triggered by chemical means.
Dolly
Zona
pellucida
100 µm
Embryo micromanipulation laboratory in Hamilton, New Zealand. Such labs use A single cultured cell is injected underneath the zona pellucida (the outer
sophisticated equipment to manipulate ova (monitor’s image is enlarged, right). membrane) and positioned next to the egg cell (step 3 of diagram on the left).
Donor
cow
Lady
Cell Division
Elsie
10 cloned calves
Adult cloning heralds a new chapter in the breeding of livestock. Traditional breeding methods are slow, unpredictable, Lady is the last surviving cow of the rare
and suffer from a time delay in waiting to see what the phenotype is like before breeding the next generation. Adult Enderby Island (south of NZ) cattle breed.
cloning methods now allow a rapid spread of valuable livestock into commercial use among farmers. It will also Adult cloning was used to produce her genetic
allow the livestock industry to respond rapidly to market changes in the demand for certain traits in livestock products. duplicate, Elsie (born 31 July 1998). This result
In New Zealand, 10 healthy clones were produced from a single cow (the differences in coat colour patterns arise represents the first demonstration of the use
from the random migration of pigment cells in early embryonic development). of adult cloning in animal conservation.
1. Explain what is meant by adult cloning (as it relates to nuclear transfer techniques involving adult animals):
2. Explain how each of the following events is controlled in the nuclear transfer process:
(b) The fusion (combining) of donor cell with enucleated egg cell:
3. Describe two potential applications of nuclear transfer technology for the cloning of animals:
(a)
(b)
Stem
New shoot
Suckers form
Runners spread in new plants
all directions giving
rise to new plants
Root tubers form when roots become swollen
with food. In spring, each bud uses the stored
food to produce a new plant.
Garlic propagates via a bulb. Axillary Ginger is a rhizome from which new Tussock grasses propagate from The roots growing out of this potato
buds (called cloves) form beside the growth will eventually lead to the horizontal stems that grow from buds will form new tubers and eventually
existing bulb. formation of independent plants. at the tip of the rhizomes. independent plants.
Scion
Root stock
1 A leaf and axial bud is cut 2 The cutting is placed in a 1 A scion is prepared by taking a 2 The graft is covered in wax to
from the parent stock growth medium containing cutting. The scion is then grafted prevent infection and held
rooting hormones. to another plant (root stock). together with twine or raffia.
Cell Division
Root stock
Scion
Scion
Incision into
parent plant
A scion is removed from the parent Scion being grafted onto the stem of The graft is sealed and covered to The graft is then labelled for future
plant prior to grafting. the root stock. prevent water loss and infection. reference and monitoring.
3. Discuss how humans have benefited from the vegetative propagation of plants. Include reference to both biological and
economic benefits:
4. Distinguish between cutting and grafting and suggest when each might be used:
Culture medium
Callus
Greening and formation of leaf buds on a Normal shoots with juvenile leaves growing from a callus on media. Seedling with juvenile foliage 6 months
callus growing on culturing medium. They appear identical to those produced directly from seeds. after transfer to greenhouse.
Micropropagation is increasingly used in conjunction with genetic culture allows the multiple propagation of trees with desirable traits
Cell Division
engineering to propagate transgenic plants. Genetic engineering (e.g. uniform timber colour). Tissue culture could also facilitate
and micropropagation achieve similar results to conventional solutions to other problems that cannot be solved by forestry
selective breeding but more precisely, quickly, and independently management. When combined with genetic engineering
of growing season. The Tasmanian blackwood (above) provides (introduction of new genes into the plant) problems of pest and
a good example of a plant suited to this type of manipulation. It is herbicide susceptibility may be resolved. Genetic engineering may
a versatile hardwood tree now being extensively trialled in some also be used to introduce a gene for male sterility, thereby stopping
countries as a replacement for tropical hardwoods. The timber is pollen production. This would improve the efficiency of conventional
of high quality, but genetic variations between individual trees breeding programmes by preventing self-pollination of flowers (the
invariably lead to differences in timber quality and colour. Tissue manual removal of stamens is difficult and very labour intensive).
Information courtesy of Raewyn Poole, University of Waikato (Unpublished Msc. thesis).
(b) Explain how a callus may be stimulated to initiate root and shoot formation:
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of micropropagation compared with traditional propagation methods:
4. Describe a potential problem with micropropagation in terms of long term ability to adapt to environmental changes:
Terms of Use
2. Schools MAY NOT place this file on any student computer (including
student laptops), unless they have entered into a specific licensing agreement
to do so with BIOZONE Learning Media (UK) Ltd.