CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In terms of level of economic development, quality of life, access to opportunities, facilities and

amenities, standard of living and general livability, the gap between the urban and rural areas in

Nigeria is very wide. This leads to what is appropriately characterized as the rural urban dichotomy.

The rural areas are usually grossly neglected as far as development projects and infrastructure are

concerned. As a result of the relative underdevelopment of the rural areas when compared with the

urban centres, rural areas are usually zones of high propensity for our migration. The challenges and

prospects of rural development in Nigeria have been of great concern to the different tiers of

government due to the rate of rural-urban migration. Onibokun (2011) sees rural development to be

faced with the paradox that the production oriented rural economy relies heavily on non-productive

people who are ill-equipped with outdated tools, technical information, scientific and cultural

training and whose traditional roles and access to resources pose problems for their effective

incorporation into modern economic systems, whereas the consumption oriented urban economy is

flooded with make (people) many of who are either unemployed or unemployable, or marginally

employed or underemployed in the urban centres where they choose to live. As a result of this mass

exodus, the rural areas have become qualitatively depopulated and are progressively less attractive

for social and economic investments while the urban areas are becoming physically congested,

socially unhealthy and generally uneconomic to maintain.

There is an overwhelming need to accord rural development a priority on the ‘must-do list’ of

government at different levels if the rural communities must contribute meaningfully to the social,

cultural and economic development of Nigeria. A bulk of the Nigerian wealth is derived from

agriculture, and oil which lies in abundant quantity in rural communities. Current estimates put the

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rural population at over 80% of the entire population of almost 140 million people. So far, not much

in terms of infrastructural development has been done to bring this bulk of concentration of both

human and material resources to contribute optimally to national economy. The neglect has resulted

to the mass exodus of rural dwellers and in turn has made the rural area qualitatively and

quantitatively depopulated, and progressively less attractive for socio-economic investment. There is

the need to strengthen and encourage cooperative and community based initiatives in the formulation

and management of rural development programmes. Also, cooperative philosophy should inculcate

in rural dwellers as its grassroot appeals make it an ideal means of promoting sustainable rural

development. Non-government organizations with their advantage of non-rigid, locality specific, felt

need-based, beneficiary oriented and committed nature of service have established multitude of roles

which can effect rural development.

According to UNDP’s report, adult literacy in Nigeria stands at 28% and only 47.7% of the

country’s children have access to immunization against preventable disease. The report goes on to

add that just 30% of Nigerians has access to safe drinking water while a mere 33% percent of the

country’s population has access to electricity. Drawing its conclusion from the above quoted figures,

the UNDP ranks Nigeria 146th out of the 174 countries mentioned in the report. This means that

only 28 countries of the world are poorer than Nigeria, the world’s sixth largest oil producer. In

other words, Nigeria is one of the 30 poorest countries in the world. Although the UNDP report is

not flawless, it fairly captures the reality. Any person who lives in this country need not be a seer to

know that the country is in dire straits.

In this context, the need to analyze how far the NGOs are effective in rural development, what their

roles are, components of their development work, their consequences etc. was evident.

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1.2 Statement of Problem

Most social research efforts are motivated by the desire to combat one negative the phenomenon or

another. Within the context of this research, the negative social phenomenon in question is poverty, a

problem that has assumed alarming dimension in Nigeria. The problem with Nigeria is not lack of

human and material resources; indeed, the country is one of the most naturally endowed countries in

the world. The ambassador of Denmark, a highly developed Western European country with one of

the highest living standards in the world was recently quoted as saying that Nigeria is far richer than

his country. He was similarly reported to have said that the financial resources available in this

country are enough to ensure a decent living standard for every Nigerian. The envoy’s statements

reflect global opinion on Nigeria. What then is our problem? The problem of poverty in the midst

of plenty is primarily caused by the skewed nature of inadequate and poor income distribution in

Nigeria. The system in this country enables the rich to get richer while the poor get poorer. How can

we ensure that the disposable income in the hands of the poor, particularly the rural poor, is

enhanced? Another problem that exacerbates poverty is misplacement of priorities on the part of

successive governments of the country. Neglect of rural infrastructure only helps to compound the

problem of poverty in Nigeria. Rural-Urban migration which has seen to the loss of vibrant rural

youths to cities would not have been as acute if priority had been given to rural infrastructure.

Apart from the aforementioned, other problems such as limited access to credit facilities, high cost

of farm inputs and inclement geography all combine to compound the problem for rural poverty in

Nigeria. These problems shall be identified and solutions to them proffered in the documentation of

research findings.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

As the title implies, this research effort is primarily aimed at assessing the contributions of Non-

Governmental organizations in community development in Taraba State, Nigeria. The objectives of

the study are:

1. To assess the contributions of Non-Governmental organizations in the alleviation of rural poverty

in Taraba State, Nigeria.

2. To ascertain the possible benefits that the Taraba State rural populace may achieve through the

assistance of the Non-governmental organizations.

3. To determine the impacts of the NGO’s and its sustainability with governmental support in Taraba

State.

4. To highlight the necessary areas where the voluntary services of the NGO’s are most needed in

community development in Taraba State, Nigeria.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What have been the contributions of the Non- governmental organizations to alleviation of rural

poverty in Taraba State?

2. Have the Taraba State Rural people benefited from the non-governmental organizations

especially in terms of community development?

3. Can the non-governmental organizations’ support be used to assess the sustainability of

governments support in Taraba State?

4. How would the Taraba State government identify the most needed areas of attention in the rural

poverty alleviation programme?

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1.5 Research Hypotheses

Four (4) null hypotheses were developed to guide the study and will be tested at 0.05 level of

significance:

H1: The contributions of non-governmental organizations are very decisive factors in the success or

otherwise of community development efforts in Taraba State, Nigeria.

H2: The Taraba State rural populace has achieved some benefits through the assistance of non-

government organizations.

H3: The NGOs have played some roles in community developments and sustainability with the

Taraba State government’s support.

H4: The voluntary works and services of NGO’s are very significant to the financial burden of the

Taraba State government in community development of rural areas in Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of Study

This research is certainly not the first to be conducted on community development in Nigeria.

However, it is significant in its emphasis on community development and rural poverty alleviation.

Similarly, the study will be beneficial to the rural communities as it vividly explains the active roles

of NGOs in community development.

The government can also benefit from the study as it serves as a blue print toward the understanding

of the role of NGOs in community development in Nigeria and also how NGOs have relief some

financial burdens from the government in terms of rural community development and poverty

alleviations.

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This research work will serve as a reference point for future researches on the thorny issues of rural

underdevelopment and poverty and the roles of NGOs in overcoming the menace.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research shall cover the roles non-governmental and organizations in community development

in Nigeria. The research specifically focuses on the activities of TY Danjuma foundation which is

one of the NGOs involved actively in community development in Taraba State and other part of

Nigeria.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

This research is limited to TY Danjuma’s foundation due to financial and time constraints to

investigate the activities of other NGOs in the country. Data collection and storage system in this

country is far from being satisfactory. For example, it is difficult knowing the exact number of

officially designated rural communities in the country; there is a dearth of equipment necessary for

the gathering and storage of such information.

1.9 Profile of TY Danjuma’s Foundation

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or

legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United

Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government

and are not conventional for-profit business. The following is the profiles of TY Danjuma’s

Foundation:

TY Danjuma Foundation is a private independent Nigerian philanthropic organization committed to

improving the quality of life of Nigerians, by supporting primarily health care and education

interventions implemented by Not-to-profit, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) registered

and working in Nigeria.

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The foundation was established in 2009 by Lt. Gen. Theophilus Yakubu Danjuma, GCON – a retired

Nigerian Army Chief of Staff, and an astute and successful businessman. In 2010 the foundation

became fully operational and has continued to make grants.

1.9.1 Mission of TY Foundation

The TY Danjuma Foundation is committed to enhancing the quality of life of Nigerians by

supporting initiatives that improve access to health and educational opportunities.

1.9.2 Vision of TY Danjuma Foundation

To contribute to building Nigeria where all citizens have access to affordable quality health care,

education and equal opportunities to realize their potentials.

1.9.3 Values of TY Danjuma Foundation

 Enhance community health care by providing free medical services to rural communities

which lack adequate medical facilities.

 Improve the quality of education of children and young people (18 years and younger)

 Alleviate the extreme poverty in communities across the country by providing clean

drinking water, and encourage the education/empowerment of women.

1.9.4 How the Foundation Works

TY Danjuma Foundation works mainly through Non-Governmental Organizations and community

based groups in Nigeria. The working strategy of the organization through partnerships is intended

to build institutional capacity of groups, supporting innovation and ensuring that the funding

provided meets the needs of the target beneficiaries and is culturally relevant. In doing so, the

Foundation encourages its grantees to forge collaborations and partnerships with local, state and

national government agencies to enhance sustainability of the projects.

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The Foundation also seeks collaboration with other grant makers and international agencies working

in its target areas. Where necessary, the Foundation will leverage additional funding from other

sources to support partner’s initiatives.

An important component of the Foundation’s work is the dedication to documenting and analyzing

the project they fund to assist in strengthening their future grant-making and contribute in

influencing policies and practice in area they operate.

1.9.5 Partnership and Collaboration

The Foundation is aware of important actors and individuals working actively in it focus area and it

employ networking and partnership building as tools to expand their reach. The organization work

towards establishing a wide array of collaborative relationships aimed at leveraging additional

human and material resources to maximize its impact.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Issues of NGOs and their roles in human development especially in this century have increasingly

become issues of concern by many scholars and researchers in both private and public institutions.

Various organizations and individuals have made a lot of inquiry on the issue under different

dimensions and indeed a lot of literature have been documented in the area. This section therefore

intends to review some available literature on the subject matter as well as discussing the Theoretical

Framework that will guide the research.

This part of the work reviews the existing literature relevant to this study. Areas that received critical

review are the issues of Development and Human development as well as the concept of NGOs;

their relevance, challenges etc. Review of some of the empirical studies conducted in the area were

also carried out. Issues raised, arguments advanced and points of views stated by various scholars

also are critically reviewed.

2.2 Historical Perspective

The genesis of NGOs in Nigeria cannot be divorced from the genesis of NGOs in Africa in terms of

political economy considerations. According to Manji and O’Coill (2002) the precursors of modern

NGOs in Africa are the missionaries and voluntary organizations that cooperated in Europe’s

colonization and control of Africa. In other words, associations such as the Africa Society which

sponsored the exploration of Africa and created the informational resources for the invasion and

domination of Africa by European governments were the prime instruments which kicked off the

chain of events resulting in the ultimate consolidation of western and global capitalist development

as well as imperialism and the dependency and underdevelopment of Africa.

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According to Wagona (2007) however, the failure of African states generally and in particular, they

are together with their marks their failures to deliver development in all its ramifications created the

significance added impetus for their growth and development at least as compliments to private

sector and governmental efforts.

Brett (1990, in Wagona, Ibid) attributed the impetus in the growth of NGOs in Africa to the

changing attitudes of international donor community about development assistance. Taken together

with the failed state and market dysfunction thesis these arguments imply the existence wide deficits

of goods and services which necessitated the prevalence of NGOs as development, service, welfare

and economic production \mechanisms. Although the failed state and market dysfunction have

enjoyed tremendous credibility due to the widely prevalent albeit relative level of disorder,

insecurity, deprivation, instabilities, poverty, underdevelopment and chaos in Liberia, Congo,

Somalia, including Nigeria, consideration of political economy will rather place emphasis on the

regeneration of the political system to make it responsive to the functions of statehood rather than

endorse the fostering of NGOs as a more effective and radical, if not sacrosanct alternative to the

socio-economic underdevelopment of

Africa. Perhaps a slightly varied account of the organ of NGOs has existed for centuries, according

to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2007). However, by 1910 some 130 international groups organized a

coordinating body, called the Union of International Associations. The term, NGO was coined

around 1945 at about the founding of the UNO so as to distinguish private organizations from

intergovernmental organizations such as the UNO.

Since the 1970s NGOs have proliferated at national and local levels. At the international level, large

numbers have been created to address human rights, women rights, and environmental protection,

among others.

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According to the Britannica, the factors contributing to the growth of NGOs include globalization,

the increasing prominence of transitional issues (human rights, environmental problems, pandemics

etc) the growth in UN-sponsored global conferences (which includes parallel NGO for a, the

communication revolution (which has linked individuals and groups through fax, the internet, e-mail

etc). The spread of democracy (which has bolstered civil society and enabled individuals to form and

operate organizations more freely).

By the year 2000 according to Britannica, there were about 6000 recognized international NGOs and

more than 2000 were accorded consultative status officially by the UN and therefore granted the

right to attend its conference. NGOs were recognized as having played significance roles in global

campaigns against slavery, trade in Ivory, whaling, violence against women, apartheid in South

Africa and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

From another, but similar perspective McGann and Johnstone (2005) view the growth of NGOs as

part of the rapid evolution of the ―non-state‖ actors fuelled in turn by the perceived inability of

international and domestic institutions to respond to the socio-economic and political consequences

of the rapid advances of science and technology, growing economic interdependence, and the

transnational threats of pandemics, global warming, WMD proliferation which enquire coordinated

responses, create the need for partnering and fresh approaches in solving global issues. But McGann

and Johnstone have also identified the following additional factors as propellants to the rapid growth

of NGOs.

- Increased democratization and decentralization after World War II recognition of the importance of

civil society in promoting democracy.

- Increased demand for independent information and analysis.

- Improved communication technologies

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- Growth of states, non-state, (UN, WTO, World Bank etc) and inter-state actors (from 50 nations

and 60 intergovernmental organizations in 1950 to almost four times those figures today).

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework adopted for this study is the Participatory Development Approach. The

details of this theory are discussed below:

Participatory Approaches in theory have developed over the years from extractive one sided

appraisals (Rapid Rural Appraisals (RRA)) to mutual two sided approaches such as Participatory

Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA describes a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people

to share, enhance, and analyses their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act, to monitor

and evaluate.

The Three Pillars

Mascarenhas et al. (1991) identified that PRA has three foundations or pillars. The three pillars of

PRA are mutually reinforcing. The process of PRA and its methods are strengthened when field

staff share food, live together and learn (by exchanging information and experience) with the

community. PRA methods may be used by facilitators to engage groups in the community in all

stages of the project cycle: identification; analysis; prioritization; planning; monitoring and

evaluation. Communities may not have much free time (particularly women) and may also be

skeptical of development workers asking them questions about what they would like, due to unmet

expectations in the past. Group activities are used as a fun’ way to generate enthusiasm and

commitment to the PRA process in the community.

The facilitators try to ensure the following: -

 make discussions open rather that closed

 involve groups as opposed to just single people

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  visual rather that verbal communication

 Compare rather than measure existing and planned development.

These attributes are detailed further in (Chambers 1997: 146-150)

The correct behaviour and attitude is essential to supporting the pillars of sharing and methods.

Chambers (1997: 134) identified that: -

―Personal demeanor counts, showing humility, respect, patience, and interest in what people have

to say and show; wandering around and not rushing; and paying attention, listening, watching and

not interrupting. Having the confidence that they can do it‘, and transmitting that confidence….

The Reality of Participatory Rural Approach Chambers (1997) identified that bad practice, can be

analyzed under three heads:

a. Top-down fashion and spread

b. Behaviour, attitudes and training

c. Field practice and ethics.

These are not unique to PRA but have been highlighted by it. They are detailed in the following

sections. The following sections use the publication of Chambers (1997) as the main source.

Top down fashion and spread

i. PRA has been demanded by donors on projects and has been made to go to scale too fast, resulting

in the label being spread without substance.

ii. Quality has suffered from the very top-down centralized system, which PRA seeks to modify and

reverse.

iii. The behavioural, professional and institutional implications of PRA have not been understood, or

if understood not internalized.

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In the author’s experience, for PRA and its principles to be truly adopted by organizations, executive

members need to be included in the learning process along with the field workers, who need the

organizational support to be effective in responding to the community’s needs. The reason for major

changes, such as; longer time-frames; use of software as opposed to hardware indicators and

programme rather than project funding need to be fully understood at all levels of the organization.

This study adopts Participatory Rural Approach as a theoretical framework for the study, having

central to this research, this approach is found worthy to this study as it touches issues of NGOs

contribution to the development and specifically the need for participation of different stakeholders

in the process Human Development. It is a down-top approach to development, the bottom-top

approach where the local people are engaged directly in an effort to bring about Human

Development. This approach is considered as a solution to the problems associated with the Top-

down approach mostly adopted by Governments in their commitments to bring about Human

Development to their citizens. By people participating in an effort that would change their lives, they

will become more responsible for the success of their engagement toward achieving human

development. This reflects the exact idea of participatory rural approach theory.

2.4 Conceptual Framework

2.4.1 The Concept of Development

The concept of development cannot be strictly minimized to only one or two variables and its

characteristics are apparently dynamic. However, it is not altogether a semantic escapism for us to

search for a precise definition of the concept and how to separate it from related concepts.

Development is used to refer to the total transformation of a system thus when used to describe a

nation, it describes the transformation of the various aspect of life of the nation. In fact, development

implies a progression from a lower and often undesirable state to a high and preferred one. An aspect

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of a life of a nation that is always considered crucial has to do with the human aspect of

development.

Development is also seen in terms of attacking wide spread of absolute poverty, reducing inequality,

and unemployment. All these are being achieved within the context of a growing economy. This led

to the redefinition of development with growth and meeting the basic needs of the masses of the

population. Seers perhaps posed the fundamental questions relating to the meaning of development

when he asserts that: ― the questions to ask about country ‘s development is therefore; what has

been happening to poverty? what has been happening to unemployment? and what has been

happening to inequality? if all these three declined from high levels then beyond reasonable doubt

this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these problems

have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result

development even if per capital doubled. Seers (1969).

Seers definition is important for an understanding of development because it centred on the

improvement in the living condition of the individual. By implication it means that the economy

could grow without developing as corrected by Todaro ― there were for example a number of

developing countries which experience relatively high rates of growths of per capita income during

the 1960s and 1070s but which simultaneously showed little or no improvement or witnessed and

actual declined in employment, equality and real incomes of the bottom 40% of their population. By

the earlier growth definition these countries were developing. By the more recent poverty equality

and employment criteria however they were not. According to Todaro development is seen as a

multidimensional process involving the re organization and reorientation of the entire economic and

social system. This involves in addition to improvement of income and output, radical changes in

institutional, social and administrative structures as well as popular attitudes customs and beliefs.

Todaro (2003).

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According to Rodney (1972) Development is a many sided process, at the individual level it implies

change increased skills, capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility, and

wellbeing. At the social group development implies and increasing capacity both internal and

external relationship.

However, Goulet (1970) conceptualizes developmental change that involves the processes of

economic, political and social transformation within countries. He distinguishes three basic

components or core values of development which he identifies as life-sustenance, self-esteem and

freedom.

Life sustenance: this is concerned with the provision of basic needs. This approach

to development analysis (life sustenance) was initiated by the World Bank in the 1970‘s. Dennis

Goulet contends that no country can be regarded as fully developed if it cannot provide its entire

people with such basic needs as housing, clothing, food and minimal education. A major objective of

development, as observed further, must be to raise people out of primary poverty and to provide

basic needs simultaneously.

Self-Esteem: is concerned with the feeling of self-respect and independence. The belief, here, is that

no country can be regarded as fully developed if it is exploited by others and does not have the

power and influence to conduct relations on equal terms.

Freedom: refers to freedom from the three evils of ‗want, ignorance and squalor ‘so that people are

more able to determine their own destiny. He states that no man is free if he cannot choose; if he is

imprisoned by living on the margin of subsistence with no education and no skills. In this context,

the advantage of material development, according to Goulet, is that it expands the range of human

choice open to individuals and the society at large.

Moreover, all three of these core components are interrelated. Lack of self-esteem and freedom

result from low level of life sustenance, and both lack of self-esteem and economic imprisonment

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become links in a circular, self-perpetuating chain of poverty by producing a sense of fatalism and

acceptance of the established order.

Thus, from the conception of Goulet (1970), development involves both measurable and non-

measurable variables. It involves the condition of being developed as a state of mind and as a

physical condition measurable by economic indices.

Rogers (1969) defines development as type of social change in which new ideas are introduced in

order to produce a higher per capital income and level of living through modern production method

and improved social organization.

2.4.2 The Concept Community Development

Community development has been perceived as a program, process, method and movement

(Sanders, 1958). Over the years, the perspective of understanding community development has not

changed very much. Until today, in general, community development is viewed as a process of

providing a concerted effort to develop a community with the goal of improving the quality of life of

its members. Community development usually has three major elements:

(a) community members’ well-being or welfare involving both material sufficiency and non-

economic aspects of living such as health and education;

(b) resource development, involving increased production and efficiency; and

(c) organizational development, involving the maintenance and creation of social and economic

structures through which members of the community may channel their energies for the betterment

of community living (Baker, 1989:48). The ultimate goal of community development is therefore, to

develop members’ capabilities and potentials to affect their wellbeing and quality of life through

maximizing resources utilization to benefit them socially and economically. This could only be

achieved through effective management of community development programmes as well as having

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highly committed and well-trained professionals not only in the technical disciplines but also in the

community capacity building. The paper focuses on community capacity building as a community

development process. The concepts of community capacity building are discussed with the concepts

of change and community empowerment. The extension education and social auditing approaches

are discussed as strategies for community capacity building. Wherever possible, the discussion will

attempt to relate to the health care system and its providers.

Community Development as a Process of Change

Community development is a process that leads to change in many aspects of community living

which include social, economic, cultural as well as environmental. It is about continual

improvement, first with the help of change agents and later, by the people themselves to bring about

change in their lives, which ultimately improve their quality of life. Thus, the focus of community

development process is the people’s involvement (hereafter the word ‘community’ will be used)

whereby the community members come together to take action collectively to meet their shared

goal(s) or to generate solutions overcoming a shared problem. In the words of Rubin and Rubin

(2001), “Community development occurs when people strengthen the bonds within their

neighborhoods, build social networks, and form their own organizations to provide a long-term

capacity for problem solving” (pg. 3). Community members who have the capacity to do something

to enhance their quality of life are portrayed as having the ability to think, to decide, to plan and to

take action in determining their lives. Therefore, in any community development programmes both

economics and individual growth must be given equal attention so as to ensure that the process of

community development achieves its due balance of continuity and sustainability. The scope of

community development process can vary from a simple community initiative within a small group

to a complex or larger initiatives that involve a bigger number of community members. Regardless

of the number of participants in an initiative, the fundamental characteristic of a community

development is community organizing. People have to organize themselves before an action can be

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taken. Community organizing is about developing a democratic instrument within which community

members can decide or make some influence that affect their lives. In normal circumstances the

product of community organizing is a group establishment. The group can be an informal or formal

with or without a formal structure of leadership. Over time, the group develops

concurrently with the development of group members’ confidence, abilities, skills, knowledge,

experiences and so forth. In short, community development is a grassroots process through

participation within which community members become more competent, responsible, informed,

aware and sensitive about their living environment. The economic, political and social

environments are the ‘space’ and ‘opportunities’ for the community members to develop, strengthen

and enhance their capabilities and potentials. The community development process is not an

evolutionary process. The process must be planned in order to achieve effective results. Putting an

effort into that process is crucial. The effort can come from community members as well as from

change agents. In this sense, community development process requires not only to develop the

community’s capacity but also the capacity of change agents as well to address issues and problems,

to find avenues and opportunities, to meet the needs and improve certain situations or services. In

short, the whole notion of community development is about human-centred development and change

for both community members and change agents.

Community Capacity Building in the Context of Community Development

Before elaborating the term community capacity building, let’s try to understand the word

‘capacity’. Generally, ‘capacity’ can be referred to as ‘the doing abilities or 'power' to make things

happen’. In community development contexts, the major components of capacity to leverage the

process of community development are physical capacity (infrastructure and tangible resources),

economic capacity (fund, credit, grant – financial resources), supporting capacity (government

policy and practice), and lastly, the community capacity. For the sake of discussion, let’s say that the

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first three capacities in most situations are omnipresent, and usually they may not be within the

control of the community. Only the community capacity that can be developed by the individual and

community members themselves. Community capacity is the outcome of a dynamic interactive

process of knowledge, attitude, skill and practices of the community development enterprise. Every

individual has some amount of ability, i.e. capacity. An aggregate number of individuals living in an

area of settlement as one community, there is a potential community capacity. Embedded in the

community capacity are the human capital and the social capital. Both are community assets. The

former may include any achievement, skills, learned behaviour or experiences one obtains such as

facilitating a group, participate in problem solving process or even the ability to talk fluently. The

latter is about networking between the people. Putnam (1993) perceived social capital consists of

social network and norms that have an impact on the community productivity. This social capital

facilitates, leverage, enhance and enable the coordination and cooperation between individuals for

the mutual benefit of the community members. That benefit is the desirable outcomes which

eventually improves the community members wellbeing. From the above definition and explanation,

one could conclude that community capacity can be developed, and that the process is known as

community capacity building. Community capacity building is about creating a healthy community.

Healthy community in a broad sense is a self-reliant community, reactive and proactive community,

knowledgeable, confident and responsive community. A healthy community is always aware of their

rights, knows how to exercise it and to secure it, while from time to time the members are willing to

enhance their skills and knowledge. A healthy community always believes that they (the members)

can make a change by taking some actions collectively. Thus, a healthy community possesses the

ability to exercise their capabilities and potentialities as the human capacities. Community capacity

building is a community-driven endeavour aimed at improving their living conditions, economically

and socially by enhancing and exercising their personal, group or community capabilities. The

underlying philosophy of community capacity building is that the community members have or can

20
acquire the capabilities to control and manage their own lives within which the community members

have the ‘power’ to shape the development process. It is also believed that the community ability

and capability can be improved over time. Thus, community capacity building is not a ‘one-off’

enterprise in the community development process. Instead, the individual capacity, group capacity as

well as at the upper level, the community capacity can be enhanced, accumulated and advanced.

What are the mechanisms that enable such capacity building to take place? As far as health related

issue in the Malaysian context is concerned, there are at least two possible strategies or means,

firstly, through the extension education approach, and secondly, the social auditing approach. This

will be further explained in the later part of this paper.

The Relationship between Community Capacity Building and Empowerment

The main principle of community capacity building emphasises on strengthening existing abilities of

community members. This principle appreciates and accepts the community as it is, and at the same

time believes that their ability could be enhanced and developed in future. A minimal indication of

capacity building is that community members have shown some interest to participate in an ongoing

activity with reason such as to achieve what they want (even to meet their friends) or to solve certain

problem. This indicates that community members are willing to be part of a programme. In such

situation, there are space for improvement in which their capacity could be further developed. The

nurturing of capacity is an important and crucial element in community development process. When

the community capacity is increased, it leads to people's empowerment. Here, the notion of people's

empowerment is very much related to the people's abilities and potentials to make something

happens that benefit them. People's or community empowerment is about the people capabilities.

Exercising their capabilities through participating in activities organised and initiated by them or

facilitated by the change agents, for example, can increase the community power (i.e. abilities), in

that it enables community members to achieve their goal(s). Literally, therefore, empowerment is the

process whereby this 'power' is developed, promoted, gained, shared and facilitated by the

21
individual(s) or group members in their social interaction through which they are able to exercise

their capabilities to make, affect and bring about changes in the community, as the product of being

empowered (Asnarulkhadi, 1997 & 2001). A positive indication of community capacity is that the

people are active; more individuals are getting involved in issues related to their life. The end

product of an empowered community is the improvement of their quality of life and well-being.

Basically, there are four basic sources of community capabilities. They are knowledge, attitude,

skills and practice. These four elements are the 'building block' of human capacity. The most

important element is knowledge. Knowledge in its simplest form is information. It ranges from a

simple to a more complex, such as the know-how knowledge. Generally, in an informed-community

the level of awareness among their members are higher. Individuals who possess certain knowledge

are more aware and also have better understanding about the situation or issue related to their life,

which later influence their belief towards things. Belief, then, constructs attitude. Usually, people

who are more equipped with knowledge and more aware of certain issues or situations would portray

positive attitude. Positive attitude is then manifested in practice (or action) such as showing interest,

responsive, voluntarily getting involved and willing to take some responsibilities. With the

knowledge and positive attitude, it encourages community members to participate in carrying out an

activity organized by them or initiated by another party. Through participating, community members

are able to exercise their skills, while at the same time gaining new experiences and knowledge as

well as advancing their skill, which could lead to new practices. Ultimately, the capabilities and

capacity of the people are increased, thus also their empowerment level. At this juncture, the

community is able to control their lives, hence the quality of life. Figure 1 illustrates the

interconnectivity between the elements or components of community capacity building and

empowerment. However, it takes time and effort to build community members’ capacity. In fact,

before achieving the level of empowered community, in particular, assistance and support from

individuals with expertise is crucial. Who are the experts? They are the change agents. Change

22
agents are individuals or professionals that facilitate the development process to take place in the

community. They work closely with community members to offer assistance, guidance, advice,

consultation and sometimes counselling. In the context of health, doctors, nurses and other para-

medics are the professionals. Their presence in an institution within a locality (community) either in

the district hospital, health centre or rural community clinic (klinik desa) is to provide services,

curative and preventive, for the community members.

Strategies for Community Capacity Building

To increase the community capacity is to equip them with knowledge, attitude, skill and practices

that would enable them to function effectively in the community development process. Two possible

strategies that enable to develop and strengthen the community capacities are the extension

education and social auditing approaches. Both strategies can be used by health professionals. It is

not an additional task for them but can rather be embedded in their work practice.

Extension Education Approach

Traditionally, extension education approach has been closely linked with the field of agriculture and

in fact, it has been the single most important strategy employed in the agricultural and rural

development work. However, extension concepts and approaches have penetrated beyond the

boundaries of agriculture into the fields of preventive health, community nutrition, environmental

protection, family planning and development, consumer education to name a few (Rahim, 1995:2).

Focus of extension education has been on change and decision making. Generally, extension

education can be defined as a system of non-formal education which provides advisory services

using the educational process to help clients in acquiring knowledge and skills to cope effectively

with needs and problems facing them in their own socio-economic contexts. As a system of non-

formal education, extension education seeks to induce voluntary behaviour change among its clients

through their involvement in the planning, implementation and evaluation of intervention

23
programmes that would benefit them. As an advisory service, extension education disseminates an

array of information on new knowledge and technologies, skills and strategies based on research

results to help clients fulfil their needs and solve their problems. As a process, extension education

links clients on a continuous basis with evolving research-based and tested knowledge, technologies,

procedures and perspectives that may be in their own interest, and potentially useful to their own

purposes (Boone, 1989:2). In this regard, the mission of extension education is to help people to

develop their capacity and potential to manage and cope with changes in their environment. The

linkages between research and development and clients with the process of extension education is

depicted in Figure 2. Figure 2 illustrates that research and development can produce new knowledge

and technology to become the fundamental basis of extension education approach in any community

development endeavour. Extension agents (can readily be applied to health care professionals) are

to acquire these new knowledge and technology either through training programmes organized by

their organization (or other related organizations) or through seminars/workshops attended by

extension agents. Having acquired the new knowledge and technology, extension agents are to

disseminate them to clients. At this stage, extension agents must involve the clients in planning,

implementation as well as evaluation plans of dissemination. In other words, the target audience

(clients) must be guided by the extension agents in the whole process of dissemination so that the

target audience would understand the whole process and become aware and interested in the

programme. This process of involvement of target audience in the planning, implementation and

evaluation of programme forms the core process of facilitating and learning to induce voluntary

behaviour change among the target audience. Besides, this process of involvement also inculcates

the sense of belonging and ownership of the programme by the clients.

2.4.3 The Concept of NGOs

NGO is an umbrella term which encompasses a broad array of organizations, varying enormously

according to their purpose, philosophy, sectoral expertise and scope of activities. In the development

24
field, NGOs range from the large international organizations and charities (mostly based in

developed countries) to small community based self-help groups in developing countries. Literature

on NGOs makes a distinction between operational NGOs which are engaged primarily in designing

and implementing projects, and advocacy NGOs whose main purpose is to defend or promote a

specific cause (World Bank, 1996). NGOs have also been classified according to whether they are

more relief or development-oriented; whether they are religious or secular; whether they stress

service delivery or participation, and whether they are more public or private-oriented (Zacharia and

George, 2008). According to Wagona‘s (2007) NGOs are non-membership support organizations

involved in relief, rehabilitation or community development work in developed and especially

developing or Third World countries. They are part of the civil arena which provides a third

approach to development in addition, but not exclusive alterity to the market and the state.

The World Bank (1992) defines NGOs as ―many groups and institutions that are entirely or largely

independent of government and that have primarily humanitarian or cooperative rather than

commercial objectives. Clarke (1998) defines NGOs as ―private, on-profit, professional

organizations, with a distinctive legal character, concerned with public welfare goals. Willetts (2001)

says that no generally accepted definition of NGOs exists, but there are three other generally

accepted characteristics that exclude some organizations from being considered as NGOs. First,

NGOs should not be political parties or governmental agencies. They should not be any institutions

directly affiliated with any organizations of a government. In addition, they should not aim to

achieve any political power through their activities. Second, they should not generate profit. Profit

making companies are not NGOs. Third, all criminal groups should be excluded from the definition

of NGOs, although they do not belong to governments or private companies.

NGOs should have a benevolent purpose. Ahmed and Potter (2006) also narrow the definition of

NGOs by excluding government agencies, corporations, religious groups, political parties, private

hospitals, schools, sports organizations, fraternal organizations, and terrorist groups. Brett (1990 in

25
Wagona, 2007) identified the key features of NGOs as depending on donor funding, transparency

and two-way accountability (to donor and clients), the targeting of the needy or marginalized

segments of the population. Other concepts include Turner and Hulme‘s definition of NGOs as:

―Association formed from within civil society bringing together individuals who have common

purpose‖ (1997:200). Further, describing NGOs, Hulme (2001:130) characterized them as peopled

organizations that are not part of the state structures, are not primarily motivated by commercial

considerations or profit maximization, a largely self-governing, and rely on voluntary contributions

to a significant degree. Non-governmental organization NGOs know as private international

association consist of groups of religious, scientific, cultural, philanthropic, technical or economic

orientation, they do not involve in direct government participation e.g. of NGOs are the international

chamber, international red cross and red crescent, commerce, economics of west African states,

parliamentary Union. (The Coulmbes and Woife 1986). This definition emphasis on various

background (Field), which formed up non-governmental organization. This group are divided into

―relief oriented or ―developmental oriented‖ organization. However, according to the

Encyclopaedia Britannica (2007) NGO is a voluntary group of individuals or organizations usually

not affiliated with any government, which is formed to provide services or to advocate public policy.

It accepts that some NGOs are for profit corporations while the vast majority of them are non-profit

organization. Aina, (1990) is of the view that the last decades in particular has witnessed profuse

effort to place non-government organization (NGOs) high up in public agenda as veritable

instrument of development intervention, the disturbing issue, however is that not only is the

advocated capacity of non-governmental organization (NOGs) exaggerated, but such claim is made

without paying attention to the field. The unrestrained propagation of such a position is quitted

dangerous and misleading. As persistently maintained, advocacy and practice are two worlds apart,

sometimes without a bridge (Ukpong, 1999 and 1989). This definition stress that NGOs have

constraints which frustrate public expectation from them as well as gradually diminish the self-

26
confidence of NGOs. Both set of problem in turn, have shrinking effect on the operation capacity of

NGO, which reflect the common experience of both international and local NGOs.

According to Ghali (1995) stated that non-governmental organization are basic element in

representation of the modern world. And their participation in international organization in a way

guarantee of the latter political legitimacy. Globally, nongovernmental organization NGOs are

continuously increasing in number and as such development is in separable from the aspiration of

freedom and democracy which today animates international society. From the view point of

democratization, there is the need for participation of international public opinion and the

mobilization power of nongovernmental organization NGOs.

The failure of government to provides basic amenities needed by the people gave rise to the

formation of non-governmental organization (NGOs) is a term that has become widely accepted for

referring to a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by volunteer with no

representation or participation of any government. Olena, (1999) opines that NGOs is non-

governmental organization that is NGOs is non-profit association or group organized outside the

institutionalized political structure to realized particular constituency as local grass root area. NGOs

have also been referred to as non-democratic entities generally formed around committed set of

goals and having no affiliation with government or business establishment.

NGOs are private, self-governing, non-profit organisations promoting people centred development.

They are responsible to their donors and to the communities they work for (Davids et al., 2005).

Their primary objective is to render assistance to individuals or developing communities in order to

promote sustainable development at grassroots. Stephenson (Burgess and Burgess, 2005) states that

Peter Willetts, an authority on NGOs, argues in defining NGO that ―a commitment to non-violence

is the best respected of the principles defining an NGO‖. According to Jaggernath (Reddy, 1995)

NGOs are defined as ―private, self-governing, voluntary, non-profit distributing organizations

27
operating, not for commercial purposes, but in the public interest for the promotion of social welfare

and development, religion, charity, education and research. Specifically excluded are organizations

that promote the interests of specified individuals‖. Kane, quoted by Liebenberg (De Beer and

Swanepoel, 2000) is of the view that the concept may vary from ―charity in the noble and religious

sense of the term, to political associations, and local and popular development initiatives, which

makes a definition (Bekker, 2004) extremely difficult, and identifies three criteria that could assist in

their definition:

I. It should be privately set up (as opposed to being set up by the state) and structured, and

sufficiently autonomous in its activity and financing. This, above all, is what ensures its non-

governmental character;

II. It should be a non-profit making institution to ensure its ―voluntary‖ or ―benevolent‖ character;

and

III. It should support development. This is what ensures its ―public-interest‖ character, even if

governments have introduced legislation to limit the areas in which ―public interest‖ can be

exercised.

Pieterse and Simone, quoted by Davids (Davids et al.,2005), define NGOs as service organizations

that have a paid staff and that deliver specific services to an identifiable constituency, but not

exclusively (Cameron and Stone,1995). In essence, then NGOs can be defined as autonomous,

privately set up, non-profit making institutions that support, manage or facilitate development action

(De Beer and Swanepoel, 2000). NGOs are generally accepted to be organizations which have not

been established by governments or agreements among governments (Burgess and Burgess, 2005).

She further says NGOs have regularly scheduled meetings of their members ‘representatives,

specified decision-making procedures and a permanent staff. Their members are usually individuals

and private associations, rather than states, and they may be formally established networks of other

28
organizations. The consensus that has emerged from the committed discussion on the effective

strategy to overcome the failure of the ―last development decade‖ of the 1980 is to seek the active

involvement and participation of the affected people themselves in development process (Ukpon,

1990; ECA, 1990, Petel, 1987). The over centralize strategy of the top down approach which

conceive development process as a paternalistic and charity activity of the government rightly

viewed as a grassroots programme. Accordingly, the active participation of the local people in their

activities is considered necessarily for success (Durning, 1989). In their broadest conceptualization,

NGOs are hailed for their unique capacity to enhanced participation development initiative (the

editor 1991:6; United Nations, 1988). Therefore, the foregoing review has revealed that NGOs can

be characterized by dependence on donor funding ;the need for two way accountability and

transparency; the targeting of the needy and marginalized sections of society; absence of profit

maximization motive ; self-governance ; serving public benefit and interest; depending on

volunteers for service ; independence and institutional distinction from governments and the private

sector ; inherent values of democracy , diversity, variety , inclusion, and social justice as working

norms .

2.4.4 NGOs’ Goals and Motives

NGOs, main goals and motives may include relief, social and economic development,

and political roles (Ahmedand Potter 2006). The working goals and motives of NGOs cover almost

every area. The activities of NGOs are easily observable in emergency conditions. One of the recent

examples is the earthquake in Haiti. When the earthquake occurred in January 2010, NGOs were

among the first international actors who offered to help affected people.

They provided tons of food and clothing for desperate people who had lost everything in the

earthquake. The government of Haiti did not function to improve the situation, and the efforts of

other nations were limited in comparison to the work performed by international NGOs. They acted

29
expeditiously to provide emergency relief. The function of NGOs in disaster recovery was also

evident when the deadly Indian Ocean Tsunami hit countries in Asia in 2004. Many relief experts

were sent to India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. They provided first-aid, food, and shelters for

victims. The involvement of NGOs in affected areas was evaluated as one of the most effective ways

to deliver humanitarian relief (Cerny and Durham 2005).

In addition to the one-time relief, NGOs provide long-term humanitarian and development projects.

The NGOs’ goal of social and economic development is more related to long-term projects in

developing countries. In order to improve and change developing countries’ social and economic

conditions, NGOs have many substantial projects related to economic development, education,

public health, community development, water sanitation, etc (Ahmed and Potter 2006). Catholic

Relief Services, one of the largest US-based NGOs, provides mainly the services of public policy,

agriculture, education, emergency response, food security, health, HIV and AIDS, microfinance,

peace-building, a social safety net, and water sanitation. Their long term projects sometimes last for

more than 20 years. Many NGOs are also functioning to influence governments or other actors

politically. These NGOs are mostly advocacy and lobbying groups as described previously. Their

main goals are to change the policies of governments. Early human rights advocacy groups faced

substantial resistance from many countries. The standards for human rights were not clearly

articulated at that time (Clark, Freidman, and Hochstetler 1998).

However, many countries have come to work with human rights NGOs and respect their works.

Human rights NGOs have worked in the four major areas of human rights activities: education,

standard-setting, monitoring compliance with international standards, and enforcement (Smith,

Pagnucco, and Lopez 1998). Environmental issues have a similar pattern to that of human rights.

Environmental NGOs argue that governments should increase the regulations of

30
corporations to improve environmental conditions. Some NGOs ‘goals are to monitor other actors

such as state sand intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). NGOs have closely worked with the

World Bank. When the World Bank implements projects, NGOs not only cooperate but also monitor

for proper implementation. The Narmada dam is an interesting example of NGOs ‘monitoring work

on the World Bank ‘s projects (Fisher, 1995). When the Indian government received funding from

the World Bank to construct the Narmada dam, local NGOs allied with international NGOs protested

the project vociferously because of its impact on the environment and local people ‘s lives. The

World Bank withdrew from the project because of the large protests organized by NGOs and local

people.

2.4.5 Problems and Limitations of NGOS

The problem of NGOs is their inability to corporate with each other and form institution linkage

among themselves the reason primarily is because of the dependence on donation and grants which

made every NGOs claim that their organization is the most effective in helping the poor to support

the claim each NGOs tries to demonstrate or show to the community how it single handedly succeed

in designing and implanting innovation projects (Tender 1982:17).

Another constrain of NGOs is pressure faced from their donors who want result quickly. Which

made them irrelevant to concentrate on difficult task that will be required in assist the poorest of the

poor. NGOs concern are mostly on the poor, group with slightly higher level of incomes. The

impression is that they are accountable to the people. In reality they follow

for fewer procedure, that are not necessary harmful. This allows flexibility in operation and even

increases project efficiency lastly the donor grass root has been demanding a high level of

accountability on the part of the NGOs regarding project expenses, on the ground that detailed

record keeping takes times away from more relevant grassroots organizing activities. (Hellinger,

1987:24). However, Zacharia and George, (2008) have the view that, some limitations of NGOs as

31
vehicles for development have also been identified although it is difficult to generalize about the

sector as a whole. According to World Bank (1996), some NGOs have limited financial and

management expertise and institutional capacity. Others work in isolation, communicating or

coordinating very little with other organizations (including government agencies). Many may be

confined to small scale interventions and may not fully understand the broader social and economic

context in which they are working.

Another limitation of NGOs is that most of them are resource constrained organizations, dependent

on external funding. This poses what Craig and Porter (1997, p.219) call the problem of ―double

accountability‖, to the beneficiaries and to the source of funds. Balancing these two aspects is

challenging for most organizations, as most NGO funded projects tend to be more managed ‘than

participatory ‘. As a result, NGOs may end up being more accountable to the donors than to the

stakeholders (Shivji, 2004).

Blackburn and Holland (1998, p.82) argue that, ―NGOs face difficulties when adopting

participatory approaches if their funding agencies are not sufficiently flexible to accommodate the

changes, especially if such changes entail adjusting funding policies and procedures accordingly.

Also non-governmental organization (NGOs) role has also affected the women positively as

identified by Ujo, (2002) empirical evidence posited that women nongovernmental organization

(NGOs) set up in 1950 and women in Nigeria a radical organization set up in Nigeria NGOs are

hailed for their unique capacity to enhance participation development initiative (the editor, 1991:6;

United Nations, 1988).

In 1987 women have been in the forefront struggle for women emancipate and participation in

democratic governance in Nigerian women has changed politically, today there are women minister

and National Assembly member.

32
Also Otive and Bamidele, (2003) in the same vein observed that with nongovernmental organization

(NGOs) democracy in Nigeria would have become a mirage considering the militarization of the

society before May 29, 1999. Between the government, the international community or society and

also the civil society. The assessment was based on the role of citizen forum for constitution reform

(CFCR) a coalition of non-governmental organization (NGOs) committed to the nurturing of

democratic governance in Nigeria.

NGOs have become a familiar and clearly from discomfort or wariness on the part of government

about NGO playing an advocacy, even worse a watchdog, role latent tension that exist between those

who see themselves as the legitimate (i.e. elected) leader of pacific people and those who are seen, at

best as self-appointed guardian of the public interest are not helped by NGOs-bashing.

In the past decade or so, some NGOs in the pacific assumed strong advocacy role in support of

women’s right democracy and human right, peace and development, media freedom, good

government and the rule of law. They have also worked to try to ensure that states meet their

obligation in respect of international convections they have signed onto, or commitment they have

agreed to through UN conferences. Women’s NGOs in Fiji Samoa, for instance, played key roles in

shadow reporting on their countries performance in relation to their obligation to convention on the

elimination of all form of discrimination against women, on the elimination of racial discrimination

obligations. As organized pressure group, some of these NGOS came to acquire the kind of negative

image once reserved for trade unions, and become the bane of government.

2.4.6 General Characteristics of NGO

Swanepoel (2000), states that one of the central characteristics of NGOs is the fact that they are

―not part of a government and which have not been established as a result of an agreement between

governments‖. This is supported by the Development Bank of Southern Africa, which also states that

33
NGOs should be ―non-profit seeking, in that any surpluses generated during the courses of

activities are utilized to further the development aims and objectives of the organization.

NGOs have the following characteristics (Du Toit and Van der Waldt, 1998).

I. They are not established by legislation, but through initiative;

II. They render services to communities in society;

III. The support services are rendered and directed at uplifting people and

communities;

IV. The services are similar to those normally rendered by governments; and

V. They are important role players in the policy-making process.

According to Davids et al., 2005, the most common characteristics of development oriented NGOs

can be summarized as follows:

I. NGOs are institutionally independent of government. They are privately set up (as opposed to

being set up by the state) and are normally under the

control of independent board of directors or trustees;

II. NGOs do not have a profit motive. Any surplus generated during the course of their activities is

ploughed back into the organization;

III. NGOs are characterized by their voluntary association. This means that those supporting an

NGO ‘s development objectives should have the opportunity to join in its activities as partners in

development; and

IV. NGO activities are financed mainly through grants from donors (domestic and international)

based on their fundraising activities, with only limited government funding. Maharaj and Jaggernath

(Reddy 1996) argue that while South African NGOs share many characteristics of organizations in
34
other parts of the world, they have certain unique attributes that arose largely from their functioning

within the apartheid era. They further maintain that for reasons that are understandable, these have

hindered the effective functioning of

NGOs and have made the task of transforming their purpose and mode of existence even more

challenging. However, the structures of NGOs vary considerably. With the improvement in

communications, more locally based groups, referred to as grass-roots organizations or community-

based organizations have become active at the national or even the global level. Increasingly this

occurs through the formation of coalitions with other NGOs for particular goals, such, as was the

case in the case of the Bam earthquake for example.

A civil society is composed of three sectors: government, the private sector and civil society,

excluding businesses. NGOs are components of social movements within a civil society. In the case

of Iran, where civil society is not yet mature, NGOs can have an important role in strengthening the

foundations of an emergent civil society. The issue of independence is an important one in the

credibility of an NGO. It is hard for NGOs not to come under any governmental influence.

Individual governments do at times try to influence the NGO community in a particular field, by

establishing NGOs that promote their policies. This has been recognized by quite common use of the

acronym GONGO, to label a government-organized NGO. In addition, in more authoritarian

societies, NGOs may find it very difficult to act independently and they may not receive

acknowledgment from other political actors even when they are acting independently.

On the other hand, development and humanitarian relief NGOs need substantial resources, to run

their operational programs, so most of them readily accept official funds. It is thus important for the

NGO to have transparency in its operations and goals so that its relationship.

2.4.8 Typology of NGOs

35
NGOs can be categorized based on orientation and levels of operations. This classification is

discussed below:

a) NGO types by orientation:

Charitable Orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the

"beneficiaries". It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor

-distribution of food, clothing or medicine; provision of housing, transport, schools etc. Such NGOs

may also undertake relief activities during a natural or man-made disaster.

Service Orientation includes NGOs with activities such as the provision of health, family planning

or education services in which the program is designed by the NGO and people are expected to

participate in its implementation and in receiving the service.

Participatory Orientation is characterized by self-help projects where local people are involved

particularly in the implementation of a project by contributing cash, tools, land, materials, labour etc.

In the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and

continues into the planning and implementation stages. Cooperatives often have a participatory

orientation.

Empowering Orientation is where the aim is to help poor people develop a clearer understanding of

the social, political and economic factors affecting their lives, and to strengthen their awareness of

their own potential power to control their lives. Sometimes, these groups develop spontaneously

around a problem or an issue, at other times outside workers from NGOs play a facilitating role in

their development. In any case, there is maximum involvement of the people with NGOs acting as

facilitators.

b) NGO Types by Level of Operation:

36
i. Community-based Organizations (CBOs) arise out of people own initiatives. These can include

sports clubs, women organizations, neighborhood organizations, religious or educational

organizations. There are a large variety of these, some supported by NGOs, national or international

NGOs, or bilateral or international agencies, and others independent of outside help. Some are

devoted to rising the consciousness of the urban poor or helping them

to understand their rights in gaining access to needed services while others are involved in providing

such services.

ii. Citywide Organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry,

coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups and associations of community organizations.

Some exist for other purposes, and become involved in helping the poor as one of many activities,

while others are created for the specific purpose of helping the poor.

iii. National NGOs include organizations such as the Red Cross, professional organizations etc.

Some of these have state and city branches and assist local NGOs.

iv. International NGOs range from secular agencies such as ReddaBArna and Save the Children

organizations, OXFAM, CARE, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations to religiously motivated groups.

Their activities vary from mainly funding local NGOs, institutions and projects, to implementing the

projects themselves.

However, Desai (2005) has a feeling that NGOs can be distinguished into two groups: Operational

and advocacy NGOs. This may be interpreted as the choice between small-scale change achieved

directly through projects and large-scale change promoted indirectly through influence on the

political system. Operational NGOs have to mobilize resources, in the form of financial donations,

materials or volunteer labor, in order to sustain their projects and programs. This process may

require quite complex organization. Finance obtained from grants or contracts, from governments,

foundations or companies, require time and expertise spent on planning, preparing applications,

37
budgeting, accounting and reporting. Major fund-raising events require skills in advertising, media

relations and motivating supporters. Thus, operational NGOs need to possess an efficient

headquarters bureaucracy, in addition to the operational staff in the field. Advocacy NGOs will carry

out much the same functions, but with a different balance between them. Fund-raising is still

necessary, but on a smaller scale and it can serve the symbolic function of strengthening the donors'

identification with the cause. Persuading people to donate their time is necessary, but, in addition to

a small number of people giving a great deal of time, it is also necessary to be able to mobilize large

numbers for brief periods. External donors may not impose onerous administrative burdens, but

supporters still have to be supplied with information on an efficient regular basis. Major events will

aim to attract favorable publicity rather than raise funds. Therefore, despite their differences, both

operational and advocacy NGOs need to engage in fund-raising, mobilization of work by supporters,

organizing special events, cultivating the media and administering a headquarters. Only the defining

activities – implementing projects or holding demonstrations – serve to differentiate them. In reality,

the distinctions are not as sharp as the labels suggest. Operational NGOs often move into advocacy

when projects regularly face similar problems and the impact of the projects seems to be insufficient.

All the large development and environment operational NGOs now run some regular campaigns, at

least by supporting campaigning networks. Similarly, advocacy NGOs often feel they cannot ignore

the immediate practical problems of people in their policy domain. Human rights NGOs and

women's NGOs end up having programs to assist the victims of discrimination and injustice NGOs

are professionally-staffed organizations aiming at contributing to the reduction of human suffering

and to the development of poor countries (Streeten 1997). They do this in various ways, e.g. by

funding projects, engaging in service provision and capacity building, contributing to awareness, and

promoting the self-organization of various groups (Baccaro 2001). Meanwhile, Desai (2005) has

mentioned that NGOs have an important role to play in supporting women, men and households, and

expected that they can meet the welfare.

38
2.4.9 The Roles and Relevance of NGOs in Development

There are different views as regard to what roles should NGOs play in the development process in

developing countries. According to Manji and O‘Coill (2002) the ironic reality is that NGOs such as

the Africa Society which originally started by aiding the planning of African dependency and

underdevelopment through exploration which led to subsequent generic colonial conquest generic

dependency, and imperialism modern NGOs. Today, in Africa make marginal impact on the

continents resultant poverty and by virtue of their non-radical approach to the problems of global

exploitation of 3rd World resources through unequal exchange, refuse to partake in emancipator

struggles to liberate African ordinary citizens from political domination and oppression by sit-tight

imperialist lackeys like Mobutu Sesekou, Charles Taylor etc. NGOs according to this view cannot

alter the global equation in terms of allocation of equitable shares of the markets; indeed, it is further

argued that despite their wide ranging involvements in environmental, health, population and other

problems. At local, national and global levels, their piece meal or discrete and gradualist approach

deflects attention from the

imperative of radical transformation of exploitative elite/capitalist – worker/peasant relations

nationally and the imperative prosecution of global struggles to emancipate African underdeveloped

and dependent economies.

However, the role of NGOs involved in relief and development work has received increasing

attention in recent years, to such an extent that some scholars (Nelson and Wright, 1995, p.181) have

termed the 1980s ―the decade of the NGOs‖. This reflects a widely held opinion by many authors

and development agencies that NGOs are in some way better at relief and development work than

other bilateral/multilateral aid agencies. The World Bank (2001) estimates that over 15% of total

overseas development aid is now channeled through NGOs.

39
According to Yaziji (2006); NGOs offer a number of distinct advantages that can enhance the

provision of social services or the promotion of social needs, whether on their own or in cooperation

with business or government. They include the following:

i. They generally enjoy a great degree of legitimacy in the eyes of the public;

ii. They are well attuned to public concerns, and to the needs of specific groups

that might not be represented by the market or defended by the government;

iii. Their dense, extensive networks are different from those of the typical MNE or government;

iv. Their members and representatives have technical expertise in the issue at hand, often due to

having worked in difficult settings or with underserved populations;

v. They are often more cost-effective than their private or public partner.

Analysis of NGOs have identified several reasons why it is thought NGOs might be better able to

put participation into practice than the public sector. According to Nelson and Wright (1995), NGOs

claim to be innovative, flexible, not weighed down by bureaucracy and they are

independent/autonomous. This may allow them to follow non-conventional policies when compared

to governments and official aid agencies. Most NGOs are already operating at the grassroots level,

close to the poorest of the poor. This people first’ orientation may enable NGOs to have a clearer

understanding of poor people’s livelihoods strategies and perceived needs and better rapport with the

poor (Shepherd, 1998; Nelson and Wright, 1995). Further, many NGOs have experience in

participatory project design and skills in participatory research, community mobilization, facilitation

skills and group dynamics (World Bank, 1996). NGOs are indispensable because of the fact that

there is a limit to what governments are willing and able to do for their respective citizens.

Generally, their roles range from providing relief services, conserving the environment, contributing

to development projects or simply battling with governments over human rights issues (BBC News

40
World Edition, 2004). They are particularly critical in circumstances where State funds are limited,

political situations are fluid, natural disasters resulting from both predictable and unpredictable

environmental circumstances occur, ethnic strife is rampant, and the level of per capita income

severely restricts the ability to purchase needed goods and services – social, educational and

economic (Asamoah, 2003). This explains why donor interests and NGOs activities are more

common in some places or at some period than the other. For instance, in war-torn nations like

Somalia, Sudan, Iraq, Sierra Leone, Iraq, Congo, Rwanda, Ivory Coast, where governance

mechanism has been very greatly rendered inactive, the role and influence of the civil society have

been of great leverage, especially in helping the impoverished, the sick and the prisoners. Also in

most disaster areas like the Eskimo, the Nigeria Delta (in Nigeria), NGOs are playing lofty roles.

During the dictatorial military regimes in Nigeria, too many of such organizations existed as

advocacy and human rights groups. This explains why the practice of NGOs and civil society

organizations is more prevalent in the poor countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, South-East Asia and

Latin America. Even the curriculums of international/western NGOs make them look like they were

formed with Africa primarily in the minds of the promoters.

Toftsitova (2006) explained the significance of modern NGOs in the development process in terms

of the pursuit of values such as inclusivity, equal opportunities, accountabilities, transparency,

accessibility, responsibility and sustainability from government, businesses and general society.

These are considered requisite to development. For instance, transparency and accountability can be

seen to result in preventing corruption. Consequently, more resources are available for development

projects. Accountability also ensures the delivery of development projects by political elite

mandated to realize popularly determined manifestoes; whether or not NGO efforts sufficient

relative to the magnitude of challenges on the ground is another matter.

However, Bertha (2011) conducted a study on Challenges facing NGOs with a particular emphasis

on Zimbabwe. By means of comparative analysis of particular NGOs in Zimbabwe, the study

41
explores the challenges faced by NGOs in trying to maintain sustainable promotion and protection of

human rights in Zimbabwe. The study demonstrated that Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

have gained a very high status as the leading practitioners of development in Africa and that African

governments have reacted obscurely to the existence of these agencies. The study concluded that,

although they recognize the economic resources NGOs can raise, they tend to resist the political

pluralization contingent to popular development action. The study revealed that government’s

dominant rule and manipulation of the political process through fabricated charges, arbitrary arrest

and corruption efficiently undermined the human rights of the citizens. This political environment

created many challenges for the NGOs, with some leaving the country or stopping their operations

totally, some managed to sustain themselves through these challenges and they are still operating.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the methodology adopted in the course of the study. It discusses issues such

as design of the research, sources and methods of data collection; population and sample size of the

study, techniques of sampling as well as method of data analysis. These issues are explained in

subsequent parts of this chapter.

42
3.1 Research Design

This study adopts the survey method of research; the survey method studies both large and smaller

groups of a population by selecting and studying samples chosen from the population to discover the

relative incidence, distribution and interrelationship of the independent and dependent variables.

This research is designed to be both descriptive and empirical, for the purpose of obtaining data to

enable the researcher test the research stated hypotheses. This method explores the relationship

between variables in the population by selecting an unbiased sample and generalizing the findings on

the entire population.

This research adopted survey design with a view to examine the programmes of NGOs towards

Community Development in Taraba State of Nigeria. In doing this, variables that relate to the

activities of the NGOs are extensively assessed. These variables include income generation, health

and education. These variables are mostly qualitative variables that were collected based on

perceptions of respondents.

3.2 Sources and Methods of Data Collection

Data collection refers to the process through which empirical data are collected or obtained using

different methods, some qualitative, others quantitative. For the purpose of this study however, data

were generated from both primary and secondary sources.

3.2.1 Primary Source

43
For the purpose of this study, the primary data refers to the first hand data collected by the researcher

from the field. These data were gathered through the instruments of questionnaire, interview and

observation.

1. Questionnaire: The form of questionnaire used in this research is close-ended questions for easy

coding, tabulation and subsequent analysis. The questionnaire method was used because of its

reliability in providing required information. Apart of this, it is also economical as it permits wider

coverage at a minimum cost.

2. Interview

This research also used a semi-structured interview. This is because it avoids the rigidity of highly

structured schedules, which sacrificed depth for standardization; at the same time, avoiding the

weakness of standardization by the unstructured interview. Hence, the semi-structured interview

used in this study combined the benefits of both standardization and depth. In this research, Face-to-

face interview was conducted to some of the staff of NGOs, key informant beneficiaries, health

workers and teachers in Taraba States. They were interviewed on issues such as programmes,

projects strategies adopted by NGOs as related reproductive health, access to education and

microcredits schemes. Just as in questionnaire design, interview schedules were designed for each

category of interviewees to ensure easy facilitation of the interview. The method was used because

of its importance in complementing questionnaire method and it provides supplementary information

on the respondents and the situations, which may not necessarily be generated using questionnaire

alone. In addition, it clarifies some of the responses given in the Questionnaire and verifies some of

the answers given in the questionnaire, which appeared doubtful, based on data collected and on-the-

spot assessment carried out.

3.2.2 Secondary Data

44
For the purpose of this research, secondary data was also used. Secondary data source deals with the

information, which have already been generated and stored, in texts and files. The information

obtained from secondary source may be either published or unpublished. The instrument of

secondary data used included: data or information regarding the various projects

and activities undertaken by the NGOs under study, the number of beneficiaries reached, funding of

the various interventions etc. Other forms of secondary data explored included: official publications

of National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), National Planning Commission (NPC), and Central Bank of

Nigeria (CBN), and reports of various studies carried out by government alone or in collaboration

with other NGOs; united Nations Reports, scholarly articles, text books, unpublished research

materials, Websites and other related materials.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population in this study includes some of the workers and staff of TY Danjuma Foundation a

non-governmental operating in Taraba State, Nigeria, which was calculated to be 98 staff in number.

The target population consists of Directors, top management, senior and junior staff and support staff

of the organizations. The second were 102 beneficiaries of the NGOs interventions in the state; they

include women attending health centres, parents of pupils, beneficiaries of adult centres and the

beneficiaries of micro credit making the population to two hundred (200).

3.4 Sampling Techniques

For the purpose of this research, three sampling techniques were adopted. The first sampling

technique was the stratified sampling and was applied to the NGOs staff sample. The second was the

45
simple random and was applied to the health staff, teachers and beneficiaries’ samples. The third

sampling technique was accidental sampling and was applied to the beneficiaries sampling.

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

The basic instrument used for the collection of data is the questionnaire and interviews.

Questionnaire is a formalized schedule for collecting data from respondents. In designing the

questionnaire, the structured pattern was adopted. Conscious efforts were made to eliminate any

ambiguous question. It was made of dichotomized and multiple choice questions. The questionnaire

was given to the workers and staff of the chosen non-governmental and non-profit multinational

agencies. The interview gives an on the spot responses from the respondents. It complements the

data gotten from the questionnaire.

3.6 Test of Validity and Reliability of Instrument

According to Odo (1992), validity is the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

The instrument used for collecting data was valid since data were got using the instrument

effectively. Also, Odo (1992) further stresses that reliability of an instrument is a process of

obtaining information on the degree to which a measure yields similar result for the same subjects at

different yields similar result different conditions on consistent, dependable, stable, predictable and

accurate way. Therefore, the research instrument used was very reliable as consistent information

was elicited from the workers through questionnaire extended to the selected population in different

ways. The reliability of data was established through a consistency test. This involved a test and

retest exercise. The same questionnaire was administered to the same respondents on two occasions.

The copies of the questionnaire completed by each respondent were paired and scored. The

responses showed a high degree of consistency thus showing the reliability of the data collected.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

46
The data collected were analyzed using tables and percentages, in which descriptive and quantitative

methods were applied for data analysis. The descriptive analysis was applied to the information

collected from the personal interviews. Both descriptive and quantitative analyses were applied to

the information collected from the questionnaire. The Chi-square test statistic was used to test the

hypothesis. The formula for the chi-square is given as follows: -

(Oi−ei)2
X2 (r-1_ (C-1) = ∑ ei

Where:

X2 = Chi-square

r = Number of rows

C = number of columns

∑ = Summation

Oi = Observed frequency

ei = Expected frequency

The analysis and workings will be shown in chapter four.

47
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the data collected from respondents, as well as the results of their analyses and

discussion of results. The presentation and analyses are according to the research questions.

4.1 Data Presentation

Table 4.1 Distribution of roles of NGOs in community Development as identified by NGO

S/N Roles of NGOs Frequency Percentage (%)

1 Promoting community self-help effort 20 34.5
2 Training and re-training of 44 75.9
beneficiaries
3 Promoting active Participation 28 48.3
4 Provision of Welfare Package 17 29.3
5 Awareness Creation and Sensitization 33 56.1
6 Enhance Income Generation activity 14 24.1
7 Improving Social Services 23 39.7
8 Mentoring Community Based 16 27.6
Organizations
9 Representation of citizens at decision 21 36.2
making

Table 4.1 shows that, 75.9% of the NGOs had attributed immense roles they played through training

and re-training of community members to appreciate the value of self-help efforts. This was

vigorously pursued through enlightenment and sensitization for self – awakening. This is in line with

Anyanwu, (1990) that, Citizens’ participation could best be achieved through training and re-training

on the values of self-help which is of the people, by the people and for the people. Also Aliyu,

(2012) reported that, training and capacity building is aimed at strengthening the effectiveness of an

individual, which in turn enhances the level of participation in any community development

programme. The finding is similar to that of Aliyu, (2012) quoting Oshuntogun (1996) who found

that training strengthens people and makes them to be very efficient in discharge of their activities.

48
Only 24.1% played role of promoting income generation activities perhaps due to their nature, most

of the Local NGOs are not for profit. This implies that, community members might not be

economically independent of local NGOs near future.

Table 4.2: Distribution of beneficiaries based on their perception of the contribution of NGOs in

community development.

Contribution/effects of NGOs Frequency Percentage (%)

activities
1 Increased enrolment of children in 154 77
schools
2 Enhanced health care service delivery 141 70.5
3 Increased yield and production levels 133 66.5

4 Increased women participation in 97 48.5

development

5 Increased income level of community 77 38.5

6 Increased supply of basic social 65 32.5

services

7 Improved shelter and clean 48 24

environment

8 Supported eradication of extreme 39 19.5

poverty

9 Increased access to information and 30 15

knowledge

10 Reduced maternal and child mortality 12 6

rates

Table 4.2 shows a number of effects of community development activities executed in the area by

the NGOs. Increased enrolment of children in schools through mobilization and enlightenment took

the lead. Where people are educated their capacities would be developed and could facilitate sense of

belonging and ownership of community development activities and partake in community

development programme. This is in line with Samuel (2005) who reported that, education being a

49
weapon for human transformation had resulted into meaningful achievements of the yearnings and

aspiration of the community through organized effort that enable the beneficiaries to realize and

exploit their potentialities to the fullest. The least score

recorded for reduction of maternal and child mortality is not unconnected with the fact that, majority

of local NGOs don’t have interest on maternal and child health related issues; the international

development organizations take lead of promoting maternal and child health related issues in the

state.

Table 4.3 Comparison of the roles played by NGOs and beneficiaries perception about NGOs

contributions in community development.

Parameters N Mean Std. Dev. Df. Level of Sf. Tcalculated tcritical

Remark
NGOs’ Role 9 11.122 4.4480 17 0.05 0.446 1.740 Not
in community significant
development

Beneficiaries 10 10.000 6.2498

perception
toward
contributions
of NGOs
p<0.05

Table 4.3 shows that, tCalculated and tCritical values are 0.446 and 1.740 respectively at 0.05 level of

significance. Since tCalculated = 0.446 < tCritical = 1.740, this shows that, there is no significant difference

in roles and perception of the contributions of NGOs in community development in the study area.

Therefore, both NGOs and beneficiaries indicated same roles and contributions of NGOs to

community development. This implies that, community members recognize the roles played by the

50
local NGOs in promoting community development in their areas and that, the local NGOs claims

have been verified.

Table 4.4 Perception of beneficiaries on NGOs efforts towards community development (n = 200)

Parameters Frequency Percentage

1 NGOs improve the standard of living of
rural communities
SA 108 54.0
A 66 33.0
N 14 7.0
D 9 4.5
SD 3 1.5
2 NGOs promotes self-help efforts in rural
communities.
SA 59 29.5
A 89 44.5
N 34 17.0
D 12 6.0
SD 6 3.0

3 NGOs improves the welfare of

communities
SA 81 40.5
A 66 33.0
N 29 14.5
D 11 5.5
SD 13 6.5
4 NGOs contributed to great extent
community development.
SA 75 37.5
A 86 43.0
N 30 15.0
D 7 3.5
SD 2 1

Total 200 100.0

Key: SA: Strongly Agreed, A: Agreed, N: Neutral, D: Disagreed, SD: Strongly Disagreed

Table 4.4 shows that, the NGOs had contributed immensely towards improvement of lives and

expectancy and had resulted in the improvement of community welfare and productivity. This is

likely so because people always appreciates who benefit them. The indifferent could be attributed to

51
low level of education of the beneficiaries that could not critically analyze previous and current

situations to be able to tell if there is any change. In agreement to this finding is the result of Manga

(2012) who reported that support is sometimes extended to individuals, group and communities and

is aimed at improving their livelihood activities and is expected to result in their improved

wellbeing.

Table 4.4 also shows that, beneficiaries attest to the fact that, NGOs promotes self-help efforts in the

community. This is not surprising as government and non-governmental interventions are not

permanent in the communities and hence, the need for the community member to help themselves.

This is in line with Zaki (2003) ‘rural communities are faced with numerous problems and

government alone cannot provide everything for all its citizens, hence community groups are formed

to arrest such problems. This was further corroborated with principles of community development by

Anyanwu (1999) who reported that principle of self-help – this is the main end product of

community development. Enables people to exploit to their advantages the resources which could

otherwise be dormant. Make use of under-utilized labour. Increase the component and confidence of

a community in the heading of its affairs. Constitute a pre-requisite for survival in the modern world.

Enables people to change the way they look at their responsibilities, and help them to cultivate the

sense of local initiative and effort. Enhances the development of democratic values and processes;

promote the idea of ultimate control by the people; fosters a substantial degree of freedom by

individual and groups; leads to a considerable amount of government decentralization. Promotes

wide spread citizen’s participation. Table 4.4 shows, that beneficiaries have confessed that, NGOs

activities in the study area are enormous to changing welfare status of beneficiaries through series of

welfare packages and income generation activities that improves economic capabilities of

beneficiaries. If people sufferings are eliminated they tend to be removed from bondage of poverty

and insecurity. Their lives will be better up. This result is similar that of Adeola, et al. (2008) that

conducted a research on the effect of the federal government special programme on rice yield and

52
farmers’ income and reported an increase in mean income of the respondents after the programme

and concluded that the programme has impacted positively on the respondents. Table 4.4 also

indicates that NGOs efforts in improving community are of great importance to the beneficiaries and

had acknowledged NGOs roles. These efforts were well received and appreciated by the

beneficiaries. The least score 1% that reported strongly disagree might be due to lack of awareness

that a particular effort is done by an NGO not government.

Table 4.5 Comparison of the roles of NGOs by the beneficiaries according to Sex.

Sex N Mean Std. Dev. Df. Level of Sf. tcalculated tcritical Remarks
Male 141 7.50 2.609 198 0.05 0.695 1.645 Not
Significant
Female 59 7.81 3.442

Table 4.5 revealed that, tCalculated and tCritical values are 0.695 and 1.645 respectively at 0.05 level of

significance. Since tCalculated = 0.695 < tCritical =1.645. This indicates that, there is no significant

difference in perceptions of the roles of NGOs by beneficiaries based on sex. Hence, both males and

females in this study perceived the roles of NGOs as the same. Even though women were not many

in the study but the result shows same perceptions perhaps men had influenced their choice. Women

are always submissive to the will of their husband, hence the influence.

Table 4.6 Distribution of beneficiaries’ perception of problem

Problem of community Frequency Percentage (%)

Development
Financial Constraints 189 94.5
Inadequate personnel 164 82
to implement program
Low level of government 120 60
Support to NGOs
Low level of community 123 61.5

53
Commitments
Negative attitudes of 20 10
Beneficiaries to
Community development

Table 4.6 shows that NGOs face a number of problems that hinder their development. Inadequate

funds and funding support constitutes a great challenge towards achieving their desired objectives.

While the least was the poor attitudes of beneficiaries to community development. This is in line

with Keck and Kathryn, (1998)” Funds play a vital role in any NGO for execution of its projects,

Programmes or activities, which are development oriented to their community. Hence funding

agencies, donors, sponsors, are very important to all NGOs”.

Table 4.7: Distribution of problems of NGOs as perceived by themselves (NGOs)

Problems of NGOs Frequency Percentage (%)

Financial constraints 50 86.2

Inadequate Personnel 24 41.4

Low level of community 21 36.2

Commitments

Low level of government 29 50

and donor support

Negative attitude of 29 50

Beneficiaries to community

development

Table 4.7 shows that, NGOs have realized that they face some problems that affect their full

performance and financial constraint took the lead. The least 10.1% was the poor attitudes of

beneficiaries towards community development activities. This implies that, inadequate funds and

funding support constitutes a great challenge towards achieving the desired objectives. This means

54
that, achieving significant impacts of promoting community development initiatives in the study area

might not be realized if funds are not available.

Table 4.8 Comparison of proportion on NGOs’ problems by beneficiaries and NGOs

Person square Chi-Number of Df. Level of sf. x2calculated x2critical Remark

Valid cases

Beneficiaries 200 4 0.05 7.134 9.49 Not

and NGOs Significant

Table 4.7 shows that x2Calculated and X2Critical values are 7.134 respectively at 0.05 level of

significance. Since x2 Calculated = 7.134 < x2Critical = 9.49. This indicates that, there is no

significant difference in the proportion of problems of NGOs as perceived by the beneficiaries and

the NGOs themselves. Hence, both have same perceptions in regards to Problems that hinder NGOs

progress towards community development programs. This implies that, NGOs and beneficiaries can

jointly work together to address the impediments identified and that, the problems identified is no

longer that of NGOs alone but the communities themselves.

Table 4.8: distribution of beneficiaries according to forms of assistance required from government to

supplement the efforts of the NGOs

Forms of assistance Frequency Percentage (%)

Increase funding support 149 74.5
Increase level playing ground 126 63
Collaboration engagement 130 65
Support program implementation 130 65
Administrative support 87 43.5
Capacity development opportunities 35 17.5
Enabling environment for donors 33 16.5

55
Table 4.8 shows that, for NGOs to be effective in their functions, there is need for government and

other institutions to provide assistance such as funds and skills to the NGOs. In line with Samuel

(2005) who reported that, government provides funds, contracts and training opportunities to give

special encouragement to NGOs activities in priority areas without undermining NGOs autonomy

and independence; broad agreement is sought with NGOs on such priorities by establishing formal

consultation with NGO leaders. For a such as the Council for Advancement of People Action and

Rural Technology (the body which channels government funds to NGOs in India) and the

forthcoming Community Action Program (a local government scheme for financing NGOs and

community initiatives in Uganda) are illustrations.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the Summary of the study, Conclusion and Recommendations.

5.1 Summary

The study investigates the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in community

development. A questionnaire was administered to 102 randomly selected beneficiaries of NGOs

activities. Another questionnaire was administered to 98 purposively sampled officials of NGOs for

the study. Descriptive such as (frequencies and percentages) and inferential statistics like t-test and

correlation were used to analyze the data collected from the field. The study revealed that, NGOs

contributes significantly to community development in various ways such as through community

self-help efforts; training and re-training of community members and awareness creation and

sensitization of community members. It was revealed that, these efforts resulted to many

improvements such as increased enrolments of children in schools; improved health care service

delivery; and increased agricultural yields. The research has shown that, beneficiaries provide water;

labour and venue during execution of community development efforts. The study identified

problems militating against smooth running of NGOs activities: inadequate funds and personnel; low

level of beneficiaries ‘commitments; and low level of government support.

5.2 Conclusion

From the findings of the study, it could be concluded that NGOs has immensely contributed to

community development initiatives through training and re-training as well as sensitization and

mobilization of beneficiaries on the importance of self-help. It could be concluded that beneficiaries

also contribute to their development if adequately mobilize to do so. It was further more concluded

57
that, beneficiaries have positive perception to the critical roles of NGOs towards improving their

livelihoods. From the findings of the study, it could also be concluded that government places a

minimal effort in support NGOs initiatives in community development in the study area. It could be

also concluded that, occupation of beneficiaries determines their income level and that is no

significant difference in the perceptions of beneficiaries on the roles and problems of NGOs in the

study area.

5.3 Recommendations

After careful examining the roles of NGOs in community development in the study area and results

that depicts challenges to community development in the area; the following recommendations were

proposed to make NGOs effective in delivering community development services.

i. Government, individuals and other agencies should increase their support to NGOs. These

support should include, provision of enabling working environment, provision financial,

materials and technical report.

ii. Beneficiaries of community development programmes and activities should continue to

support activities of the NGOs in their areas and should ensure maintenance and

sustainability of the completed community development projects.

iii. Citizens should form more NGOs to complement government efforts towards community

development.

iv. NGOs should be more dedicated in execution of community development activities

especially through promotion of self-help. They should also be interested in promoting

livelihoods of rural dwellers;

v. NGOs should always carry beneficiaries along planning, execution and even evaluation of

any community development activities in their domain. This will promote sustainability and

ownership of the project.

58
vi. Beneficiaries should increase their participation levels in community development through

actively contributing to all community development efforts.

59
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