#374 – The Elements of Fire Sprinkler

System Design

Fire sprinkler design takes expertise

and meticulous planning
Fire sprinkler systems save lives. When a fire breaks out,
sprinklers control the blaze by cooling and wetting surfaces to
deprive it of fuel sources and prevent flashover, the sudden
ignition of everything in a room when it reaches autoignition
temperature.

But how are fire sprinkler systems designed, from head types to
pipe to pressure? It’s a pretty complicated process, so we
obviously can’t explain everything. But this article gives an
overview of the steps of fire sprinkler system design, including:
  Identifying and evaluating the water supply

 Determining what kind of sprinkler system the building

needs

 Identifying the hazard level of the building and the

protection required

 Picking and laying out sprinkler heads

 Choosing and laying out pipe

At each step, we explain broadly what a designer has to do,

including the calculations (financial and technical) involved. We’ll
frequently refer to NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of
Sprinkler Systems  (2019 edition), the document adopted by
jurisdictions that govern commercial fire sprinkler system
design.

Fire sprinkler design is a detailed process, and designers

are highly skilled and qualified professionals. They frequently
hold a Professional Engineer (PE) certification and meet local and
state licensing standards. Jurisdictions often defer testing and
licensing for sprinkler system layout to the National Institute for
Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET). Usually, at
least a NICET Level III Water-Based System Layout certification is
required to work without supervision as a sprinkler system
designer.

Fire sprinkler systems are complicated, as is fire protection. If you

have questions, we have answers. Our  Ask a Fire Pro  service lets you
submit inquiries to fire protection professionals. In three business
days or less, they’ll respond with an easy-to-understand answer
based on technical expertise and relevant laws and model codes
and standards. Submit your questions today!

Start with the basics—determining the

water supply
Sprinkler system design begins with water— everything else
depends on having enough of it ready to control a fire. NFPA 13
requires an automatic water supply for sprinkler systems
(5.1.2), meaning that the water will flow through sprinkler heads
without any human intervention.

Many possible sources can be used, including city water, ponds,

rivers, reservoirs, water tanks, pressure tanks, and gravity tanks
or water towers. But in most cases, a municipal waterworks is
the go-to supply.

Whatever the source, it must have sufficient capacity for fire

control (5.1.3). The factors that determine capacity include flow
rate (in gallons per minute, GPM), pressure (in pounds per
square inch, PSI), and duration (how long it can maintain the
required pressure and flow). For a municipal water supply,
capacity is determined with a flow test performed at nearby fire
hydrants.

A flow test requires at least two hydrants, A and B. First, a static

pressure reading is taken at hydrant A while neither hydrant is
flowing water. Then, hydrant B is opened wide and another
pressure reading is taken at hydrant A. This residual pressure
reading is the amount of pressure that can push water through
sprinkler heads (minus some losses). A pitot tool is used to
measure the pressure of the water flowing from hydrant B. In
this video, Grapevine, TX’s fire department shows how to
conduct a flow test:

This value is used to calculated flow as follows:

Q=29.83 x C x d2 x

With:

Q = flow rate (GPM)

C = C-factor, the roughness coefficient of the hydrant outlet

d = inside diameter of the outlet

P = pressure observed at hydrant B

The water supply capacity is the foundation of sprinkler system

design. Many of the steps following this one are all about
ensuring hydraulic demands won’t exceed this capacity.
Designers choose pipes and sprinklers to make the hydraulic
calculations work out. If they can’t do it with the available flow
and pressure, they have to resort to using a fire pump (which
may cost tens of thousands of dollars) to boost the water supply.
Check out our blog for  more information about tools and kits used
for flow tests. If you are conducting flow tests, shop for  test
kits,  pitot gauges, and  hydrant wrenches.

Know the building—what kind of

sprinkler system does it need?
If the first step of sprinkler system design is knowing the water
supply, the second is understanding the building. Sprinkler
system designers sit down with the architectural and
engineering plans to sort out just what the building needs from a
sprinkler system. Is it a residential structure? Industrial? How
significant is the fuel load? Will it have climate control?

Questions like these. determine the requirements the system

should meet and what kind of sprinkler system is
appropriate.

NFPA 13, NFPA 13R, or NFPA 13D—which standard

to use?

As mentioned, NFPA 13 is the go-to standard for commercial

sprinkler system design. NFPA 13-compliant systems
are defined by full sprinkler coverage. The standard is typically
used in commercial facilities—offices, mercantile spaces,
warehouses, industrial buildings, etc.

Two alternatives to NFPA 13 exist:

 NFPA 13R: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in

Low-Rise Residential Occupancies
  NFPA 13D: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes.

NFPA 13R and NFPA 13D both focus on affordable and

convenient life safety protection, so they don’t require sprinklers
in unoccupied spaces like closets and attics. But in some larger
residential settings, a full-coverage NFPA 13 system is still used.

Does the building need a wet, dry, or preaction

system?

In addition to determining the standard, designers also have to

figure out whether a building needs a wet pipe system, dry pipe
system, or preaction sprinkler system.

Most buildings simply use a wet sprinkler system in which

water fills the pipes at all times. As soon as a sprinkler head
operates, water flows.

Structures like parking garages where freezing is a concern

need dry pipe systems, so named for the absence of water in
the pipes. A dry valve, held shut by a pressurized gas, stops the
water in an insulated section of the pipe until its needed. When a
sprinkler head activates, the gas depressurizes, the dry valve
opens, and water flows.
Parking garages and other structures without climate control often use dry
sprinkler systems to prevent water in pipes from freezing. Image
source: ArmourCo

Where the cost of an accidental discharge would be severe (such

as in an art gallery), a preaction system may be used. Water is
held back by a preaction valve, which may also function as a dry
valve. Activation also relies on a separate trigger, such as electric
input from a smoke or heat detector, providing another layer of
control over whether the water flows from sprinklers.

Know the building—how much water is

needed for fire sprinkler design,
including the hazard level?
How much water does it take to control a fire? This depends on
many factors, including the size of the fire and the type of fuel.
Three conceptual tools help designers plan systems that can
produce sufficient water flow and pressure: occupancy
hazard, design area, and density/area curves.

Occupancy hazard

NFPA 13 groups (4.3) buildings or portions of buildings

into occupancy hazards, helping designers estimate the fuel
load and thus the water demands. The assignment of an
occupancy hazard depends on several factors explained in NFPA
13:
19.3.1.2.3 Occupancies or portions of occupancies shall be classified according to the
quantity and combustibility of contents, the expected rates of heat release, the total
potential for the energy release, the heights of stockpiles, and the presence of
flammable and combustible liquids, using the definitions contained in 4.3.2 through
4.3.7.

Warehouses—like the Redlands warehouse near Los Angeles that burned June 5,
2020—have special hydraulic needs. The occupancy hazard concept helps
designers plan systems that can meet a facility’s hydraulic needs. Image
source: KTLA via  Redlands Community News

NFPA 13’s hazard classifications are (19.3.1.2.4):

 Light Hazard
  Ordinary Hazard (Group 1)

 Ordinary Hazard (Group 2)

 Extra Hazard (Group 1)

 Extra Hazard (Group 2)

 Special occupancy hazard (including storage)

It’s important to note that NFPA 13’s occupancy hazard

categories apply only to the design of sprinkler systems and
“shall not be intended to be a general classification of occupancy
hazards” (4.3.1.2). NFPA 101: Life Safety Code  also groups
buildings into occupancy hazards, but these classifications are
different; they’re related to threats to life, not fuel load.

Design area

The design area concept lets designers select a worst-case-

scenario part of their building to base the whole system around.
As with hazard level, “worst-case-scenario” refers to hydraulics.
The design area is a “hydraulically challenging” location, usually
because of high elevation and/or its distance from the fire
sprinkler riser. The design area concept is used because it would
be impractical to supply every fire sprinkler with water at once.

Identifying a design area isn’t always straightforward, so layout

professionals often perform calculations for multiple areas to
find the one with the highest demand. NFPA 13 has various rules
for the selection of the design area.

Density/area curves
Designers use the hazard level and design area to determine
how much water they need with density/area curves. “How
much water” means water density—gallons per minute per
square foot (GPM/ft2). When designers know the hazard level of
their building and the size of the design area, they can use the
density-area curves (19.3.3.1.1) provided by NFPA 13 to
determine the exact required water density.

Once the design area density is determined from the curve,

calculating the total required flow is simple. Flow (GPM) is
density times area.

NFPA 13’s density/area curves let designers determine the required water density
based on design area size and hazard level. In this case, a 2500-ft.2 design area in
extra hazard group 1 requires 0.30 GPM/ft.2. Graph source: NFPA 13

Laying out sprinkler system

components—sprinkler heads
Sprinkler system design is an iterative process. Designers have to
tentatively plan a set-up and then check the math to see if the
hydraulic calculations work out. One part of this process
involves laying out and sizing the sprinkler heads.

Laying out sprinkler heads and determining their

coverage area in fire sprinkler design

To know how much density a sprinkler can deliver, a designer

must first determine the area it covers. They follow guidelines
from NFPA 13 to ensure that sprinklers cover an appropriate
amount of space.

Tables 10.2.4.2.1(a-d) tell how far apart, on center, standard-

spray upright and pendent sprinklers can be. The max distance
is 15 ft., but this is reduced in many situations. Whatever
distance between sprinklers is allowed, the heads can be no
more than half that distance (10.2.5.2.1) from the walls. So, the
max length from a sprinkler to a wall is 7.5 ft.

Designers mark the location of sprinklers and pipes on the plans

based on these rules and then determine how much space each
head protects according to NFPA 13’s rules. There is a limit to
how much floor space one sprinkler can reasonably cover. These
maximum protection areas for standard spray sprinklers are
also laid out in Tables 10.2.4.2.1(a-d); the biggest possible value
is 225 ft.2, but this is only applicable in noncombustible
unobstructed spaces. (And note that different types of sprinklers,
such as extended coverage, have different rules and values.)

Protection area, As is calculated with the formula As=S x L

(9.5.2.1). Along the branch line, S is the larger of either:

 The distance to the closest sprinkler

 Twice the distance to the closest obstruction or wall

The value of L is determined in the same way but perpendicular
to the branch line (e.g., in the direction of the next branch line).

Sprinkler K-factor determines the flow a sprinkler

can produce

Sprinkler system designers have a lot of sprinklers to choose

from when designing a system. There is an incredible array of
temperature ratings, finishes, and performance characteristics
available. But when it comes to the hydraulics of sprinkler
system design, perhaps the most critical sprinkler spec is K-
factor, which is essentially its orifice size.

Every sprinkler has a defined K-factor, which describes how

much flow (GPM) it can produce at a given pressure (psi).
Common K-factor values include 2.8, 5.6, and 8.0. The
relationship between K-factor, flow (q), and pressure (p) is:
K=q/√p

Designers often select a common K-factor and check to see if

they can achieve the required flow with the available pressure. If
they can’t, they may choose another K-factor. Or, they may
change something about the pipes to boost the available
pressure.
For more information on fire sprinklers, check out our articles on maximum and
minimum sprinkler distances and different sprinkler head specifications. Also,
feel free to browse our selection of commercial fire sprinklers, fire sprinkler
escutcheons, and installation tools.

Laying out system components—pipes,

fittings, and hydraulic calculations in
fire sprinkler design
When designers lay out a sprinkler system on paper (or digitally,
nowadays), they mark where the pipes will go and decide their
size and material. Pipe selection affects hydraulic calculations,
cost, corrosion resistance, and more.

The flow test only tells designers how much pressure is available
from the source and at the base of the system riser. They have
less to work with at the sprinkler heads because of head
loss. Head loss is the loss of pressure due to resistance as fluid
flows in pipes from its source to its destination.

Three kinds of resistance create head loss—gravity, friction,

and turbulence. Designers can’t fight the effects of gravity
unless they use pumps; no matter the pipes' diameter, 0.433
psi is lost for every vertical foot. But they can and do select pipes,
fittings, and devices to reduce the head loss from friction and
turbulence.

Pipe selection and friction loss

The friction of water against the walls of the pipe fights against
the pressure from the water supply. The size of the friction force
depends on three factors:

 The rate of flow (q)

 The empirical roughness of the pipes (C; small C means

rough pipe)

 The diameter of the pipes (d)

Designers use the Hazen-Williams formula (27.2.2.1.1) to

calculate pressure loss per foot of pipe (p):
p = (4.52Q1.85) ÷ (C1.85d4.87)
Selecting appropriate pipe materials and sizes helps minimize
friction losses. If hydraulic calculations reveal that a sprinkler
head in the design area won't get enough pressure to produce
the design density, the pipes' size can be increased to reduce
pressure loss.

Pipe material also affects the pressure losses. C-value describes

the roughness of the pipe, and pipe made of copper (C=150) or
CPVC (C=150), for example, is smoother than one made of
unlined cast iron (C=100).

With pipe size and material, there are considerations other than
the hydraulic calculations. Up-front and long-term costs are also
important things to think about. Bigger pipe costs more,
and copper pipe costs more than thermoplastics, for
example. Nonmetallic pipes like CPVC also have unique
concerns regarding exposure and melting and can only be used
in specific settings.

Balancing cost and function is a major part of a fire sprinkler

system designer’s job.

Devices and fittings and turbulence loss

Turbulence also creates pressure loss. Devices (such as valves)

and fittings (like elbows and tees) create turbulence that, in turn,
decreases the amount of pressure available downstream.
Turbulence occurs when water is forced to change direction or
pass through small orifices.

The math behind turbulence loss is complicated, but NFPA 13

allows designers to estimate head loss from devices and fittings
in terms of equivalent feet of pipe (27.2.3.1.1). Tables from either
NFPA 13 or manufacturer data indicate what length of pipe will
create the same head loss that a particular device or fitting
makes.

Backflow preventers are frequently unavoidable sources of pressure loss from

turbulence.

There are pressure-eating devices that can’t be left out of the

equation. For instance, backflow preventers are frequently
required to prevent the contamination of municipal water
supplies. If the city supply loses pressure for whatever reason,
stagnant water in a fire sprinkler system could flow backward,
contaminating potable water. Backflow preventers tend to create
large head losses, but this is unavoidable where they are
required.

Fire sprinkler system design takes a pro

Designing fire sprinkler systems involves many elements.
Designers check the water supply, identify building needs, lay
out pipes and sprinklers, and perform hydraulic calculations. It’s
a complicated process, and we’ve barely scratched the surface in
this article.

Sprinkler systems definitively save lives and property, but they

only work as intended when they're well-engineered and up to
code. Always rely on a licensed professional to design a fire
sprinkler system. And note that different states and
municipalities may have additional requirements from what’s
specified in NFPA 13.

A widely accepted credential is the NICET Level III certification in

Water-Based System Layout, which qualifies a designer to work
without supervision. If you're interested in becoming a sprinkler
system designer, an excellent place to start is on-the-job-training
in a design, pipe-fitting, or sprinkler installation firm, along with
an engineering degree and eventual certification.

Due to the complexities of these systems, as well as the codes

and standards that govern them, fire protection often requires
expert advice.

If you have tough technical problems with a sprinkler system,

detection and alarm set-up, or other fire protection system, you
need to Ask a Fire Pro. This QRFS service lets you submit
questions to experts who will respond with