Communication Systems

Text book:
▪ Kennedy G, Davis B, and Prasanna S R M, “Electronic Communication Systems,” New Delhi, Tata
McGraw-Hill, fifth edition, 2011.

▪ Haykin S and Moher M, “Introduction to Analog and Digital Communications”. New Delhi, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd, second Edition, 2012.
Communications Systems
 Overview

Communication is the transfer of information from one place to

another.

This should be done

- as efficiently as possible
- with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
- as securely as possible
The different steps involved in the transmission of information:

▪ Origin of information in the mind of the person who wants to communicate

▪ Generation of message signal carrying the information

▪ Converting the message signal into electrical form using a suitable transducer

▪ Processing the message signal such that it will have the capability to travel for a long distance

▪ Transmission of the processed message signal to the desired destination

▪ Reception of the processed message signal at the desired destination

▪ Processing the received message signa in such a way to recreate the original non-electrical form

▪ Finally delivering the information from the message signal to the intended person
 Elements of a Communication System
Communication System: Components/subsystems act together to accomplish information transfer/exchange.
Input Transducer: The message produced by a source must be
converted by a transducer to a form suitable for the particular type
of communication system.
Example: In electrical communications, speech waves are converted
by a microphone to voltage variation.

Transmitter: The transmitter processes the input signal to produce a

signal suits to the characteristics of the transmission channel.
Signal processing for transmission almost always involves
modulation and may also include coding. In addition to modulation,
other functions performed by the transmitter are amplification,
filtering and coupling the modulated signal to the channel.
Channel: The channel can have different forms: The atmosphere (or
free space), coaxial cable, fiber optic, waveguide, etc.
The signal undergoes some amount of degradation from noise,
interference and distortion

Receiver: The receiver’s function is to extract the desired signal from

the received signal at the channel output and to convert it to a form
suitable for the output transducer.
Other functions performed by the receiver: amplification (the
received signal may be extremely weak), demodulation and filtering.
Output Transducer: Converts the electric signal at its input into the
form desired by the system user.
Example: Loudspeaker, personal computer (PC), tape recorders.
 There are two basic modes of communication system:

• Broadcasting: which involves the use of a single powerful transmitter and numerous
receivers that are relatively inexpensive to build. In this class of communication
systems, information-bearing signals flow only in one direction, from the transmitter
to each of the receivers out there in the field.

• Point-to-point communications: in which the communication process takes place

over a link between a single transmitter and a single receiver. In this second class of
communication systems, there is usually a bidirectional flow of information-bearing
signals, which, in effect, requires the use of a transmitter and receiver (i.e.,
transceiver) at each end of the link.
Typical communications applications include:

• Wireless systems using RF and microwave

• MIMO
• Wireless LAN’s
• Mobile phones
• Base station monitoring
• Surveillance
• Satellite communications etc
Historical Background

• Telegraph
• 1844, Samuel Morse,
• “What hath God wrought” transmitted by Morse’s electric telegraph
• Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
• Morse code : variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a letter space, a word space)

• Radio
• 1864, James Clerk Maxwell
• Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light
• Predicted the existence of radio waves
• 1887, Heinrich Hertz
• The existence of radio waves was confirmed experimentally
• 1894, Oliver Lodge
• Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short distance (150 yards)

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Historical Background
• 1901, Guglielmo Marconi
• Demo : wireless communication over a long distance (1700 miles)
• 1906, Reginald Fessenden
• Conducting the first radio broadcast
• 1918, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
• 1933, Edwin H. Armstrong
• Demonstrated another modulation scheme ( Frequency modulation)

• Telephone
• 1875, Alexander Graham Bell
• Invented the telephone
• 1897, A. B. Strowger
• Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch

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Historical Background
• Electronics
• 1904, John Abbrose Eleming
• Invented the vacuum-tube diode
• 1906, Lee de Forest
• Invented the vacuum-tube triode
• 1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.)
• Invented the transistor
• 1958, Robert Noyce
• The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce

• Television
• 1928, Philo T. Farnsworth
• First all-electronic television system
• 1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin
• all-electronic television system
• 1939, BBC
• Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis

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Historical Background
• Digital Communications
• 1928, Harry Nyquist
• The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
• 1937, Alex Reeves
• Invent pulse-code modulation
• 1958, (Bell Lab.)
• First call through a stored-program system
• 1960, (Morris, Illinois)
• The first commercial telephone service with digital switching begin.
• 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
• 1943, D. O. North
• Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown signal in a additive white noise
• 1948, Claude Shannon
• The theoretical foundation of digital communications were laid

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Historical Background
• Computer Networks
• 1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of Pennsylvania)
• ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
• 1950~1970
• Various studies were made on computer networks
• 1971
• Advanced Research Project Agency Network(APRANET) first put into service
• 1985,
• APRANET was renamed the Internet
• 1990, Tim Berners-Lee
• Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet (World Wide Web)

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Historical Background
• Satellite Communications
• 1945, C. Clark
• Studied the use of satellite for communications
• 1955, John R. Pierce
• Proposed the use of satellite for communications
• 1957, (Soviet Union)
• Launched Sputnik I
• 1958, (United States)
• Launched Explorer I
• 1962, (Bell Lab.)
• Launched Telstar I

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Historical Background
• Optical Communications
• 1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham
• Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a dielectric waveguide
• 1959~1960
• The laser had been invented and developed

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Terminologies In Communication Systems

▪ Time (t) is a fundamental quantity with reference to which all communications

happen. It is typically measured in seconds (sec).

▪ Frequency (f) is another fundamental quantity, frequency is defined as the

number of oscillations per second and is measured ill hertz (Hz). For instance, the
message in a communication system is usually measured in terms of the range of
frequencies and the carrier is one frequency value.

▪ Wavelength is yet another fundamental quantity used as an alternative to

frequency for distinguishing communication signals.
▪ Spectrum - The frequency domain representation of the given signal.
▪ Bandwidth (Bw) is that portion of the EM spectrum occupied by a signal. More
specifically it is the range of frequencies over which the information is present io
the original signal and hence it may also be termed as signal bandwidth.
▪ Channel Bandwidth - The range of frequencies required for the transmission of
modulated signal.
▪ Modulation is a process of transforming signal from signal bandwidth to channel
bandwidth.
▪ Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation, that is, transforming signal
from channel bandwidth to signal bandwidth.
▪ Baseband Signal - Message signal in its original frequency range.
▪ Baseband Transmission - Transmission of message signal in its original

frequency range.

▪ Broadband Signal - Message signal in its modulated frequency range.

▪ Broadband Transmission - Transmission of message signal in the modulated

frequency range.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Typical Applications

• An electromagnetic (EM) wave is a signal made of oscillating electric and

magnetic fields.

• The entire range of frequencies- that the EM wave can produce oscillations is
termed as Electromagnetic Spectrum.

• For the classification purpose, the EM spectrum is divided into small segments
and each segment is given a nomenclature. Each range is identified by end
frequencies or wavelengths that differ by a factor of 10.
 To be transmitted, Information (Data)
must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals.
Electromagnetic Waves

.
 Modulation
Baseband/Modulating/Message Signal : Message signal in its original frequency
range.
Baseband Transmission : Transmission of message signal in its original frequency
range.
Broadband/Modulated Signal : Message signal in its modulated frequency range.
Broadband Transmission : Transmission of message signal in the modulated
frequency range.

Modulating Signal Modulation Modulated Signal

Carrier Signal
Process by which some character of a high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of another signal - Modulation
Need for Modulation:
• For easy transmission
Antenna height is proportional to the wavelength of the transmitted signal.
Antenna height = Lamda/2 = C/(2F)
If F= 1KHz, what is antenna height?---- 150Km
If F= 1MHz, what is antenna height?-----150m
• Narrow banding(Impossible to provide wide band antenna)
• Multiplexing
• To overcome equipment limitations
• To reduce noise interference
Information, Data and Signals
• Data - A representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human beings or by automatic means
• Information - The meaning that is currently assigned to data by
means of the conventions applied to those data

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Information, Data and Signals

Information Data Signal

001011101

32
Analog and Digital Data
• Analog data take on all possible values. Voice and video are
continuously varying patterns of intensity
• Digital data take on finite (countable) number of values. Example,
ASCII characters, integers

33
Analog and Digital Signal
• Continuous/Analog
signals take on all
possible values of
amplitude
• Digital or Discrete
Signals take on finite
set of voltage levels

34
Computers Use Signals for Communcation
• Computers transmit data using digital signals, sequences of specified
voltage levels. Graphically they are often represented as a square
wave.
• Computers sometimes communicate over telephone line using analog
signals, which are formed by continuously varying voltage levels.

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 Signal = Function of Time
• The signal is a function of time. Horizontal axis represents time and
the vertical axis represents the voltage level.
• Signal represents data OR Data is encoded by means of a signal
• Signal is what travels on a communication medium
• An understanding of signals is required so that suitable signal may be
chosen to represent data

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 In communication systems, we
commonly use periodic analog signals
and nonperiodic digital signals.
Figure A sine wave
Figure Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Frequency and period are the inverse of
each other.
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
 Example

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
▪ Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

▪ If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

▪ If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

Phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0.
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by
one single spike in the frequency domain.
Time and frequency domains (continued)
Time and frequency domains (continued)
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with more
than one sine wave.
Figure shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude and frequency. All can
be represented by three spikes in the frequency domain.
▪ A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in communication systems; we need
to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.

▪ According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple

sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

▪ If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals

with discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
Figure Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Figure The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

▪ Above Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the signal created by a
microphone or a telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that implies that we are repeating the
same word or words with exactly the same tone.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.

Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

 Example

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with

frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have
a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
 Example
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz (see
next Figure ).
 Example

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz.

What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all
frequencies of the same amplitude.
Example

Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies.

Figure The bandwidth for Example
 Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle

frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme
frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.
 Example

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz. Next
Figure shows the frequency domain and the bandwidth.
Figure The bandwidth for Example
Which Signal/Data is Better Analog
or Digital?
• Digital is better
• Even Analog data can be converted into digital
data and transmitted as digital data
• Digital data provide the following advantages:
• Digital technology
• Data integrity through EDC and ECC
• Capacity utilization through TDM
• Security and privacy through encryption
• Integration of all forms of information

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 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
• A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of bits
from the formula:

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute.
What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that
one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the
signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as:
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Causes of impairment
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric
signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To
compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Figure 3.26 Attenuation

 Attenuation is measured in deciBels - dB

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that
P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as:

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
• A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the
final destination.
• Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration.
• In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender. The shape of
the composite signal is therefore not the same.
 Noise in communication system
Noise is any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper reception and reproduction of
transmitted signals

Many disturbances of an electrical nature produce noise in receivers; modifying the signal in an unwanted manner.

It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the weakest signals that can be
amplified. It may sometimes even force a reduction in the bandwidth of a system.

There are numerous ways of classifying noise. It may be subdivided according to type, source, effect, or
relation to the receiver, depending on circumstances.

Noise whose sources are external to the receiver, and noise created within the receiver itself.

External noise is difficult to treat quantitatively, and there is often little that can be done about it, short
of moving the system to another location.

Internal noise is both more quantifiable and capable of being reduced by appropriate
receiver design.
 Noise
1. External noise:
▪ Atmospheric noise
▪ Extraterrestrial noise- solar and cosmic noise
▪ Industrial noise

2. Internal noise:
▪ Thermal Agitation Noise
▪ Shot Noise
▪ Transit-Time Noise
Atmospheric or Static noise:
• listen to shortwaves on a receiver which is not well equipped to receive them.
• Static is caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other natural
electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
• Static noise consists of Spurious radio signals with components distributed
over a wide range of frequencies.
• Local or distant
• Field strength is inversely proportional to frequency
• The usual increase in its level takes place at night, at both broadcast and
shortwave frequencies.
• First, the higher frequencies are limited to line-of-sight propagation i.e., less
than 80 kilometers or so.
• Second, the nature of the mechanism generating this noise is such that very
little of it is created in the VHF range and above.
Extraterrestrial noise
Solar Noise:
Sun radiation- there is a constant noise radiation from the sun even
when it is quiet - radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum –
changing star changes its activity in cycles- limited radiation from the
sun’s surface.
Cosmic Noise:
Star radiation- black body or thermal noise – distributed uniformly
in the entire sky – Milky way noise
Observable at Freq. 8MHz to 1.43GHz
Strongest over 20MHz to 120MHz
Not much of it below 20MHz penetrates below the ionospsher.
Industrial noise
• Falls between 1 to 600MHz
• sources such as automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors and
switching equipment; leakage from high-voltage lines and heavy
electric machines are all included.
• Fluorescent lights are another powerful source of such noise and
therefore should not be used where sensitive receiver reception or
testing is being conducted.
• The nature of industrial noise is so variable that it is difficult to
analyze it on any basis other than the statistical.
• lt does, however, obey the general principle that received noise
increases as the receiver bandwidth is increased
Internal Noise
• Noise created by any of the active or passive devices found in
receivers
• Random in nature, difficult to treat on an individual basis, but easy to
observe and describe statistically.
• Random noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over which it is
measured.
Thermal Agitation or White or Johnson Noise
• The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive component is
random
• The noise generated by a resistor is proportional to its absolute
temperature, in addition to being proportional to the bandwidth over
which the noise is to be measured.
If the resistor is operating at 27°C and the bandwidth of interest is 2 MHz, then what
is the maximum noise power output of a resistor?

• 8.28 X10-15 W

• Pn = K T
• The resistor is a noise generator, and there may even be quite a large
voltage across it.
• This noise voltage is caused by the random movement of electrons
within the resistor, which constitutes a current.
• At any instant of time, there are bound to be more electrons arriving
at one particular end than at the other because their movement is
random.
• The rate of arrival of electrons at either end of the resistor therefore
varies randomly, and so does the potential difference between the
two ends.
• A random voltage across the resistor definitely exists and may be both
measured and calculated.
Resistor's equivalent noise voltage (Vn):
P = V I and I=V/R V=IR
P = I2 R
R= RL
P= I2 RL = (Vn /(R +RL))2 X RL
Pn = Vn 2 / 4R -----1
Pn=KT -----2
Sub 2 in 1
• An amplifier operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20 MHz
has a 10-kilohm input resistor. What is thermal noise voltage at the
input to this amplifier if the ambient temperature is 27°C?

Vn = 18.2 microV
Shot Noise:
• Shot effect leads to shot noise in all amplifying devices and virtually
all active devices
• It is caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons ( or holes)
at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears as a
randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output.
• When amplified, it is supposed to sound as though a shower of lead
shot were falling on a metal sheet.
Transit-Time Noise
• If the time taken by an electron to travel from the emitter to the
collector of a transistor is greater than the period of the signal being
amplified, i.e., at frequencies in the upper VHF range and beyond, the
so-called transit-time effect takes place, and the noise input
admittance of the transistor increases.
Addition of Noise due to Several Sources
Assume there are two sources of thermal agitation noise generators in
series

• The sum of two such rms voltages in series is given by the square root
of the sum of their squares
• Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a television RF amplifier
using a device that has a 200-ohm equivalent noise resistance and a
300-ohm input resistor. The bandwidth of the amplifier is 6 MHz, and
the temperature is 17°C.
• Rtot = 200ohm + 3000ohm=500ohm
Total noise voltage= 6.923microvolts
Addition of Noise due to Several Amplifiers in Cascade

The total output noise voltage, need to find the equivalent input noise voltage. It is even better to go one step further and
find the equivalent-noise resistance for the whole receiver.
This greatly simplifies subsequent calculations, gives a good figure for comparison with other receivers, and permits a quick
calculation of the lowest input signal which this receiver may amplify without drowning it with noise.
 when a noise resistance is "transferre
d" from the output of a stage to its input, it must be divided by the square of the voltage gain of the stage. Now the
noise resistance actually present at the input of the second stage is R2, so that the equivalent noise resistance at the
input of the second stage, due to the second stage and the output resistance, is
The noise resistance actually present at the input of the first stage is
R1, so that the equivalent noise resistance of the whole cascaded
amplifier, at the input of the first stage, will be
• The first stage of a two-stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, a 600-ohm input
resistor, a 1600-ohm Equivalent noise resistance and a 27-kohm output resistor.
For the second stage, these values are 25, 81 kohm, 10 kohm and 1 megaohm,
respectively. Calculate the equivalent input-noise resistance of this two-stage
amplifier.
A1=10, R1=600ohm + 1600ohm
R2=27Kohm
A2=25
R1=81kohm+10Kohm
R3=1megaohm
NOISE FIGURE
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power at the same
point.
• S/N=(Vs 2 /R)/(Vn 2 /R)=Vs 2 /Vn2

• The noise figure F is defined as the ratio of the signal-to-noise power

supplied to the input terminals of a receiver or amplifier to the signal-
to-noise power supplied to the output or load resistor
• F= (input S/N) / (output S/N)
Calculation of Noise Figure
• Noise figure may be calculated for an amplifier or receiver in the same
way by treating either as a whole.
Steps:
1. To find input S/N, determine the signal input power Psi .
2. Determine the noise input power Pni
 Modulation
Baseband/Modulating/Message Signal : Message signal in its original frequency
range.
Baseband Transmission : Transmission of message signal in its original frequency
range.
Broadband/Modulated Signal : Message signal in its modulated frequency range.
Broadband Transmission : Transmission of message signal in the modulated
frequency range.

Modulating Signal Modulation Modulated Signal

Carrier Signal
Process by which some character of a high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of another signal - Modulation
Types of Modulation:
• Analog Modulation - AM, FM, PM
• Digital Modulation – ASK, FSK, PSK

• Pulse Modulation --- Pulse analog modulation- PAM, PPM, PWM

---- Pulse digital modulation – PCM, DM
Amplitude Modulation
• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by
the modulating voltage, whose frequency is invariably lower than that
of the carrier.
• AM is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of
the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating voltage. VAM(t)= VAM sin wct
Time domain representation of the AM wave.
Modulation index:
Power Relations in the AM Wave
• A 400-watt (400-W) carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 percent. Calculate
the total power in the modulated wave.
• A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kilowatts (10 kW) when the
modulation percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Current Relations in the AM Wave
• The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 amperes (8 A) when
only the carrier is sent; but it increases to. 8.93 A when the carrier is
modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percentage modulation.
Determine the antenna current when the percent of modulation
changes to 0.8.
Modulation by Several Sine Waves
• A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated, and
10.125 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the
modulation index. If another sine wave is simultaneously transmitted
with modulation index 0.4, determine the total radiated power.
The antenna current of an AM broadcast transmitter, modulated to a
depth of 40 percent by an audio sine wave, is 11 A. It increases to 12 A
as a result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave.
What is the modulation index due to this second wave?
Demerits of AM:
• Carrier signal does not carry information. It is carried by the side
bands
• Bothe side bands contain the same information. Transmitting both is
redundant.
• Both power and bandwidth inefficient.
Three types of AM
• DSB-SC AM
• SSB-SC AM
• VSB AM
Double side band suppressed carrier AM (DSB-SC AM):
Power Relations in the DSBSC Wave
Advantage:
Efficient in power usage
Disadvantage:
Large bandwidth
Product detector required at demodulator is expensive
• A 400 W carrier is amplitude modulated to a depth of 100%. Calculate
the total p9wer in case of AM and DSBSC techniques. How much
power saving (in W) is achieved for DSBSC? If the depth of
modulation is changed to 75%, then how much power (in W) is
required for transmitting the DSBSC wave? Compare the powers
required for DSBSC in both the cases and comment on the reason for
change in the power levels.
A DSBSC transmitter radiates 1 kW when the modulation percentage is
60%. How much of carrier power (ill kW) is required if we want to
transmit the same message by an AM transmitter?
Single side band suppressed carrier AM:
Advantage:
Efficient in power usage and bandwidth
Transmission of more number of signals is allowed
Signal fading is less likely to occur
Disadvantage:
Generation and detection of SSB is more complex
Quality of signal gets affected unless the SSB Tx or Rx have an excellent
frequency stability
Vestigial Side Band:
• Very large bandwidth and low frequency signals
• Compromise has to be made to suppress the part of the LSB
• Final signal consist of full USB along with carrier & vestiage of LSB
• Utilizes the advantages of DSB-SC & SSB-SC & avoids their
disadvantage.
• Very easy to generate & bandwidth is greater than SSB
Power Relations in the VSB Wave
1. For an AM, amplitude of modulating signal is 0.5 V and carrier amplitude is
1V. Find Modulation Index.
2. When the modulation percentage is 75%, an AM transmitter radiates 10KW
Power. How much of this is carrier Power?
3. An AM transmitter radiates 20KW. If the modulation Index is 0.7. Find the
carrier Power.
4. A 500W, 100KHz carrier is modulated to a depth of 60% by modulating
frequency of 1KHz. Calculate the total power transmitted. What are the
sideband components of AM Wave?
5. A 400W, 1MHz carrier is amplitude-modulated with a sinusoidal signal 0f
2500Hz. The depth of modulation is 75%. Calculate the sideband
frequencies, bandwidth, and power in sidebands and the total power in
modulated wave.
6. Calculate the percentage power saving when one side band and carrier is
suppressed in an AM signal with modulation index equal to 1.
1. Calculate the percentage power saving when one side band and
carrier is suppressed in an AM signal if percentage of modulation is
50%.
2. A Sinusoidal carrier frequency of 1.2MHz is amplitude modulated
by a sinusoidal voltage of frequency 20KHz resulting in maximum
and minimum modulated carrier amplitude of 110V & 90V
respectively. Calculate I. frequency of lower and upper side bands II.
unmodulated carrier amplitude III. Modulation index IV. Amplitude
of each side band.
3. An audio frequency signal 10 sin(2π×500t) is used to amplitude
modulate a carrier of 50 sin(2π×105 t). Calculate. I. frequency of
side bands II. Bandwidth III. Modulation index IV. Amplitude of each
side band. V. Transmission efficiency VI. Total power delivered to a
load of 600Ω.
• =m2/(2+m2)
10. The equation of amplitude wave is given by
Find the carrier power, the total sideband power, and the band width
of AM wave.
11. A sinusoidal carrier voltage of 500KHz frequency and 200V
amplitude is modulated by a sinusoidal voltage of 10KHz frequency
producing 50% modulation. Calculate the frequency and amplitude of
USB and LSB.
12. The percent modulation of an AM wave changes from 40% to 60%.
Originally the power content at the carrier frequency was 900W.
Determine the power content at the carrier frequency and within each
of the side bands after the percent modulation has risen to 60%.
13. Determine % efficiency and % of the total power carried by the side
bands of the AM wave when modulation index is 0.5 and 0.3.
14. A single side band signal contains 1KW. How much power is
contained in the side bands and how much at the carrier frequency?
15. An SSB transmission contains 10KW. This transmission is to be
replaced by a standard AM signal with the same power content.
Determine the power content of the carrier and each of the side bands
when the percent modulation is 80%.
16. A 1000Hz carrier is simultaneously modulated with 300Hz, 800Hz
and 1KHz audio sine waves. What will be the frequencies present in the
output?
Applications:
AM:
• Used in analog TV systems to transmit the colour information
• For transmitting stereo information in FM sound broadcasting at VHF
DSB-SC AM:
• Used in military or radio amateurs in HFR
SSS-SC AM:
• Mobile, radio, TV , telemetry, radar communication, military communication,
point to point communication
VSB AM:
• TV
Frequency Modulation
• Process by which the frequency of the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
• The number of times/sec that the instantaneous frequency is varied
from the carrier frequency is controlled by the frequency of the
modulating signal.
• The amount by which the frequency departs from the average is
controlled by the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
• Amount of freq. shift is proportional to the amp. of modulating signal
• Rate of freq. shift is proportional to the freq. of the modulating signal
Phase Modulation

• Phase modulation is a type of angle modulation in which the total

phase angle of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
amplitude of the message signal.
Digital Modulation-Advantages
• Digital communication can be done over large distances though
internet and other things.
• Digital communication gives facilities like video conferencing which
save a lot of time, money and effort.
• It is easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.
• The digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper.
• It can be tolerated for the noise interference.
• It can be detect and correct error easily because of channel coding.
• Used in military application.
• It has excellent processing techniques for digital signals such as data
compression, image processing, channel coding and equalization etc.
Disadvantages
• Digital communication needs synchronization in synchronous
modulation.
• High power consumption.
• It required more bandwidth as compared to analog systems.
• It has sampling error.
• Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also
disadvantage of digital system.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• ASK is a digital modulation technique defined as the process of
shifting the amplitude of the carrier signal between two levels,
depending on whether 1 or 0 is to be transmitted.
• Let the message be binary sequence of 1 'sand 0's. It can be
represented as a function of time as follows:
Demodulation of ASK Signal
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• FSK is a digital modulation technique defined as the process of
shifting the frequency of the carrier signal between two levels,
depending on whether 1 or 0 is to be transmitted
Demodulation of FSK Signal-Coherent
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

PSK is a digital modulation technique defined as the process of shifting the phase of the carrier signal between
two levels, depending on whether 1 or O is to be transmitted.
• A 107.6MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 7KHz sine wave. The
resultant FM signal has a frequency deviation of 50KHz a) find the
carrier swing of the FM signal b) determine the highest and lowest
frequencies attained by the modulated signal c)what is the
modulation index
• Determine the frequency deviation and carrier swing for a FM signal
which has a resting frequency of 105MHz and whose upper frequency
is 105.007MHz when modulated by a particular wave. Find the lowest
frequency reached by the FM wave.
• A FM signal which is modulated by a 3KHz sine wave reaches a
maximum frequency of 100.02MHz and minimum frequency of
99.98MHz. a) determine the carrier swing b) find the carrier
frequency c) calculate the frequency deviation of the signal d) what
is the modulation index of the signal
• What is the frequency deviation and carrier swing necessary to
provide 75% modulation in the FM broadcast band?
• Determine the unmodulated carrier power for the FM modulator.
Assume a load resistance of 50ohms.

• A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency

of 2 KHz is applied to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity
of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation and modulation
index.
• An angle modulated signal is described by x(t)= 10 cos(2Π(106)t + 0.1
sin(103)Πt). Considering x(t) as a PM signal with Kp=10 find m(t).
• Calculate the carrier swing, carrier frequency, frequency deviation
and modulation index for an FM signal which reaches a maximum
frequency of 99.047MHz and a minimum frequency of 99.023MHz.
the frequency of the modulating signal is 7KHz.
• Find the Carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index,
and the maximum deviation of the FM represented by the voltage
equation v = 12 sin(6 x 108t + 5 cos 1250t). What power will this FM
wave dissipate in a 10 ohm resistor?
Pulse Modulation
• Pulse analog modulation---PAM, PPM, PWM
• Pulse digital modulation----PCM --- Delta Modulation, DPCM
• If amplitude of the pulse is made proportional to the message, then it is
termed as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) .
• if the width of the pulse is made proportional to the message, then it is
termed as pulse width modulation (PWM).
• The position of the pulse, i.e. , its instant of occurrence compared to its
position in the reference pulse train is varied in proportion to the message
in case of pulse position modulation (PPM).
• If the amplitude of the pulse can be approximately represented by a
discrete amplitude value which leads to the pulse code modulation (PCM) .
PAM:
• Pulse amplitude modulation is defined as the process of varying the
amplitude of the pulse in proportion to the instantaneous variations
of message signal.
Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse width modulation (PWM) is defined as the process of varying
the width of the pulse in proportion to the instantaneous variations
of message.
Pulse Position Modulation
• Pulse position modulation (PPM) is defined as the process of varying the
position of the pulse with respect to the instantaneous variations of the
message signal.
Pulse Code Modulation
• PCM may be treated as an extension of PAM.
• In PAM the time parameter is discretized, but the amplitude still remains
continuous. That is, within the allowable amplitude limits; the signal value can
take on infinite values.
• We may not lose information by discretizing the amplitudes to some finite
values.
• Round or approximate a group of nearby amplitude values and represent them
by a single discrete amplitude value. This process is termed as quantization.
• The signal with discretized amplitude values is termed as quantized signal.
• There will be error between the original analog signal and its quantized version
which is measured and represented in terms of quantization noise.
• The quantization can be carried out either by dividing the whole amplitude
range into uniform or non-uniform intervals.
• Each of the discrete amplitude levels can be uniquely represented by
a binary word.
• Thus each analog value is sampled by PAM process, quantized and
represented by a binary word.
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise may
corrupt the signal.
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium
acts as the receiving antenna.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a
sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short
time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

Noise
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the signal power to
the noise power. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
SNR = average signal power \average noise power
We need to consider the average signal power and the average noise power because
these may change with time.
SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise).
A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal
is more corrupted by noise. Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often
described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as SNR = 10 log10 SNR

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are
the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
Analog and Digital Communication Systems

There are many kinds of information sources, which can be

categorized into two distinct message categories, analog and digital.

an analog communication system should deliver this waveform with

a specified degree of fidelity.

a digital communication system should deliver data with a specified

degree of accuracy in a specified amount of time.
Comparisons of Digital and Analog Communication
Systems

Digital Communication System Analog Communication System

Advantage : Disadvantages :
• inexpensive digital circuits
• privacy preserved (data encryption) • expensive analog components : L&C
• can merge different data (voice, video and • no privacy
data) and transmit over a common digital • can not merge data from diff. sources
transmission system • no error correction capability
• error correction by coding

Disadvantages : Advantages :

• larger bandwidth • smaller bandwidth

• synchronization problem is relatively • synchronization problem is relatively
difficult easier
• Communication Networks
• Consists of the interconnection of a number of routers that are made up of
intelligent processors
• Circuit switching
• Is usually controlled by a centralized hierarchical control mechanism with knowledge of
the network’s entire organization
• Packet switching
• Store and forward
• Any message longer than a specified size is subdivided prior to transmission into segments
• The original message is reassembled at the destination on a packet-by-packet basis
• Advantage
• When a link has traffic to sent, the link tends to be more fully utilized.

196
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• Data Networks
• Layer
• A process or device inside a computer system that is designed to perform a specific
function
• Open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model
• The communications and related-connection functions are organized as a series of layers
with well-defined interfaces.
• Composed of seven layers

198
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