CALCULUS 2

Chapter 2: Geometry of Space and

Vector Functions
Lecture 1:
Geometry of Space
8/30/2021 1
 Lecture Outline
1. Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems
2. Vectors
3. Dot Product
4. Cross Product
5. Equations of Lines and Planes
 1. Three-Dimensional Coordinate
Systems
To locate a point P in space, we use an ordered triple (a, b, c)
•Choose a fixed point O (the origin)
•Directed lines Ox, Oy, Oz perpendicular
z
to each other, called coordinate axes,
•Ox, Oy, Oz: x-axis, y-axis, z-axis
O
•xy-plan, yz-plane, zx-plane devide y
Space into 8 parts, called octants
x

z-direction by Right-hand Rule

 Coordinates of points
• Let P be a point in space, and
➢ a = distance from yz-plane to P z
➢ b = distance from xz-plane to P
➢ c= distance from xy-plane to P P(a,b,c)
• P is represented by ordered
triple (a, b, c) O c
a
➢ a, b, c are coordinates of P y
➢ a is the x-coordinate x b
➢ b is the y-coordinate
➢ c is z-coordinate
Set of Three-Dimensional Coordinates
• The Cartesian product
𝑅3 = { 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∊ 𝑅}
is the set of coordinates of all points in space
• The first octant = {points whose x, y, z coordinates
are all positive}
• An equation in x, y and z represents a surface in R3
 Distance Between Two Points in Space
The distance between two points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
in space is given by the formula:

d =| PQ |= ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z2 − z1 )
2 2 2

Example: Equation of a sphere

( o) (
− + − o) + ( o)
− =
2 2 2 2
x x y y z z r
( x0 , y0 , z0 ) : center r: radius
 2. Vectors

A vector is a quantity with a direction and a length

(or magnitude)

The same vector may begin at many different points,

as long as the direction and length are the same.
 Combining Vectors
AC = AB + BC

Vector Addition: If u, v are positioned so the initial point of v is at

the terminal point of u, then u+ v is the vector from the initial
point of u to the terminal point of v
Scalar Multiplication If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar
Multiple cv is the vector whose length is |c| times the length of v
and whose direction is the same as v if c>0 and is opposite to v if c<0
If c=0 or v=0, then cv=0.
The difference of u and v is: u-v=u+(-v)
 Components of Vectors
• Place the initial point of a at the origin, then the terminal point
of a has coordinates: (a1, a2) (in 2D), or (a1, a2, a3) (in 3D)
• These coordinates are called components of a. Write:
a = <a1, a2> or a = <a1, a2, a3>
 Position Vector,
Representations of a Vector
• The vector u = OP = a, b, c  is the
position vector of the point P(a, b, c)

• How to represent a vector, example u=<2,1>?

• All vectors AB, A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
are representations of the algebraic vector
u = a, b, c 
where a = x2 − x1 , b = y2 − y1 , c = z2 − z1
 Length of a vector
• The length or magnitude |v| of a vector v is
the length of any of its representations

u = x, y | u |= x 2 + y 2
v = x, y, z | v |= x 2 + y 2 + z 2

Example: u = −1,5,3
| u |= (−1) 2 + 52 + 32 = 35 = 5.916
 Adding vectors and multiplying vectors
with a constant
Let u = <a1, a2, a3>, v= <b1, b2, b3> and c is a real number

Then
u + v = a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 
u − v = a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 
cu = ca1 , ca2 , ca3 
 n-dimensional vectors
• Denote by V2 the set of all two-dimensional
vectors
• V3 : set of all three-dimensional vectors
• More generally, Vn : set of all n-dimensional
vectors, which have the form

u = x1 , x2 ,..., xn 
• where x1, x2, …xn are real numbers and are called
the components of u
 Properties of Vectors
• If u,v, and w are vectors in Vn and c, d are
scalars, then
1) u + v = v + u 2) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
3) u + 0 = u 4) u + (−u ) = 0
5) c(u + v) = cu + cv 6) (c + d )u = cu + du
7) (cd )u = c(du ) 8) 1u = u
 Standard basis vectors
In V2 In V3
i = <1, 0> i = <1, 0, 0>
j = <0, 1> j = <0, 1, 0>
They have the length 1 k = <0, 0, 1>
They have the length 1
If u = <2, -3>, then we can
write: If v = <2, 6, -3>, then we
u = 2i -3j can write:
v = 2i + 6j - 3k

u = a1 , a2 , a3 = a1i + a2 j + a3k
 Unit vectors
• A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.
Example:
1 1 1
u = i − j+ k
2 2 2
• If u ≠0, then the unit vector v that has the same
direction as u is
1 u
v= u=
|u| |u|
 3. Dot Product
• Dot product of two vectors
a = a1i + a2 j + a3k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3k
is defined by
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Properties: Let a and b be vectors and r a real number.
Then
a•b=b•a
a • a = | a|2
a•(b+c)=a•b+a•c
( r a ) • b = r (a • b ) = a • (r b)
 Dot Product
Theorem. If  is the angle between a and b then the
dot product is given by
a • b = |a| |b| cos .

cos = ( a • b) / ( |a| |b| )

Corollary 1: The angle between a and b can be found using

cos = ( a • b) / ( |a| |b| ).

Corollary 2: Two vectors a and b are perpendicular if and

only if a • b=0
 Direction Angles and Direction
Cosines
The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles
α,β,and,γ (in the interval [0, π]) that makes with the positive
x-, y-, and z-axes
The cosines of these direction
angles are called the direction
cosines of the vector a
a.i a
cos  = = 1
| a || i | | a |
a2 a3
cos  = , cos  =
|a| |a|
1
a = cos  , cos  , cos  
|a|
 Projections

|b|cos =|b| ( a • b) / ( |a| |b| )

a∙b
Scalar projection of b onto a: compa b =
|a|
a∙b
Vector projection of b onto a: proja b = 2 a
|a|
Application:
Work W done in
moving an object
from P to Q by a
force F

𝑊 = |𝑃𝑆| . 𝑃𝑄

𝑊 = 𝐅 cos 𝜃. 𝑃𝑄

𝑊 = 𝐅 ∙ 𝑃𝑄
 4. Cross Product
• Definition:
Let a = a1 , a2 , a3 , b = b1 , b2 , b3  .
Cross product of a and b is the vector
a  b = a2b3 − a3b2 , a3b1 − a1b3 , a1b2 − a2b1 
• Notation of determinant
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a  b = a1 a2 a3 = i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
 Theorem: Vector a  b is orthogonal to both a and b

Length of the cross product

a  b = a b sin  ,
where  is the angle between vectors a and b (0     )
Direction of cross product is determined by Right-finger Rule:

Direction of cross product

By Right-hand Rule
Corollary: Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
ab = 0

Theorem: Length of a  b is equal to the area of the

paralleologram determined by a and b
 Properties
• a, b and c are vectors and r is a real number.

1. a x b = -(b x a)
2. a x (b x c) = (a•c)b – (a •b)c
3. a • (b x c) = (a x b) •c
4. a x ( b + c ) = (a x b) + (a x c)
5. ( r a ) x b = r (a x b ) = a x (r b)
 Triple product
Triple product is defined as a ∙ (b × c)
Let a = <a1, a2, a3>, b= <b1, b2, b3>, c= <c1, c2, c3>
a1 a 2 a 3
a ∙ b × c = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= a1 − a2 + a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2

The volume of the parallelepiped

determined by a, b, and c is the
magnitude of their scalar triple
product |a.(bxc)|
 5. Equations of Lines and Planes
Vector Equation of a Line (L)

r = r0 + tv

Parametric Equations of Line (L)

v = a, b, c , r0 = x0 , y0 , z0 , r = x, y, z 
 x, y, z = x0 + at , y0 + bt , z0 + ct 

x = x0 + at , y = y0 + bt , z = z0 + ct
 5. Equations of Lines and Planes…
x − x0 y − y0 z − x0
Symmetric Equation of Line (L) = =
a b c
Example: Find the parametric equation and symmetric
equation of the line passing through A(2, 4, -3), B(3, -1, 1)
Solution:
AB = 1, −5, 4 
Parametric equation of the line is given by
x = 2 + t , y = 4 − 5t , z = −3 + 4t
Symmetric equation:
x−2 y−4 z +3
= =
1 −5 4
 Equations of a Line Segment
Line Segment from a point A to a point B is given by

r (t ) = (1 − t )OA + tOB, 0  t 1
Example: Find the equation of the
line segment AB, where
A(2, 4, -3) and B(3, -1, 1)
Solution:
𝐫 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑡 < 2,4, −3 > +𝑡 < 3, −1,1 >
=<2,4,-3>+<1,-5,4>t, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
x = 2 + t , y = 4 − 5t , z = −3 + 4t , 0  t  1
 Example: Show that the following two lines are skew,
that is, they do not intersect and are not parallel
(and therefore do not lie in the same plane)
L1 : x = 1 + t , y = −2 + 3t , z = 4 − t
L2 : x = 2 s, y = 3 + s, z = −3 + 4 s

Solution:
L1 and L2 are not parallel because
the direction vectors <1, 3, -1>
and <2, 1, 4> are not parallel

L1 and L2 do NOT intersect, since there are no t, s satisfying

1 + t = 2s, − 2 + 3t = 3 + s, 4 − t = −3 + 4 s
Planes

Fixed point P0(x0, y0, z0) in (α)

Normal vector n ┴ (α)
P ∈ α : P0 P ∙ 𝐧 = 0
P0 P = OP − OP0

Vector Equation of a plane (α):

𝐧 ∙ (𝐫 − 𝐫𝟎 ) = 0
 Scalar and Linear Equation of a Plane
n = a, b, c , r0 = x0 , y0 , z0 , r = x, y, z 
 a, b, c   x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 = 0

Scalar Equation of (α):

a( x − x0 ) + b( y − y0 ) + c( z − z0 ) = 0

Linear Equation of (α):

ax + by + cz + d = 0
d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 )
Example: Find an equation of the plane that passes through
the points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, –1, 6), R(5, 2, 0)

Solution:
i j k
n = PQ  PR = 2 −4 4 = 12 i + 20 j + 14 k
4 −1 −2

Scalar Equation of (α):

12( x − 1) + 20( y − 3) + 14( z − 2) = 0

or
6 x + 10 y + 5 z = 50
 Angle between 2 planes
Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel

If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight line:
Angle between the two planes is defined as the acute angle between
their normal vectors
 Distance from a point to a plane

n b
D = comp n b =
n
a ( x1 − x0 ) + b( y1 − y0 ) + c( z1 − z0 )
=
a 2 + b2 + c2
(ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) − (ax0 + by0 + cz0 )
=
( ) : ax + by + cz + d = 0 a 2 + b2 + c2
n = a, b, c 
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
D=
A point P1(x1, y1, z1) a 2 + b2 + c2
Example: Find the distance between the two skew lines
L1 : x = 1 + t , y = −2 + 3t , z = 4 − t
L2 : x = 2 s, y = 3 + s, z = −3 + 4 s
i j k
Solution: n = v1  v 2 = 1 3 −1 = 13 i − 6 j − 5 k
2 1 4

( )  ( L2 ), ( ) / / L1
n ⊥ ( )
13x − 6( y − 3) − 5( z + 3) = 0
( ) : 13 x − 6 y − 5 z + 3 = 0
Distance from P1 (1, −2, 4) to ( ) :
13(1) − 6(−2) − 5(4) + 3 8
D= =  0.53
132 + (−6) 2 + (−5) 2 230
 Homework Chapter 2
• Section 12.1: 2, 4
• Section 12.2: 3, 4, 6
• Section 12.3: 2, 6, 8
• Section 12.4: 1, 3, 16, 34
• Section 12.5: 2, 3, 6, 69
• Section 13.1: 6, 8, 31, 32, 40, 42, 49
• Section 13.2 : 6, 10, 12, 18, 24, 26, 36
• Section 13.3: 2, 4, 6, 12