Module-2:

SENSORS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONING

EEE4021
LECTURE 1:
INTRODUCTION TO RESISTIVE SENSORS

Course Instructor:-
Dr. K.V.Lakshmi Narayana,
Associate Professor
SELECT,VIT University,Vellore.
 Module-2:
Resistive Sensors:
Strain gauges: Introduction - Beam, column
and Ring type force, torque measurement,
Piezoresistive effect, RTDs, Thermistor-
models-types and applications-linearization,
Magneto resistors, Light dependent resistors.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Outline of Lecture

Introduction to Resistive sensors

Classification of resistive sensors
Introduction to Strain Gauge
Fundamentals
Types of strain gauges
Applications
 Lecture describes
Sensors based on a variation in resistance
Fundamentals of Resistive Sensors
Sensing Principle
Dynamic Model
Limitations
Advantages
Technology
Equivalent electric circuit
Applications
 Introduction to Resistive Sensors
√ Sensors based on the variation of electric
resistance of a material are known as Resistive
Sensors.
√ Many physical quantities such as mechanical,
thermal, magnetic, optical and chemical
affect the electric resistance of a material.

√ Materials such as conductors, semiconductors,

dielectric and magnetic materials are used in
the construction of Resistive sensors.
 Classification of Resistive Sensors
√ Based on the physical quantity being
measured such as mechanical, thermal,
magnetic, optical and chemical variables

1. Potentiometers and Strain gauges (mechanical)

2. RTDs and Thermistors (thermal)
3. Magneto resistive sensors (magnetic)
4. Light Dependent Resistors (Optical)
5. Resistive Hygrometers, Resistive Gas sensors
and Liquid conductivity sensors (chemical)
 Introduction to Strain Gauge
 A strain gauge is a device used to
measure the strain of an object. Its
electrical resistance varies in the
proportion of the amount of strain in
the device.
 Invented by Edward E. Simmons and
Arthur C. Ruge in 1938.
 The most common type of strain gauge
consists of an insulating flexible
backing which supports a metallic foil
pattern. The gauge is attached to the
object by a suitable adhesive. As the
object is deformed, the foil is
deformed, causing its electrical
resistance to change.
 Fundamentals of Strain Gauge
WHAT IS STRAIN?
lateral

axial

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body to an applied force

L
For axial direction from the figure above  a  Usually in m (x10-6)
L
Because of Poisson strain phenomena, D will be contracted in lateral
direction, with magnitude depends on Poisson ratio (nu) 
 L
a
 is the property of material, for example, steel has 0.25≤≤0.3
 Fundamentals of Strain Gauge
WHAT IS STRESS?
From Hooke’s Law,
Mechanical stress=(Young’s modulus) X (Strain)
Young’s modulus, E (also
known as Modulus of
elasticity) is specific for each
material and is temperature
dependent.

E=Stress/Strain
Strain Gauge: How Does It Work?
The gauge is attached to the
object by a suitable adhesive.

As the object is deformed,

the foil is deformed, causing
its electrical resistance to
change.

The resistance change is

commonly measured using a
Wheatstone bridge.
 Principle of Strain gauge
The resistance of the conductor of the strain gage
where :
L
R p = resistivity of conductor material
L =conductor length
A A = cross-sectional area of conductor
If differentiated this equation become:

dR d dL dA
  
R  L A
A  D2
Then the equation :
dA dD
2
A D dR d
   a 1 2 
R 
Lateral strain
 GAUGE FACTOR (GF)
dR d
   a 1 2 
R 
Strain gauge factor, S is defined
dR
S R usually around 2 for metallic strain gage
d a

GF  S  1  2  
a
Gauge factor is an index of sensitivity of strain gauge.
Higher GF gives more output. In the above expression of S or GF
1 represents the resistance change due to length
2v represents the resistance change due to area
d represents the resistance change due to piezoresistive effect

a
 Gauge Factors of Various Grid Materials
Grid Material Gauge Factor Feature

Advance (Cu-Ni 2 High resistivity

Alloy)
Isoelastic 3.5 Low temp. sensitivity and Low
Hysteresis

Nichrome (Ni-Cr 2 Low thermal emf

Alloy)
Constantan 2 Good corrosion resistance

Manganin 0.47 Good Workability

Nickel -12 Good Solderability and

Weldability

Monel 1.9 High Electrical Stability

 Negative Gauge factor
• Semiconductor materials are also used for strain
gauges
• P-doped silicon gives a gauge factor of typically 100,
while a factor of -100 is observed with n-doped
silicon.
• A negative gauge factor indicates that the
resistance of the gauge decreases as strain
increases.
• The high gauge factor indicates that the materials are
very sensitive to strain, but they have the
disadvantage that their resistance and the gauge factor
itself, are susceptible to temperature changes.
Types of Strain gauge, Construction
Strain gauges are basically of two types
1. Metallic Strain gauges
(a) Bonded (b) Unbonded
Bonded metallic strain gauges are of 3
types
(i) Flat grid
(ii) Helical grid and
(iii) Thin foil type
2. Semiconductor Strain gauges
1. Metallic strain gauges
a) Bonded strain gauges:
Flat and helical grid type
Bonded strain gauges: Flat and helical grid type

• Bonded strain gauge consists of a resistive wire made

up of advance, isoelastic, nichrome, monel and
manganin etc in the form of grid and mounted on a
small piece of paper or plastic backing. The wire grid
may be flat type or helical type.
• The flat grid is formed in one plane by simply winding
the wire back and forth. The flat grid is bonded or
cemented to the surface whose strain is to be
measured.
• In helical grid type, wire is wrapped in a helix around a
cylindrical paper tube.
 Bonded strain gauges :Thin foil
type

It is produced by printed circuit techniques.

It consists of a foil grid on plastic backing
Desired grid pattern is printed on thin metal foil with acid
resistant ink and unwanted portion is etched out.
Foil gauges are thinner than wire gauges.
It can be easily applied to sharply curved surfaces.
Improved hysteresis, lateral strain sensitivity, greater heat
dissipation capacity
 Types of Strain gauge:
b) Unbonded strain gauge
• In unbonded strain gauge, a resistance wire is
stretched between two frames in which one is
moving frame and other is fixed frame.
 2. Semiconductor strain gauges
• In semiconductor strain gauges, the resistance
changes mostly due to Piezoresistive effects.
• When force is applied on the semiconductor strain
gauges, its crystalline structure changes and causes
change in hole and electron mobility. This effect
gives large gauge factor. The typical value of GF is -
50 to -150.
• Semiconductor strain gauges are mostly used in
Load cells, accelerometers and in torque
measurement.
• These are very expensive when compared to metallic
strain gauges
 Problems
1. The wire in a strain gauge is 0.1 m. long and has a initial
resistance of 120 Ω. On application of force, the wire length
increases by 0.1 mm and resistance increases by 0.21 Ω.
Determine the Gauge factor of a device. (Ans:1.75)
2. A resistance strain gauge is used to measure stress on steel.
The steel is stressed to 1,400 kg/cm2. Assume Young’s
Modulus of steel, E =2.1x106 kg/cm2.Calculate the % change
of resistance of a strain gauge assuming gauge factor equal to
2. (Ans: 0.133%)
3. A SG with G.F of 2 is bonded to a metallic member subjected
to a stress of 1,000 kg/cm2. Young’s Modulus of elasticity of a
metal is , E =2x106 kg/cm2. Calculate the % change in
resistance and what is the value of poisson’s ratio?
(Ans: 0.1% and 0.5)
 Strain gauge Rosettes
A wire strain gage can effectively measure strain in only one
direction. To determine the three independent components of
plane strain, three linearly independent strain measures are
needed, i.e., three strain gages positioned in a rosette-like layout.
45 degrees strain Rosette and 60 degrees Rosette.
 STRAIN MEASURING CIRCUITRY:
SEVERAL BRIDGE ARRANGEMENT

quarter bridge circuit half bridge circuit full bridge circuit

Temperature compensation
Any change in resistance of RG caused by change
in temperature will be compensated by the dummy
gage resulting in only strain imposed in active RG
will be detected
 Problems on strain gauge Bridges
1. A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 and
R=120 Ω is used in the bridge. The bridge
resistors are R1=R2=120 Ω and dummy
gauge has a resistance of 120.If a strain of
1500 μm/m is applied, determine the bridge
offset voltage if Vin=8V. (Ans: 5.9 mV)

2. A strain gauge has a gauge factor of 4. It is attached to a

metal bar that stretches from 10 cm to 10.2 cm. What is
the % change in resistance? If unstrained value of
resistance is 240 Ω, what is the value of new resistance
after strain? (Ans: 259.2 Ω)
 Introduction to Strain gauge Load Cells
Load cell is an electromechanical sensor used to
measure static and dynamic forces.
Load cell=elastic member + Strain gauge
Load cells utilize the elastic members as primary
transducer and strain gauges as secondary transducers.
Strain gauges are attached on the elastic member
having suitable plane area to accommodate them.
If elastic member is of cantilever beam-force or weight
measurement-Beam Load cell
If elastic member is of column-column load cell
If elastic member is Ring-Ring Load cell
Force and Torque Measurement
 BEAM TYPE LOAD CELL-Force Measurement
Beam type load cells are commonly
employed for measuring low-level
loads.
6Fl
1   2   3   4 
Ewt 2
l F

1 R1 R R R 6GF .Fl

3 t  2  3  4 
R1 R2 R3 R4 Ewt 2
w
If all strain gauges are identical ,
axial gauges 1 and 3 undergo tension the output voltage of for full bridge is

axial gauges 2 and 4 are attached on the Vo   GF .Vs . 

bottom surface, undergo compression
where w , t are the breadth and thickness of cantilever 6(GF ).F .l.Vs
beam respectively; l is the distance between the points of V0 
force applied (F) and location of strain gauges on Ewt 2
cantilever beam
Vo F  Force
 Ring Type Load Cell-Force Measurement
A proving ring comprises a circular ring
having a rectangular cross section. It
has radius R, thickness t and an axial
width b. D is outer diameter of the ring.
The strain is given by
1.08FR

Ebt 2

 It can be used over a

wide range of loads 1.5
kN to 2 MN
Column type Load cell-Force Measurement
 Resistive (Strain gauge) Force
measurement
• Figure shows use of a strain gauge for
measuring the force applied to a cantilever
beam type elastic member. The force on the
beam causes the beam to bend, producing a
sheer stress.

Where: P is the applied force, E is the

Young’s modulus.
L (d), b and t are the length, width and
thickness of the cantilever, respectively.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Resistive (Strain gauge) Force
measurement

Use of a strain gauge for measuring the force applied to a

cantilever beam. (a) Top view; (b) side view.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Resistive (Strain gauge) Force
measurement
• The resistance change in strain gauges is small and requires the
use of a bridge circuit for measurement, as shown in Figure .
• The strain gauge elements are mounted in two arms of the
bridge, and two resistors, R1 and R2, form the other two arms.
The output signal from the bridge is amplified and impedance
matched.
• The strain gauge elements are in opposing arms of the bridge, so
that any change in the resistance of the elements due to
temperature changes will not affect the balance of the bridge,
giving temperature compensation.
• More gain and impedance matching stages than what is shown
may be required, or an ADC will be required to make the signal
suitable for transmission. Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Torque Measurement using Strain gauges
Strain gauge Torque meter

Angular twist (deflection) Shear stress (fs )

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana Where: FD=T (Torque)

 Torque Measurement using Strain gauges

Angular twist (deflection) Shear stress (fs )

For full V0  GF . 45 .Vin Where: FD=T=Torque

bridge
V0  (GF )( / 2)Vin
V0  (GF )( f s / 2G )Vin
(GF )(8T )Vin
V0 
 d 3G
V0 T  Torque
 Torque Measurement---Cont…
• When shaft (or torsion bar) In case of hollow shaft of
undergoes torsion due to applied outer radius R and inner
torque, the shaft becomes strained. radius r, the strain
• This strain is measured by means produced and twist due
of 04 strain gauges mounted at 450 to torque is given by the
with shaft axis. expression
• Two SGs are subjected to tensile
stresses while the other two TR
experience compressive stresses.  450  
 G(R4  r 4 )
The strain gauges are mounted in a
2TL
way that they give max. sensitivity 
to the strains produced by the  G(R4  r 4 )
torsion. Where:
T=Applied Torque
• Torques over a range of 100 to 100
R Outer radius of shaft
000 N-cm can be measured with r= Inner radius of shaft
this device. G=Modulus of rigidity
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana L=Length of the shaft
 Measurement of induced strain
• Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque
has been the most common method used for torque measurement
in recent years.
• It is a very attractive method because it does not disturb the
measured system by introducing friction torques in the same way
as the last two methods described do.
• The method involves bonding four strain gauges onto the shaft as
shown in Figure , where the strain gauges are arranged in a d.c.
bridge circuit. The output from the bridge circuit is a function of
the strain in the shaft and hence of the torque applied.
• It is very important that the positioning of the strain gauges on the
shaft is precise, and the difficulty in achieving this makes the
instrument relatively expensive.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 LOAD CELLS
The elastic members commonly used in load cells are links,
beam, rings, and shear web
Load Cells: Types

Button

Canister

S Type

Shear Beam
 Comparison of Strain Gauge Load Cells

Load Cell Weight

Accuracy Applications Strength Weakness
Type Range
Tanks,
Bending Low cost, Simple Strain gages
10-5k lbs 0.03% platform
Beam construction exposed
scales
tanks,
platform Better sealing
Shear Beam 10-5k lbs 0.03%
scales,off- and protection
center loads
Truck, tank, No horizontal
Handles load
Canister to 500k lbs 0.05% track, hopper load
movement
scales protection
No load
Ring & Tanks, bins,
5-500k lbs All stainless steel movement
Pancake scales
allowed
0-50k lbs
Button & Small Loads must
0-200lbs 1% Small scales
Washer inexpensive be centered
typ.
 Comparison of Strain Gauge Load Cells
Load Cell Weight
Accuracy Apps Strength Weakness
Type Range
Takes high
Up to
Tanks, bins, impacts, Expensive
Hydraulic 10,000,000 0.25%
& hoppers insensitive to complex
lbs
temp
Slow
food industry,
response.
Pneumatic Wide High hazardous Intrinsically safe
Require clean,
areas
dry air
Platform,
Handles off-axis
Helical 0-40k lbs 0.2% forklift,
loads, overloads
wheel load
Electrical
Immune to
Fiber Optic 0.1% transmission
RFI/EMI
cables
Extremely
High cost,
Piezo- sensitive, high
0.03% nonlinear
resistive signal output
output
level
 Problems on Load Cells
1. A 350 Ω strain gauge having gauge factor of 2.1
is attached to an aluminum strut (Young’s
Modulus, E=73 GPa). The outside diameter of
the strut is 50 mm and the inside diameter is
47.5 mm. Calculate the change in resistance
when the strut supports a 1000 kg load.
(Answer: ∆R= 0.52 Ohm)
2. Consider a Wheatstone bridge where arm 1 is a 120Ω
advance strain gauge (gauge factor of 2.0), arm 4 (on the
same side of the bridge) is a similar dummy gauge intended
for compensation, and arms 2 and 3 are fixed 120 Ohm
resistors. Maximal current through the gauges is 30 mA.
a) Calculate the maximal dc supply voltage. (Answer: 7.2 V)
b) If the sensing gauge is bonded on steel (Young’s Modulus,
E=210 GPa) and the bridge is supplied by 5 V, what is the
bridge output voltage, when the applied load is 70 kg/cm2?
(Answer: 81 μV)
c) Calculate a calibrating resistor that placed in parallel to the
unloaded active gauge would produce the same bridge
output voltage as 700 kg/cm2 in a steel piece.
(Answer: 184.5 kOhms)
 Applications of Strain Gauge
Stress and Strain Measurement
The basic function of a strain gauge is to measure strain, and in turn
stress. Strain is simply the change in length of a component divided by
the original length of the component while experiencing an applied load.
Stress is calculated by multiplying the strain by the modulus of elasticity
for the specific material being measured.
Load Measurement
Strain gauges are integral elements of load cell transducers, which
measure the magnitude of an applied tensile or compressive force. The
strain gauges are installed on precisely machined steel components
where the exact cross section is known, and therefore the strain
measurement can be converted to a load measurement output.
Pressure Measurement
A pressure sensor uses the same strain gauge configuration and
installation as a load cell, except that the sensor measures the applied
load over a discrete area, or pressure.
 Applications of Strain Gauge
The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and
associated stress analysis.

√Many other detectors and transducers like load cells, torque

meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges, accelerometers, and
flow meters use strain gauges as secondary transducers. Using
strain gauge, strain can be measured accurately in various
objects due to given loaded conditions. Thus it is powerful and
necessary design tool for civil and mechanical engineers.
 Applications of Strain Gauge

√A unique application of the piezoresistive effect is the

measurement of very high pressures (1.4 Gpa to 40
Gpa) through manganin gauges.

√Strain gauges can measure humidity by sensing the

hygromechanical forces-expansion or contraction
according to the relative humidity on a suitable material
such as hair, nylon and cellulose.
 THANK YOU ONE AND ALL

Next Lecture 2
on Introduction to Resistive Sensors-RTD,
Thermistor

End of Lecture 1