OML/ 751 Testing of Materials Department of Mechanical & Civil Engineering 2021-2022

OML751 TESTING OF MATERIALS LTPC

3 0 03
OBJECTIVE:
To understand the various destructive and non-destructive testing methods of materials and its industrial
applications.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING 9
Overview of materials, Classification of material testing, Purpose of testing, Selection of material,
Development of testing, Testing organizations and its committee, Testing standards, Result Analysis,
Advantages of testing.
UNIT II MECHANICAL TESTING 9
Introduction to mechanical testing, Hardness test (Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell), Tensile test, Impact test (Izod,
Charpy) - Principles, Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Applications. Bend test, Shear test,
Creep and Fatigue test - Principles, Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
UNIT III NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 9
Visual inspection, Liquid penetrant test, Magnetic particle test, Thermography test – Principles, Techniques,
Advantages and Limitations, Applications. Radiographic test, Eddy current test, Ultrasonic test, Acoustic
emission- Principles, Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
UNIT IV MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION TESTING 9
Macroscopic and Microscopic observations, Optical and Electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) - Principles,
Types, Advantages and Limitations, Applications. Diffraction techniques, Spectroscopic Techniques,
Electrical and Magnetic Techniques- Principles, Types, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
UNIT V OTHER TESTING 9
Thermal Testing: Differential scanning calorimetry, Differential thermal analysis. Thermo- mechanical and
Dynamic mechanical analysis: Principles, Advantages, Applications. Chemical Testing: X-Ray
Fluorescence, Elemental Analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy and
Plasma-Mass Spectrometry.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 Identify suitable testing technique to inspect industrial component
 Ability to use the different technique and know its applications and limitations
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Baldev Raj, T.Jayakumar, M.Thavasimuthu “Practical Non-Destructive Testing”, Narosa Publishing
House, 2009.
2. Cullity, B. D., “Elements of X-ray diffraction”, 3rd Edition, Addison-Wesley Company Inc., New York,
2000.
3. P. Field Foster, “The Mechanical Testing of Metals and Alloys” 7th Edition, Cousens Press, 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. Metals Handbook: Mechanical testing, (Volume 8) ASM Handbook Committee, 9th Edition, American
Society for Metals, 1978.
2. ASM Metals Handbook, “Non-Destructive Evaluation and Quality Control”, American Society of Metals,
Metals Park, Ohio, USA.
3. Brandon D.G., “Modern Techniques in Metallography”, Von Nostrand Inc. NJ, USA, 1986.
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Course Outcomes (COs):
To Study about the basics of various material testing characterization and
C405.1
techniques

C405.2 To Study about the various mechanical testing and its procedure with application

C405.3 Ability to study about the various non-destructive testing

C405.4 Ability to study about various material characterization techniques.

C405.5 Study about various special testing techniques

Attainment of POs through COs (Legends : 1 – Low , 2 – Medium, 3 – High)

PSO 1

PSO 2

PSO 3
PO 10

PO 11

PO 12
PO 1

PO 2

PO 3

PO 4

PO 5

PO 6

PO 7

PO 8

PO 9
ME6601

C405.1 3 0 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 3 3 0 2

C405.2 3 0 2 0 0 1 3 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 3

C405.3 3 0 0 2 0 1 3 3 0 0 0 3 3 0 3

3 0 2 2 0 1 3 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 3
C405.4

3 0 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 3 3 0 2
C405.5

RELATION BETWEEN COURSE CONTENT WITH Cos

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING
Knowledge Course
S.No Topics
level Outcomes

R,U, &, Ap Overview of materials, Classification of material

1 C405.1
testing
R,U, &, Ap
2 Purpose of testing, Selection of material C405.1
R,U, An, &, Ap Development of testing, Testing organizations and its
3 C405.1
committee
R,U, An, &, Ap Testing standards, Result Analysis, Advantages of
4 C405.1
testing.

UNIT II MECHANICAL TESTING

Knowledge Course
S.No Topics
level Outcomes
R,U, &, Ap Introduction to mechanical testing, Hardness test
1 C405.2
(Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell),
R,U, An, &, Tensile test, Impact test (Izod, Charpy) - Principles,
2 Ap Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, C405.2
Applications.
R,U, An, &, Bend test, Shear test, Creep and Fatigue test - Principles,
3 Ap Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations, C405.2
Applications.

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UNIT III NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Knowledge Course
S.No Topics
level Outcomes
R,U, An, &, Visual inspection, Liquid penetrant test Principles,
1 C405.3
Ap Techniques, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, Magnetic particle test, Thermography test Principles,
2 C405.3
Ap Techniques, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, Radiographic test, Eddy current test, Principles, Techniques,
3 C405.3
Ap Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, Ultrasonic test, Acoustic emission- Principles, Techniques,
4 C405.3
Ap Methods, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.

UNIT IV MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION TESTING

Knowledge Course
S.No Topics
level Outcomes
U, An, &, Macroscopic and Microscopic observations, Optical
1 C405.4
Ap Principles, Types, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, (SEM and TEM) - Principles, Types, Advantages and
2 C405.4
Ap Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, Diffraction techniques, Spectroscopic Techniques, Principles,
3 C405.4
Ap Types, Advantages and Limitations, Applications.
R,U, An, &, Electrical and Magnetic Techniques- Principles, Types,
4 C405.4
Ap Advantages and Limitations, Applications.

UNIT V OTHER TESTING

Knowledge Course
S.No Topics
level Outcomes
R,U, An, &, Differential scanning calorimetry Principles, Advantages,
1 C405.5
Ap Applications.
R,U, An, &, Differential thermal analysis Principles, Advantages,
2 C405.5
Ap Applications.
R,U, An, &,
3 Thermo- mechanical Principles, Advantages, Applications. C405.5
Ap
R,U, An, &, Dynamic mechanical analysis: Principles, Advantages,
4 C405.5
Ap Applications
R,U, An, &, Chemical Testing: X-Ray Fluorescence, Principles,
5 C405.5
Ap Advantages, Applications
R,U, An, &, Elemental Analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical
6 C405.5
Ap Emission Spectroscopy and Plasma-Mass Spectrometry.

Ap – Apply; An – Analyze; U – Understand, E- Evaluate, C-Create, R-Remember

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UNIT -I -INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING
PART- A -C405.1
1. What is the property of the material?
Property of a material is a factor that influences qualitatively or quantitatively the response of a
given material to impose stimuli and constrains. Eg. Forces, temperature etc. The material property
is independent of the dimensions or shape of the material.
2. Why materials are tested?
Materials are tested to assess numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility,
malleability, toughness, etc. To determine data, i.e force-determination values to draw up sets of
specifications upon which the engineer can base the design. To determine the surface to sub-surface
defects in the raw materials or processed parts. To check chemical composition and to determine
suitability of a material for a particular application.
3. How material tests are classified?
Destructive tests, Non-destructive tests and process Inspection Tests.
4. What is Non-destructive testing?
A component does not break in nondestructive testing end even after being tested so, it can be used
for the purpose for which it was made. Examples of non-destructive tests are radiography,
ultrasonic, laser and liquid penetrant test.
5. What is Process Inspection Test?
The name of process inspection or process tests may come from the type of manufacturing where it
is performed, such as foundry, welding assembly etc. There is first piece inspection or final piece
inspection of sampling or check inspections. The location often affects the name of the inspection as
in receiving or inspection, conveyor or hopper inspection, stores or stock inspection.
6. Name some of the process tests?
X-ray radiography, Ultrasonic testing, Tensile or bend test, Hardness test, and Leak or tightness test
of a welded pressure vessel, Magnetic particle test.
7. What is the general classification of materials?
Metals (Ferrous and Non-ferrous), Non-metals (Ceramics and Organic polymers), Composites,
Alloys (ferrous and Non-ferrous)
8. What are the most important general properties of a Material?
Mechanical, Physical, chemical, Magnetic, Thermal, electrical, Optical, Nuclear, Surface,
Metallurgical, Acoustic etc.
9. What is Selection of Material?
Engineers irrespective of their domain, need to identify and choose an appropriate material for a
given engineering situation. It involves the proper utility, ways of using them for greater
effectiveness.
10. What are the various factors that need to be considered for selection of materials?
Fabrication ease, service conditions, Operational needs, Durability, Dimensional ability, Resistance
to corrosion, Impact resistance, Surface wear resistance, Elasticity, Chemical resistance and Flame
resistance

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11. What is development of material testing?
Material testing at various strain rates, temperatures and loading conditions provides data that is
used for the development and calibration of constitutive equations (material models) that are
utilized in numerical simulations of sheet metal forming. In general, the testing can be divided into
characterization tests and validation tests. In characterization tests basic material properties (e.g.
yield stress, ultimate stress, failure strain) are determined from a test in which a material coupon is
loaded under a well-defined condition (stress, strain rate, temperature, etc.). The data is used for
determining the values of parameters in plasticity and failure models. In validation tests a material
specimen or a small component is loaded with a more complicated, but well defined, loadings. The
test is numerically simulated and the calculated quantities (forces, deformation, failure, temperature,
etc.) are compared with measurements. The recent development of the Digital Image Correlation
(DIC) technique for full-field measurement of deformation has extended the useful data that can be
extracted from traditional characterization tests and provide means for developing new experiments
that can be used for obtaining more accurate material models.
12. What are testing organizations?
The following are some global organizations which are involved in setting up of "testing standards"
and active research for material analysis and reliability testing. American Association of Textile
Chemists and Colorists (AATCC),American National Standards Institute (ANSI),American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), ASTM International,
Cooper Research Technology, Electrostatic Discharge Association, European Reference Materials,
Instron, International Committee for Non Destructive Testing, International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), ISTFA: Useful resources on Material, Device and Failure Analysis, MTS
Systems Corporation, Nadcap National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)
13. What are material testing standards?
Material Testing Standards provide a unified reference for test methods, equipment, and industry-
specific usage scenarios and specifications for a wide array of materials and test environments.
Material standards are specifications that specify material properties like Physical properties.
Mechanical properties. Quality standards or requirements, like surface finish or specific
performance criteria. Materials testing, measurement of the characteristics and behavior of such
substances as metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be
used in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications—e.g., building or aircraft
construction, machinery, or packaging.
14. Why are engineering standards important/What is the importance of testing standards?
(Nov/Dec 2020)
Standards are documents that describe the important features of a product, service or system. ... By
applying standards, organizations can help to ensure that their products and services are consistent,
compatible, safe and effective.
15. What is the difference between code and standard?
A code is a model, a set of rules that knowledgeable people recommend for others to follow. It is
not a law, but can be adopted into law. A standard tends be a more detailed elaboration, the nuts and
bolts of meeting a code.

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16. What is the ASTM test method?
A code is a model, a set of rules that knowledgeable people recommend for others to follow. It is
not a law, but can be adopted into law. A standard tends be a more detailed elaboration, the nuts and
bolts of meeting a code.
17. Why standards are used in Design?
Trade standards are primarily concerned with specifying overall dimensions, so that products of
different manufacturers may be used interchangeably; with performance, so that customers know
what they are buying; and with certain design features, such as major materials, in order to assure
proper function.
18. List of ASTM standards?
Standard designations usually consist of a letter prefix and a sequentially assigned number. This
may optionally be followed by a dash and the last two digits of the year in which the standard was
adopted. Prefix letters correspond to the following subjects: A = Iron and Steel Materials, B =
Nonferrous Metal Materials,C = Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Materials, D = Miscellaneous
Materials, E = Miscellaneous Subjects, F = Materials for Specific Applications, G = Corrosion,
Deterioration, and Degradation of Materials. Ex: G99 – Wear Testing
19. What is Failure and Failure Analysis?
Failure is a shortcoming which is encountered when a machine or a structure has not been made
according to the desired specifications. It is a result of deterioration in quality especially strength.
Failure leads to defects in a test material, loss of service life and loss of functioning.
Failure Analysis of engineering material is a systematic way to diagnose the cause of failure of a
component and preventing the risk of future failures. After the complete investigation, a report is
prepared which includes all the data obtained and its results with the preventive measures to be
taken.
20. What are the causes of failure in the material?
Manufacturing defects, Errors in designing and assembling, inadequate environmental protection,
inadequate quality assurance, improper selection of material
21. What are the various tests performed under failure Analysis?
Material assessment, Fire damage investigation, Surface contamination and its analysis, Surface
roughness determination, Weld evaluation, Coating contamination determination, Paint
identification, Microstructure evaluation, Macro etching, adhesive testing, Physical tests, Corrosion
analysis, Fractography, Chemical analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy and EDS and Design
review
22. What are the steps Under Failure analysis?
Gaining a complete background information of the material, Carrying out visual inspection and
making a record of the evidences, Conducting tests like Non-Destructive testing, Macroscopic
examination, Mechanical testing, Metallographic examination and several others to diagnose the
failure causes, Data analysis to get a conclusion and Provide suggestions for avoiding the material
failure.

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23. What is the scope of failure mode analysis?
Failure Analysis is broadly practiced in various industries including polymers, electrical and
electronics, metals and alloys, building material, etc. There are various useful methods to prevent
failure such as Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA).
24. What is the advantage of Failure analysis?
Through Failure Analysis, one can identify the defects and flaws in a sample material and can
prevent the failure to avoid accidents related to its use or installation. It also enhances the design to
improve its durability and reliability.
25. What are the advantages of material testing? (Nov/Dec 2020)
Materials testing helps us to understand and quantify whether a specific material or treatment is
suitable for a particular application. With the wide variety of materials and treatments available in
the marketplace, testing can help narrow down the choices to the most appropriate selection for the
intended use.
PART- B- C405.1
1. Write in detail on different type of Engineering Materials?
2. Elaborate on the properties of Engineering Materials.
3. Explain the need for Mechanical Testing.
4. Compare and Contrast the destructive and Nondestructive testing methods.
5. Write in detail about the purpose of Testing.
6. Substantiate the significance of selection of materials.
7. Briefly explain the various Material processing. And the defects occur due to proposing.
8. Write in detail on the development of Testing.
9. Discuss the different testing organizations, its committee and the standards followed. (Nov/Dec
2020)
10. Explain test result analysis or Failure analysis.
11. Describe the various classifications of materials testing. (Nov/Dec 2020)
PART –C- C405.1
1. Explain the various tests and methods adopted to test the Automobile.
2. What are the various analysis required to determine the failure of a Machine tool?
3. How simulation analysis is useful? Explain with a case study.
UNIT- II -- MECHANICAL TESTING
PART-A- C405.2
1. What is material hardness? (Nov/Dec 2014)
Hardness is the surface property. It is defined as the resistance of a material against permanent
deformation of the surface in the form of scratch, cutting, indentation, or mechanical wear.
2. What are the different types of Hardness testing?
Mohs hardness, Brinell hardness test, Vickers, Rockwell hardness and Knoop hardness test.
3. How will you calculate Brinell hardness number?
BHN=Indenting load in (kgf)/ Spherical surface area of indentation(mm2 )
=P/(πD/2(D-√D2 –d2 )); D-Ball diameter, d-indented diameter.
4. What are the two draw backs in Brinell hardness testing?
1.Sinking effect 2.Piling up

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5. When do we use Steel indenter in BHN testing?
To test the specimens of cast iron, unhardened steel and light alloys
6. What is unique in Rockwell hardness test?
The test is more common due to its quick and simple method. There is no need of any calculation
because the Rockwell hardness may be read directly from the dial.
7. What are the different kinds of materials that can be tested using Rockwell hardness
machine?
Scale A- Carburized steel, Cemented Carbides;
Scale B-Soft steel, Copper, Aluminum and Brass;
Scale C-Hard steel, Ti, W, Va
8. If the depth of penetration‘t’ is in mm then RHN may be calculated from..
HRA=100-t/0.002; HRB=130-t/0.002;HRC=100-t/0.002
9. What is Vickers Hardness test?
It is similar to Brinell’s test but uses different indenter. A square based pyramid indenter of cone
angle ᾳ=136 degrees between opposite faces of the pyramid. The applied loads may be 100 to 120
kgf.
10. What is the formula to calculate Vickers Hardness number?
Hv=P/(d2/2 sin ᾳ/2);
ᾳ=136 degrees.
11. What is knoop Hardness test?
 The Rhombic pyramid is used as an indenter in this test.
 The included angle in this test ᾳ=72.5º and 130º.
 The diagonals of the pyramid bear a ratio of 7:1.
12. How will you calculate Knoop Hardness?
Hk=P/0.07028 d2 ; Applied load is P in Newtons and d in mm.
13. What is Hall-Petch Consideration?
Hall-Petch equation given below relates yield stress Ϭy of a given polycrystalline material and the
average grain diameter d. Ϭy=Ϭ0+C/√d. Here Ϭ0 is the yield stress of mono crystal of the same
polycrystalline material.
14. What are impact tests?
Impact tests are performed to assess shock absorbing capability of materials subjected to suddenly
applied shock loads. These capabilities are expressed as 1.Rupture energy 2. Modulus of rupture
and 3. Notch impact strength.
15. What are the two types of notch impact tests are commonly conducted?
Charpy test and Izod test.
16. Draw the stress-strain Plot.

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17. How do you determine Proof stress?
The elastic limit in the non-linearly elastic materials is determined by using offset methods. The
offset in strains is taken as a fraction of total strain at fracture in the material. The stress determined
at elastic limit by these offset methods is called proof stress. 0.2%offset for harder materials, 0.1%
for less harder materials, 0.05% for softer materials.
18. What is Fracture toughness?
Toughness is the resistance of the material to the propagation of the crack. A material with low
fracture toughness, if it contains a crack may fail before it yields. A tough material will yield work
harden even when cracked.
19. What are the implications of the brittle behavior of the materials?
Boilers to burst, Bridges to collapse, Aircraft to Crash, pipes to split CATASTROPIC FAILIURE.
20. What are the conditions for the ductile material to behave like Brittle material?
A low or decreasing temperature, high rate of straining, large grain size of the material, high stress
concentration, rough surface conditions and triaxial stress conditions.
21. State the difference between macro, micro and nano hardness. (Nov 2015)
The term "macro indentation" is applied to tests with a larger test load, such as 1 kgf or more.
In micro indentation hardness testing, a diamond indenter of specific geometry is impressed into the
surface of the test specimen using a known applied force (commonly called a "load" or "test load")
of 1 to 1000 gf. Micro indentation tests typically have forces of 2 N.A prescribed load is applied to
an indenter in contact with a specimen. As the load is applied, the depth of penetration is measured.
The area of contact at full load is determined by the depth of the impression and the known angle or
radius of the indenter.
22. What is S-N diagram? (Nov/Dec 2014)
The total number of cycles N required to bring about
fracture in a material under an applied stress defines its
basic fatigue life. Fatigue life of a material is expressed
in present survival out of large number of specimens. It
is evaluated from the data of stress and number of
cycles of failure N by conducting fatigue tests. The plot
is referred to as S-N diagram.
23. What is a Creep? (Nov/Dec 2014)
The permanent deformation of the material under steady load as a function of time is called Creep.
It is influenced by the temperature.
24. What is acoustic emission? (Nov 2015)
Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic (elastic) waves in solids that
occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure, for example as a
result of crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging, temperature gradients or external
mechanical forces.

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25. Sketch S-N Curve for steel (Nov2015)

26. What is the principle of hardness testing? (Nov/Dec 2020)

Hardness is resistance of material to plastic deformation caused by indentation. Hardness may be
measured from a small sample of material without destroying it.Principle of any hardness test
method is forcing an indenter into the sample surface followed by measuring dimensions of the
indentation (depth or actual surface area of the indentation).
27. What is endurance limit? (Nov/Dec 2020)
The endurance limit (Se) of a material is defined as the stress below which a material can endure an
infinite number of repeated load cycles without exhibiting failure. In other words, when a material
is subjected to a stress that is lower than its endurance limit, it should theoretically be able to
withstand an indefinite amount of load cycles.
PART -B -C405.2
1. Explain the experimental procedure to evaluate the tensile strength of a material? Draw the stress
Strain diagram, Discuss the various properties that can be determined. (Nov/Dec 2020)
2. Explain the method to experimentally determine the torsion strength of a rotating steel shaft.
3. How the resistance to penetration can be quantified using Brinell’s experimental setup?
4. Write in detail on the sample preparation techniques for the macroscopic analysis of engineering
materials.
5. How Vicker’s hardness varies with Brinell’s hardness? Explain the experimental procedure to
find Hv?
6. Explain in detail the Rockwell hardness testing procedure? Give the importance of HRN for
various engineering materials.
7. Explain how the ductility of a metal can be measured?
8. Explain the DBT.
9. Explain in detail on fracture toughness test. (Nov/Dec 2014)
10. How to determine the Hardness and Micro hardness of a novel material? (Nov/Dec 2014)
11. Compare Izod and charpy impact testing methods.(Nov2015)
12. Compare any two hardness testing methods.(Nov 2015)
13. Write in detail on the application of the Dynamic tests and their importance. (Nov/Dec 2014)
14. Explain Fatigue. What are the different types of loading explain with graphs?

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15. Explain the procedure for creep testing of materials. List the advantages and applications.
/Explain the Mechanism of Creep. What are the different types of Creep? Explain with a graph.
(Nov/Dec 2020)
16. Explain the procedure and standard specimen dimensions used for impact testing of materials.
(Nov/Dec 2020)
PART- C- C405.2
1. Select a suitable testing method and determine the modulus of elasticity of a steel specimen in
bending. (Nov/Dec 2014)
2. Explain S-N Curves with neat sketch. (Nov 2015)
3. Explain creep tests with neat sketch.(Nov 2015)
UNIT -III -NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
PART -A -C405.3
1. What is Visual Inspection?
Visual Inspection, or Visual Testing (VT), is the oldest and most basic method of inspection. It is
the process of looking over a piece of equipment using the naked eye to look for flaws. It requires
no equipment except the naked eye of a trained inspector. Visual Inspection, used in maintenance of
facilities, mean inspection of equipment and structures using either or all of raw human senses such
as vision, hearing, touch and smell and/or any non-specialized inspection equipment.
2. Why Visual Inspection is Important?
Visual inspection is an important function carried out during portable appliance testing (PAT) in
order to ensure personal safety in the workplace. ... Many electrical appliance defects are identified
by a quick visual inspection, but not all. Other types of defect can only be found by testing.
3. What are the types of Inspection?
Some common methods are visual, industrial computed tomography scanning, microscopy, dye
penetrant inspection, magnetic-particle inspection, X-ray or radiographic testing, ultrasonic testing,
eddy-current testing, acoustic emission testing, and thermographic inspection. There are three
primary types of quality inspections: pre-production, in-line, and final. There are a variety of details
that must be inspected and approved during each phase in order to detect and correct quality
problems.
4. What is the Principle behind Liquid Penetrant Test?
The principle of liquid penetrant testing is that the liquid penetrant is drawn into the surface-
breaking crack by capillary action and excess surface penetrant is then removed; a developer
(typically a dry powder) is then applied to the surface, to draw out the penetrant in the crack and
produce a surface indication.
5. What is Liquid Penetrant Test?
Dye penetrant inspection (DP), also called liquid penetrate inspection (LPI) or penetrant
testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to check surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
6. What is Dye Penetrant Made of?
The dye penetrant method of inspection is a nondestructive test for defects open to the surface. It
may be used on such materials as aluminum, magnesium, brass, copper, cast iron, steel, stainless
steel, carbides, stellite, certain plastics and ceramics.

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7. How many types of Penetrant are there?
Penetrant materials come in two basic types: Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants: they contain a dye or
several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Type 2 - Visible Penetrants: they
contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background.
8. Which emulsifiers are Oil based?
Lipophilic emulsification systems are oil-based materials that are supplied in ready-to-use form. ...
The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks up the penetrant into small quantities and prevents these pieces
from recombining or reattaching to the surface of the part.
9. What is magnetic particle inspection?
Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting surface
and shallow subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and
some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. Magnetic Particle
Testing (MPT), also referred to as Magnetic Particle Inspection, is a
nondestructive examination (NDE) technique used to detect surface and slightly subsurface flaws in
most ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and some of their alloys.
10. What is Magnaflex test?
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT), also referred to as Magnetic Particle Inspection, is a
nondestructive examination (NDE) technique used to detect surface and slightly subsurface flaws in
most ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and some of their alloys.
11. What is RT test?
Radiographic Testing (RT) is a nondestructive examination (NDE) technique that involves the use
of either x-rays or gamma rays to view the internal structure of a component. In the petrochemical
industry, RT is often used to inspect machinery, such as pressure vessels and valves, to detect for
flaws.
12. What is wet mag?
Wet suspension magnetic particle inspection, more commonly known as wet magnetic particle
inspection, involves applying the particles while they are suspended in a liquid carrier. ... First, all
of the surfaces of the component can be quickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform layer
of particles.
13. What is magnetic crack detection?
Magnetic particle inspection is a simple NDI method used to detect cracks at the surface of
ferromagnetic materials such as steels and nickel-based alloys. ... The surface is then coated with
small magnetic particles, which is usually a dry or wet suspension of iron filings.
14. How many types of radiography are there?
There are three types of diagnostic radiographs taken in today's dental offices -- periapical (also
known as intraoral or wall-mounted), panoramic, and cephalometric. Periapical radiographs are
probably the most familiar, with images of a few teeth at a time captured on small film cards
inserted in the mouth.
15. What is a plain radiograph?
Plain radiography is a means of obtaining a picture of internal structures by passing X-rays through
them, and recording the shadows cast by these structures.

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16. What happens if a magnet cracks?
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete
bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. The magnetic field spreads
out when it encounters the small air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as
much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can.
17. What is used in medical imaging?
The main types of imaging used in modern medicine are radiography, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), nuclear medicine, and ultrasound. Radiography uses electromagnetic radiation to take
images of the inside of the body.
18. What does remanence mean?
Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is removed. Colloquially,
when a magnet is "magnetized" it has remanence.
19. What is Thermography Test?
Thermographic testing, also known as infrared inspection, is a contact-free predictive maintenance
method used to detect connections defects, system overloads, deteriorated insulation, and other
potential problems in electrical components.
20. What can a thermography detect?
Thermography is a test that uses an infrared camera to detect heat patterns and blood flow in body
tissues. Digital infrared thermal imaging (DITI) is the type of thermography that's used to diagnose
breast cancer. When blood flow to the tumor increases, the temperature around it rises.
21. What is infrared thermography used for?
Infrared thermography is the process of using a thermal imager to detect radiation (heat) coming
from an object, converting it to temperature and displaying an image of the temperature distribution.
22. How is eddy current testing done?
Eddy current testing is based on the physics phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. In an eddy
current probe, an alternating current flows through a wire coil and generates an oscillating magnetic
field. This in turn affects the movement of electrons in the coil by varying the electrical impedance
of the coil.
23. What is the difference between eddy current and ultrasonic testing?
Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) is a technique used to detect flaws or corrosion in ferromagnetic
materials. It can also measure the thickness of said materials. ... Long Range Ultrasonic
Testing (LRUT) is an ultrasonic testing technique that is used to inspect pipelines for corrosion
24. How does acoustic emission testing work?
Acoustic emission is the transient elastic waves within a material, caused by the rapid release of
localized stress energy. Acoustic emissions can be detected in frequency ranges under 1 kHz, and
have been reported at frequencies up to 100 MHz, but most of the released energy is within the 1
kHz to 1 MHz range.
25. What is acoustic emission sensor?
Acoustic emission sensor is a device that transforms a local dynamic material displacement
produced by a stress wave to an electrical signal.

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26. What are the limitations of magnetic particle testing? (Nov/Dec 2020)
 Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials
 Insensitive to internal defects
 Require magnetization and demagnetization of materials to be inspected
 Require power supply for magnetization
 Coating may mask indication
 Material may be burned during magnetization
27. State any two applications of eddy current testing. (Nov/Dec 2020)
This non-destructive testing technique is non-hazardous and commonly used in industries such as
aerospace, rail, automotive, marine and manufacturing.
In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:
 Crack detection
 Material thickness measurements
 Coating thickness measurements
 Conductivity measurements for:
 Material identification
 Heat damage detection
 Case depth determination
 Heat treatment monitoring
PART- B- C405.3
1. Explain the various steps involved in liquid penetrant testing with their advantages and
limitations. (Nov/Dec 2020)
2. What is the Principle behind Magnetic Particle Test? Explain the Process.
3. Explain the procedure for determining the internal defects present in the material using
radiographic testing. (Nov/Dec 2020)
4. What is Ultra sonic Test? How it is carried out in the Industries?
5. What is thermal Imaging? How it is helpful in engineering applications?
6. What is Acoustics? How testing is carried out using this Principle?
7. How visual inspection is the most useful method when compared to other methods?
8. What are the different sensors used in the Nondestructive testing methods?
9. Differentiate Radiography test and Ultrasonic Tests.
10. Explain the cost analysis of different NDT methods
PART -C -C405.3
1. How thermography can be an effective tool in medicine and as well as in Engineering
Technology?
2. Explain the economics behind the Nondestructive testing.
3. How Images are interpreted and analyzed? Explain with a case study.

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UNIT- IV -MATERIAL CHARATERIZATION
PART-A- C405.4
1. How do you define a grain?
A closed polygonal shape with more or less curved sides which can be revealed on a flat cross-
section of the sample, polished and prepared for micrographic examination.
2. What are Austenitic grain and Ferritic grain?
Austenitic Grain: Crystal with face-centered cubic crystal structure which may or may not contain
annealing twins. Ferritic Grain: Crystal with body centered cubic crystal structure which never
contains annealing twins.
3. List the methods of revealing the grain boundaries?
“Bechet-Beaujard” method by etching with aqueous saturated picric acid solution, “Kohn” method
by controlled oxidation and “Mcquaid-Ehn” method by carburization;
4. What are the fundamental optical principles of importance in microscopic analysis?
Reflection. 2. Refraction and 3. Interference Phenomenon
5. What is Photoelectric Effect?
Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal when a
light of suitable wave length falls on it.
6. What is Metallography?
It is the general study of metals and their behavior, with particular reference to their microstructure
and macrostructure.
7. What is the Principle of working of Optical metallurgical microscope? (Nov/Dec 2020)
The source of light is present inside the microscope tube itself. The incident light strikes the plane
glass reflector kept at 45 degrees and is partially reflected down on to the specimen. The rays of
light get returned by reflection from the specimen, pass through the objective and glass reflector to
form the final image which can be seen through the eyepiece. The maximum magnification
obtained with the optical microscope is about 2000X.
8. What are the etching reagents for Microscopic Examination?
Nital, Acid ammonium persulphate, Ammonia hydrogen peroxide, Dilute Hydro choric acid and
Keller’s reagent.
9. Why metal specimens are etched even after polishing?
Even after fine polishing, the granular structure in a specimen usually cannot be seen under
microscope, because grain boundaries in a metal have a thickness of the order a few atom diameters
at best, and the resolving power of a microscope is much too low to reveal their presence.
10. How Micrographic Method is used for the determination of Non-metallic Inclusions in
wrought steels?
The micrographic method for the determination of non-metallic inclusions in wrought steel products
consists of comparing, for each type of inclusion, the observed fields with the standard
diagrams(ASTM standard diagrams), and allocating them the same classifications as that of the
diagrams that resembles them most closely.
11. How the standard diagrams proposed by ASTM are divided in to?
The standard diagrams are divided in to the following four main groups: Group A (Sulphide type),
Group B (Aluminates type), Group C (silicate type), and Group D (globular oxide type).

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12. How the mean index of the inclusion in the fine and thick series can be calculated?
For type A inclusion(fine series) take;n1 as the number of fields of index 0.5,n2 as the number of
fields of index 1,n3 as the number of fields of index 1.5 similarly other number of fields, Total
index= (n1x0.5)+(n2x1)+(n3x1.5); Mean index=Total index/N where N is the total number of fields
observed.
13. What is a crystal?
The crystal is a solid body has a regular internal arrangement of consistent atoms or ions.
14. What is Crystallography?
It is the science of crystals which is devoted to the study of their development and growth, the
external form, internal structure and physical properties.
15. What are the elements of crystallographic symmetry?
Plane of symmetry, Axis of symmetry, Centre of symmetry and Axis of rotary inversion.
16. What are the 6 crystal systems?
Cubic system, Hexagonal system, Tetragonal system, orthogonal system, monoclinic system and
triclinic systems
17. What are the various techniques used to determine the structure?
X-rays diffraction technique, microscopic examination, electron diffraction techniques,
spectroscopy, Mossbauer, Neutron diffraction and Holography.
18. How x-rays contribute to the structural analysis of the solids?
X-rays have substantially contributed to reveal the structure of solids. These are electromagnetic
waves of ultrahigh frequency. Their wavelength (0.46Ả-2.29A), is same as the inter atomic spacing
in the solid. This is the advantageous situation for X-rays over optical microscopy. The method of
examination by X-rays is called radiography.
19. Explain the Bragg’s law of X-rays Diffraction.(Nov/Dec 2014/2015)
Bragg devised an X-ray spectrometer and used a crystal as reflecting grating for its study. The
crystal was mounted on a turntable. A beam of X-rays was made incident on this crystal. Beam of
incident X-rays, at a glancing angle θ, were scattered from the crystal planes which were rich in
atoms. The X-rays were scattered by each individual atom lying on a parallel plane. This occurrence
is known as X-rays diffraction. 2d sinθ=nλ, d- inter planar spacing.
20. What is Scherer’s Formula?
The Scherer’s Formula is used when there is inhomogeneous strain in the crystal and the peak
broadening caused by the finite size of crystallites. It is used to calculate the Crystal size D,
D=kλ/Bcosθ.,B-FWHM and k-is the Scherer’s Constant.
21. What is ASTM Number?
American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) specifies the grain sizes in materials from
ASTM1 to ASTM 12 of which ASTM1 to ASTM8 are the normal ranges in metals. The number of
grains N observed in an area of one square inch on a photomicrograph at a magnification of 100 x is
given by N=2(n-1) where n is the ASTM number of grain size. log N=(n-1) log 2; n=(logN/log2)+1
22. How grains are classified based on average numbers and average diameters?
Coarse grain ASTM No.3 and less; medium grain for ASTM No.4 to 6; fine grain for ASTM no 7
to 9 and Ultrafine for ASTM no 10 and more.

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23. What are the etchants used for glass materials? (Nov2015)
The acid is prepared by dissolving silica in a mixture of hydrofluoric acid, quartz powder, calcium
fluoride, and concentrated sulfuric acid derived after heating.
24. What is the Principle behind the Working of Scanning Electron Microscope?
Accelerated electrons in an SEM carry significant amount of kinetic energy. This energy is
dissipated as signals when the incident electrons are decelerated in the solid sample. The intensity
distribution of these signals gives the image profile of the sample. SEM analysis is considered to be
non-destructive, that is, x-rays generated by electron interactions do not lead to volume loss of the
samples, so it is possible to analyze the same materials repeatedly.
25. What is the principle behind electron microscopy? (Nov 2014)
The wave length of electron beam depends on its energy, which in turn is dependent on the voltage
used to accelerate the electrons. Modern electron microscope uses accelerating voltage in the range
of 100 V to 1000kV. According to de Brogle equation, this voltage corresponds to a wavelength of
about 0.03 Armstrong units. This should, in principle, allow imaging details on an atomic scale.
26. State any four application of AFM. (Nov2015)
(a) the identification of atoms at a surface, (b) the evaluation of interactions between a specific atom
and its neighboring atoms.(C) attempt to distinguish cancer cells and normal cells based on a
hardness of cells. (d) Solid state physics, semiconductor science and technology.
27. What is the working philosophy of TEM? and What are the constraints in using TEM for
analysis?
TEM uses a high electron beam transmitted through a very thin sample to image and analyze the
microstructure of materials with atomic scale resolution. The electrons are focused with
electromagnetic lenses and the image is observed on a fluorescent screen. The electrons are
accelerated at several hundred kilovolts, giving wavelengths much smaller than the light.
Many materials require extensive sample preparation to produce a sample thin enough to be
electron transparent. This makes TEM analysis a relatively time consuming process with a low
throughput of samples. The structure of the samples may also be changed during the preparation
process.
28. What are the different types of Vision capturing devices used to capture the images?
Scattered or transmitted electrons are captured in the TV screen i.e. the vision sensing devices like
Charge coupled devices, Charge injected devices and Vidicon tubes. There are algorithms to scan
the images and infer the nature of information contained in the image.
29. How AFM differs in probing?
AFM- Relies on a sharp tip to scan over a surface. This tip can measure forces down to the lower
pico-Newton range. AFM resembles a record player; the forces between the surface and the tip
cause the cantilever to bend in the vertical direction. By measuring the deflection, it is possible to
produce an image of the surface with atomic resolution. The forces can to attractive or repulsive
depending on the nature of the interaction between the tip and the surface being investigated.
30. Brief the technology hidden in the tip of the scanning Tunneling Microscope? What is the
advantage of STM over other Microscopes?
The STM uses a sharpened conducting tip with bias voltage applied between the tip and the sample.
When the tip is brought within 1 nm gap of the sample, electrons from the sample begin to pass

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through the gap into the tip or vice-versa, depending upon the sign of the voltage. Tunneling current
varies with tip-to-sample spacing, and it is this variation that is used to create an STM image.
In comparison with other analytical techniques, STM can probe both periodic and non-periodic
structure on a surface. It is not necessary to operate under ultra-high vacuum conditions as with
most other surface analytical techniques. It can also be operated in air and liquid.
31. What is the information(s) that can be determined using X-Ray Diffraction? (Nov/Dec
2020)
In X-ray diffraction (XRD) the interplanar spacing (d-spacing) of a crystal is used for identification
and characterization purposes. In this case, the wavelength of the incident X-ray is known and
measurement is made of the incident angle (θ) at which constructive interference occurs. Solving
Bragg's Equation gives the d-spacing between the crystal lattice planes of atoms that produce the
constructive interference. A given unknown crystal is expected to have many rational planes of
atoms in its structure; therefore, the collection of "reflections" of all the planes can be used to
uniquely identify an unknown crystal. In general, crystals with high symmetry (e.g. isometric
system) tend to have relatively few atomic planes, whereas crystals with low symmetry (in the
triclinic or monoclinic systems) tend to have a large number of possible atomic planes in their
structures.
PART -B -C405.4
1. Explain the principal behind the optical microscopy? Brief the techniques involved in measuring
the size of the objects using optical microscope.(Nov/Dec 2014)
2. Explain Polishing and Etching techniques adopted in sample preparation?
3. How do you calculate the particle size and other morphologies of the material using X-ray
diffraction technique?
4. Briefly explain the different types of electrical and magnetic techniques with their advantages.
(Nov/Dec 2020)
5. What are the different types of crystal structures and how they are identified using
diffractometry?
(Nov/Dec 2014)
6. What are the elements of Electron diffraction? What are Debye and scherer formula? How they
are effectively used in crystallography?
7. Explain the working principle of metallurgical microscope and explain its in metallurgical
studies.(Nov2015)
8. Explain the working principle of any two methods of X-ray diffraction.(Nov2015)
9. With a neat sketch explain how the electron beam interacts with the surface of the materials.
Explain the various electrons liberated and their role in analyzing the materials.
10. What is TEM? Explain the working principle of TEM with neat sketch. Explain the
significance of sample preparation in TEM? How it differs from other Electron microscopes?
(Nov/Dec 2014/2015)
11. Explain the image capturing and image processing techniques. (Nov/Dec 2014)
12. Explain the Scanning electron Microscopy? How it is helpful in topographical and
morphological analysis of materials. (Nov2015)

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13. Differentiate TEM and SEM. Explain with appropriate sketches the working of STM. (Nov
2015)
14. With a neat sketch explain the working principle of Atomic force microscope.
15. Explain the working principle of SEM with neat sketch. (Nov 2015)
PART- C -C405.4
1. Explain the procedure for any one commercial method used in steel foundries to determine the
chemical composition of materials. (Nov/Dec 2020)
2. Explain the principle and working of any one electron microscopy technique. (Nov/Dec 2020)
3. Explain various imaging techniques in SEM. (Nov 2014)
UNIT- V- OTHER TECHNIQUES
PART-A -C405.5
1. What is Rayleigh scattering?
When light (laser) strikes an object, some parts of it are transmitted, some absorbed, but a majority
of them are scattered. Most of the scattering is elastic in nature. This scattering is called Rayleigh
scatter.
2. What are the two different types of Raman spectroscopy?
Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy and Resonance spectroscopy.
3. What is Raman Shift?
A monochromatic beam of light impinges on the sample and the spectrum of the scattered light is
examined. A Raman spectrum is a plot of the intensity of Raman scattered radiation as a function of
its frequency difference from the incident radiation. This difference is called the Raman shift.
4. What is X-ray Spectroscopy?
X-ray spectroscopy is a form of optical spectroscopy that utilizes emission, absorption, scattering,
fluorescence, and diffraction of X-ray radiation.
5. What is the Duane-Hunt law?
The maximum photon energy corresponds to total stopping of the electron and is given by:
HVO=(HC)/λ0=Ve; V0-maximum frequency, V-accelerated voltage, e- electron charge
6. Wave length dispersive X-ray spectroscopy?
It is the method used to count the number of X-rays of a specific wavelength diffracted by a crystal.
The wavelength of the impinging X-ray and the crystal’s lattice are related to Bragg’s law and
produce constructive interference if they fit the Bragg’s law
7. What is Auger Spectroscopy?
Auger electron is an alternative to X-ray radiation emission. The emitted energy knocks off an
electron from the higher energy shell instead of emitting an X-ray. These electrons applied in
surface analysis.
8. What is XRF?
X-Ray Fluorescence results when atoms incident X-radiation, become excited, and emit X-rays of
characteristic wavelength, in the process X-ray fluorescence occur when the excitation source is a
beam of X-rays.
9. What are the components of the XRD instrumentation?
Excitation source, Wavelength selector, Collimators, Filters and Detectors.

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10. What is electron probe Microanalysis?
EMA-Electron probe micro analysis operates at high electron beam currents. Detector is the gas
proportions counter, provides high emission intensity and moderate resolution and magnification.
11. What is Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry?
It is a technique for surface and thin film analysis, the primary ion beam after passed against the
surface during the sputtering process, comes back with certain amount of mass carrying information
regarding the topography and material properties of the surface atoms and the same can be used for
analysis.
12. What is FT-IR spectrometry?
FT-IR stands for Fourier Transform Infrared, the preferred method of infrared spectroscopy. In this
process IR radiation is passed through a sample. Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed by the
sample. Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed by the sample and some of radiation transmitted
through the sample. Thus by analyzing the resulting spectrum molecular representation of particular
specimen can be found out.
13. What are the advantages of FT-IR?
Excellent speed in measurements, good sensitivity, mechanical simplicity and internally calibrated.
14. What is TGA?
TGA-Thermo Gravimetric Analysis is a type of testing that is performed on samples to determine
change in weight in relation to change in temperature. A derivative weight loss curve can be used to
tell the point at which weight loss is more apparent. It is commonly employed in research and
testing to determine the degrading temperature, absorbed moisture content, decomposition of
explosives and solvent residues.
15. What is DSC? What can DSC measure? (Nov/Dec 2020)
Differential scanning Calorimetry measures the temperatures and heat flows associated with
transitions in materials as a function of time and temperature in a controlled atmosphere. The
measurement provides quantitative and qualitative information about physical and chemical
changes that involve endothermic and exothermic reactions or changes in heat capacity.
Glass transition temperature, Melting and boiling points, Crystallization time and temperature,
Heats of fusion and reaction, specific heat capacity, thermal stability, Reaction Kinetics and Rate
and degree of cure.
16. What is Modulated DSC? What are the benefits of Modulated DSC?
Composite heating profile determines heat capacity and separates heat flow into that due to
reversible and non-reversible events.
Increased sensitivity, increased resolution, ability to separate complex thermal events and
transitions in to their heat capacity and kinetic components, and ability to measure heat capacity.
17. What are non reversible Modulated DSC?
Crystallization, Curing, Oxidation and Evaporation.
18. What is PIXE?
Elemental analysis incorporated utilizing Proton Induced X-ray Emission, provides a non-
destructive simultaneous analysis for the elements inclusive of sodium through Uranium. It
provides results in very minimum time and accurate results.

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19. What is differential thermal analysis? (Nov/Dec 2014)
Differential thermal analysis is a thermo analytic technique similar to DSC. The material under
study and an inert reference are made to undergo identical thermal cycles, while recording any
temperature between sample and reference. The differential temperature is plotted against time or
temperature. Changes in the sample either exothermic or endothermic can be detected relative to
the inert reference.
20. What is Spectroscopy? (Nov/Dec 2014)
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.
Spectroscopic data is often represented by a spectrum, a plot of the response of interest as a function
of wavelength or frequency.
21. State the application of Augers spectroscopy.( Nov 2015)
Glass analysis, PV Material characterization, battery technology
22. Name the technique that is commonly used for determining the % carbon in cast irons.
(Nov/Dec 2020)
The combustion method is the most commonly chosen technique for the qualification and
certification of carbon and sulfur concentrations in cast irons. The combustion method uses
elemental analysis to measure the carbon and sulfur contents to exceptionally precise levels, from
mass percent levels right through to trace parts-per-million.
PART- B -C405.5
1. What is spectrometry? Explain X-ray spectrometry and Infra red spectrometry with a diagram.
(Nov/Dec 2014)
2. Explain Wave length dispersive X-ray spectrometry.
3. What are Augur electrons? Show its influence in spectrometry.
4. What is sputtering? Explain the spectrometric outcome of Primary ION bombardment on the
surface of a material.
5. What is FT-IR? Explain in detail.
6. Explain the thermo gravimetric analysis of a material.
7. Explain differential thermal analysis. (Nov 2015)
8. How Differential scanning calorimetric studies are helpful in metallurgical research?
9. What is proton induced X-ray spectroscopy? (Nov/Dec 2014)
10. Explain Raman Effect and spectroscopy.
11. Explain working principle of any two methods of chemical analysis.(Nov 2015)
12. Explain the principle, procedure and advantages of dynamic mechanical analysis. (Nov/Dec
2020)
13. Explain the principle and procedure for determining elemental composition using inductively
coupled plasma. (Nov/Dec 2020)
PART -C -C405.5
1. How coating can be applied over different materials? Explain
2. How Raman spectrography is used to classify the materials? give the case study
3. What is TGA analysis? Explain in Detail.

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