TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS 180 °

Degree measure= × Radian measure

Direct Measurement π
- comparison of the measured quantity
with a standard measuring unit or
units employed for measuring quantity
of that kind.
A. SEXAGISIMAL UNITS
Indirect Measurement
1
- when it is not possible to apply a degree= of a ¿˚
measuring instrument directly to a 360th
quantity to be measured as indirect
measurement is made. In this type of 1
measurement, the observed value is minute= of a degree
determined by its relationship to some 60 th
other known values.
1
second= of aminute
60 th

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Example:
- Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
90 deg 54’ 40’’ = 90.91° (divide)
321.9° = 321 deg 54’ (multiply)
87.74° = 87 deg 44’ 24’’
74 deg 52’ 12’’ = 74.87
73.92 = 74 deg 55’ 12’’

B. CENTISIMAL UNITS (Europe)

1
grad= of a ¿˚ 0.9 degree
400 th
1
centisimal minutes= of grad
100 th

1
centisimal seconds= of aminute
1 hectare = 10 000 sq meter 60 th
1 are = 100 sq meter

Example:
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
194g 50cc 82cc = 194.5082
Radian
- an angle subtended by an arc of a
circle having a length equal to the
radius of the circle SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
-
1. Zeroes between other significant figures
2 pi rad=360 ° are significant
Ex. 12.03, 35.06, 4009
π
Radian measure= × Degree measure 2. For values less than one, Zeroes
180 ° immediately to the right of significant figure
are not significant.
Ex. 0.00325, 0.000468, 0.0230 –3 sf
3. Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers - Making an erroneous estimate of the
are significant. required pull to be applied on a steel
Ex. 169.30, 366.00, 11.000 –5 sf tape during measurement.

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS ACCURACY AND PRECISION

When the digit to be dropped is 5, the nearest Accuracy – indicates how close a given
even number is used for the preceding digit measurement is to the absolute or true value
of the quantity measured.
1. Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be
dropped is less than 5, the number is written Precision – refers to the degree of refinement
without the digit. and consistency with which any physical
Ex: 84.844 -> 84.84 measurement is made. It is portrayed by the
closeness to one another of a set of repeated
2. Digit is equal to 5. When the digit to be measurements of a quantity.
dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number THEORY OF PROBABILITY
is used for the receding digit
Ex: 34.275 -> 34.28 Probability- number of times something will
42.385 -> 42.38 probably occur over the range of possible
occurrences.
3. Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to The theory of probability is based upon the
be dropped is greater than 5, the number is following assumptions relative to the
written with the preceding increased by one. occurrences of errors:
Ex: 123.266 -> 123.27
123.27 -> 123.3 - Small errors occur more often than
large ones and that they are more
probable.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF ERROR - Large errors happen infrequently and

are therefore less probable; for
1. Instrumental Error normally distributed errors, unusually
2. Natural Error large ones may be mistakes rather than
3. Personal Error accidental errors.

1. Instrumental Error - Positive and negative errors of the

- Steel tape with incorrect length same size happen with equal frequency;
- Leveling Rod with painted graduations that is, they are equally probable.
not perfectly spaced.
- Using Rod which is warped - The mean of an infinite number of
- Improper adjustment of the plate observations is the most probable
bubbles of a transit or level. value.

2. Natural Error
- Effect of temperature variation on the Most Probable Value
length of tape
- Deflection of the line of sight due to From the theory of probability, a basic
the effect of earth’s curvature or assumption is that the most probable value of
atmospheric refraction. a group of repeated measurements made under
- Measuring a line with a tape being similar conditions is the arithmetic mean or
blown by a strong wind. the average. Most probable value refers to a
- Measurement of a horizontal distance quantity which, based on available data, has
to a sloping or uneven ground more chances of being correct than has any
other.
3. Personal Errors
- Error in determining a reading on a
rod which is out of plumb during [ ∑ ( x ) ] (x 1+ x2 + x 3 + x n)
sighting. mpv=x= =
- Error in the measurement of a vertical n n
angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly
on the target.
Problem Example #1-1:
A surveying instructor sent out five groups of
students to measure a distance between two x x́ v v2
points marked on the ground. The students came
up with the following five different values: 1 465.52 465.41 0.11 0.0121
465.52, 464.8, 466.02, 465.93, 464.76 meters. 2 464.80 465.41 -0.61 0.3721
Assuming these values are equally reliable and 3 466.02 465.41 0.61 0.3721
that variations result from accidental errors, 4 465.93 465.41 0.52 0.2704
determine the most probable value of the 5 464.76 465.41 -0.65 0.4225
distance measured. =1.4492

(465.52+ 464.80+ 466.02+ 465.93+464.76)

Problem Example #1-2:
x́= =4
5
The angles about a point have the following
1.4492
observed values: 87deg 07’ 50”, 125deg 17’20”,
and 147deg 35’20”. Determine the most probable
value of the three angles.
P Es =±0.6745
√
5−1
1.4492
= ± 0.38 m

RESIDUAL

-sometimes referred to as the deviation

P Em=± 0.6745
The probable limits
√
5( 5−1)
= ± 0.18 m

of precision for
-is defined as the difference between any particular case:
measured value of a quantity and its 465.41 ± 0.18 m
most probable value or
RELATIVE PRECISION

v=x− x́ Eq .(1) -the total amount of error in a given

measurement should relate to the
where:
magnitude of the measured quantity in
v = residual in any measurement
x = measurement made of a particular quantity order to indicate the accuracy of a
x = the most probable value of the quantity measurement. In surveying measurements,
measured. ratio of the error to the measured
quantity is used to define the degree of
refinement obtained.
PROBABLE ERROR
RELATIVE ERROR
- is a quantity which, when added to and
-sometimes called relative precision
subtracted from the most probable value,
defines a range within which there is a 50% -expressed by a fraction having the
chance that the true value of the measured magnitude of the error in the numerator
quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits and the magnitude of a measured quantity
thus. in the denominator.
-necessary to express both quantities in
∑ v2 the same units, and the numerator is
P Es =±0.6745
√ n−1
reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide
an easy
measurements.
comparison with other

PE
2 RP=
∑ v mpv
P Em=± 0.6745
√ n (n−1)
R Ps=
0.18 ÷ 0.18
=
1
=1 :2586
where: 465.41÷ 0.18 2586
PEs = probable error of any single
measurement of a series
PEm = probable error of the mean WEIGHTED MEASUREMENT
2
∑v = summation of the squares of the
- is not always possible to obtain
residuals
n = number of observations measurements of equal reliability under
similar conditions. Many surveying
problem 1.1 measurements are made under different
circumstances and conditions and 2 2 2
therefore have different degrees of
P Es =± √ ( 0.085 m ) + ( 0.014 m ) + ( 0.175m ) + ( 0.205
reliability. ¿ 0.282 m¿ 0.28 m
Example 1-5:

A distance AB is measured five times as PRODUCT OF ERRORS

610.03, 610.01, 610.05, 610.04 and 610.02
meters. The measurements were given – for a measured quantity which is
weights of 3, 2, 1, 2, and 3, determined as the product of two other
respectively, by the head tapeman. independently measured quantities such as
Determine the weighted mean for distance Q1 & Q2 (w/ their corresponding probable
AB. errors), the probable error of the
product is:
x w xw
2 2
1
2
610.03
610.01
3
2
1830.09
1220.02
√
P E p=± ( Q1 × P E 2) + ( Q2 × P E1 )
3 610.05 1 610.05
4 610.04 2 1220.08
5 610.02 3 1830.06
Where:
11 6710.30
PEp = probable error of the product
PE1&PE2 = probable error corresponding to
6710.30
x wm = =610.03 m each quantity measured
11

SUMMATION OF ERRORS

–if several measured quantities are

added, each of which is affected by
accidental errors, the probable error of
the sum is:

P Es =± √ P E21 + P E 22+ P E23 +… P E2n

where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2, etc = probable error of each
measurement

Q1=150 mP E1=± 0.25 mQ2=60 m

Example 1.6 P E2=0.42 m
The four approximately equal sides of a
2 2
tract of land were measured and the P E p=± √ ( 150 m×0.42 m ) + ( 60 m× 0.25m )
measurements included are the following
errors: +/-0.085, +/-0.014, +/-0.175, and ¿ 63.03 m2 A=( 150 )( 60 ) ± 63.03
+/- 0.205 m, respectively
¿ ( 9000 ± 63.03 ) m 2
w ± 0.175 m P=4 w ± P Es
w ±0.205 m w ±0.014 m

w ±0.085 m
 plane table, and in reconnaissance
surveys. It is also used for many
purposes in geology, forestry,
engineering, and agriculture

• Under average conditions, a good pacer

will have little difficulty in pacing
distances with a relative precision of
1/200.

• If the distances to be paced is quite

long, it is advisable to bring along a
MECHANICAL COUNTER for recording the
number of paces taken. A device, called a
PEDOMETER, may be hand carried to
register the number of paces. Another
device used is the PASSOMETER which is
strapped to the
leg of the pacer. This device will
register a pace by impact each time
either foot touches the ground.

Example 2-1
In walking along a 75-m course, the pacer
of a field party counted 43.50, 44.00,
43.50, 43.75, 44.50 43.25 strides. Then
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 105.50, 106.00, 105.75, and 106.25
strides were counted in walking from one
marker to another established along a
straight and level course. Determine the
MEASUREMENT OF A DISTANCE distance between the two markers

The accurate determination of the Given:

distance between points on any surface is
one of the basic operations of plane a.) Determining pace factor
surveying. Such linear measurements are
understood to mean the horizontal L=75 m
distance
n1 =6

DISTANCE BY PACING Su m1= ( 43.50+ 44.00+ 43.50+ 43.75+44.50+

• PACING consists of counting the number ¿ 262.50 strides
of steps or paces in a required distance.
A PACE is defined as the length of a step
Su m 1 (262.50)2
M 1= = =87.5 paces
in walking. It may be measured from heel n1 6
to heel or from toe to toe.
L 75 m
• COUNTING STRIDES instead of paces is PF= = =0.8571 m/ pace
sometimes preferred by surveyors. A M 1 87.5
STRIDE is equivalent to two paces or a
double step. b.) Determining Unknown Distance

• Distances by pacing are sufficiently n2 =4

accurate for small-scale mapping, for
Su m2= (105.50+ 106.00+ 105.75+ 106.25 )
locating details and traversing with the
 ¿ 423.50 strides 2.0 Tape Clamping Handles
3.0 Chaining Pins
4.0 Tension Handles
Su m2 ( 423.50 ) 2
M 2= = =211.75 paces 5.0 Tape Thermometer
n2 4 6.0 Plumb Bob
7.0 Wooden Stake or Hub
8.0 Leather Thongs
PD=M 2 ( PF )
9.0 Hand Level and Clinometer
¿( 211.75 paces ) ( 0.8571 m/ pace ) 10. Tape Repair Kit
´
CD=181.5 m 11. Crayons

COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY

1. Head Tapeman
MEASURING TAPES 2. Recorder
3. Flagman
1.0 Steel Tape 4. Rear Tapeman
2.0 Metallic Tape
3.0 Non-metallic Tape THE PROCEDURE OF TAPING
4.0 Invar Tape
5.0 Lovar Tape 1. Aligning the Tape
6.0 Fiberglass Tape 2. Stretching the Tape
7.0 Wires 3. Plumbing
8.0 Builder’s Tape 4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
9.0 Phosphor- Bronze Tape 5. Tallying Taped Measurements
10.0 Nylon- coated Steel Tape 6. Measuring Fractional Length

STEEL TAPE BREAKING THE TAPE

• also known as SURVEYOR’S OR ENGINEER’S • It is standard practice to hold the

TAPE, is made of a ribbon of steel 0.50 tape horizontally above ground and to
to 1.0cm in width, and weighs 0.8 to plumb at one or both ends when taping on
1.5kg per 30meters. Lengths of 10, 20, sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This
30, 50, and 100 meters are available. The requires the measurement of shorter
30-m tape is most common. Usually steel distances which are accumulated to total
tapes are wound on a reel, or done up in a full tape length. The procedure is
loops about 2 meters long to make a referred to as “breaking tape”
figure 8. Steel tapes are designed for
most conventional measurements in
surveying and engineering work.

INVAR TAPE

• A special tape made of an alloy of

nickel (35%) and steel (65%) with very
low coefficient of thermal (1/30 to 1/60 SLOPE TAPING
that of a steel tape). Its name was
derived from the word “INVARIABLE” since • Taped measurements may be made directly
it is less affected by temperature along the slope when the ground is of
changes than in a steel tape. Invar tapes uniform inclination and fairly smooth,
are used only for precise measurements in rather than break tape every few meters.
geodetic work and This very practical method is generally
for checking the length of other kinds of preferred since measurements could be
tape. made quickly and more accurately than
horizontal measurements.
TAPING ACCESSORIES

1.0 Range Pole

 Example 2-2: Meausrements w/ Tape

A 30-m steel tape when compared with a

standard is actually 29.95m long.
Determine the correct length of a line
measured with this tape and found to be
466.55m

d=s cos a Given:

1
2 2
NL = 30 m
d= [ s 2−h ] ML = 466.55 m
TL = 29.95 m

Required:
CORRECTION IN TAPING CL

1st Rule: Solution:

When a line is MEASURED with a tape that
is “TOO LONG”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by ADDING.
Corr=TL−NL=29.95 m−30 m=−0.05 m
¿ 0.05(too short )
2nd Rule: ML 466.55m
When a specified or required length is to
be LAID OUT with a tape that is “TOO
c 1=corr( )NL
=0.05 m (
29.95 m )
=0.7789 m

LONG”, the corrections are SUBTRACTED CL=ML ±C 1=466.55 m−0.7789 m=465.8 m

from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.

3rd Rule: Example 2-3: Laying Out Distances

When MEASURING OR LAYING OUT lengths with
tape that is “TOO SHORT”, the corrections A track and field coach wishes to lay out
are applied OPPOSITE to those stated in for his team a 200-m straightway course.
the first two rules. If he uses a 50-m tape known to be 50.20m
long, determine the measurements to be
made so that the course will have the
correct length.
Corr=TL−NL

C 1=Corr ( ML
NL )
Given:
NL = 50 m
TL = 50.20 m
ML = 200 m
CL=ML ±C 1
Required:
Where: CL
c1 = total correction to be applied to
the measured length or length to be laid Solution:
out.
CL = corrected length of the line to be Corr=TL−NL=50.20 m−50.20 m=0.20m
measured or laid out ¿ 0.20 m ( too long )
ML = measured length or length to be laid
ML 200 m
out
NL = nominal length of tape
c 1=Corr( )NL
=0.20 m ( 50 m )
=0.80 m
TL = True or actual length of the tape CL=ML ± c1 =200 m−0.80 m=199.20 m
 CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

Given:
s1=350.49 m
h1 =12.25m
s2=640.57 m
h2 =10.65 m

Required:
d
d=s−C h
Solution:
h21 2
1. Gentle Slopes (less than 20%) ( 12.25 m )
h2 d 1=s1 − =350.49 m−
C h= 2 s1 2 ( 350.49 m )
2s ¿ 350.28 m
2. Steep Slopes (less than 20% and 30%)
h22 2
h2
h 4 ( 10.65 m )
C h= + d 2=s 2− =640.57 m−
2 s 8 s3 2 s2 2 ( 640.57 m)
¿ 640.48 m
3. Very Steep Slopes (greather than 30%)
C h=s(1−Cosθ) d=d 1+ d 2=350.49 m+640.57 m
¿ 991.06 m
Where:
s = measured slope distance between
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A
and B C t=CL(T −T s )
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC Where:
Ch = slope correction or the C = the coefficient of linear expansion
difference between the slope length or the amount of change in length per
and the horizontal distance, Ch = s – unit length per degree change in
d temperature
L = the length of the tape or length of
Example 2-4: line measured
T = the observed temperature of the tape
Slope distances AB and BC measures at the time of measurement
350.49m and 640.57m, respectively. The Ts = the temperature at which the tape
differences in elevation are 12.25m for A was standardized.
and B, and 10.65m for points B and C. ** C = 0.0000116 per degree Celsius
Using the approximate slope correction Ts = usually 20 deg Celsius
formula for gentle slopes, determine the Example 2-5:
horizontal length of line ABC. Assume A 30-m steel tape is of standard length
that line AB has a rising slope and BC a at 20°C. If the coefficient of thermal
falling slope. expansion of steel is 0.0000116/1°C,
determine the distance to be laid out
using this tape to establish two points
B
m m

A C
exactly 1235.65m apart when the Example 2-6:
temperature is 33°C. A heavy 30-m tape having a cross-
sectional area of 5 mm2 has been
Given: standardized at a tension of 5 kg. If
NL = 30.0 m E=2.10 x106 kg/cm2, calculate the
Ts = 20°C elongation of the tape for an applied
T = 33°C tension of 20kg.
C = 0.0000116/1°C
L = 1235.65m (laid out) Given:
L = 30 m
Required: L’ A = 5 sq mm = 0.05 sq cm
Ps = 5 kg
Solution: E = 2.10 x106 kg/cm2
Pm = 20 kg
C t=CL ( T −T s )
Required:
¿ ( 0.0000116 ° C ) ( 30 m )( 33 ℃−20 ℃ ) L’
¿+ 4.524 ×10−3 m(too long)
Solution:
'
C =CL ( T −T s )
t
( Pm−P s ) L
C p=
AE
¿ ( 0.0000116 ° C ) ( 1235.65 m )( 33 ℃−20 ℃ )
( 20 kg−5 kg ) 30 m
C 't=0.186 m ¿
(0.05 sqcm)(2.10 ×10 6 kg /c m2 )
L ’=L± C'T =1235.65 m−0.186 m ¿ 4.285 ×10−3 m
¿ 1235.464 m

CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION

w2 L3
( Pm−P s ) L C s=
C p= 24 P2
AE

'
W =wL∨W 2 =w2 L2
L =L ±C p
W2 L
Where: C s=
Cp = total elongation in tape length due 24 P2
to pull or the correction due to
incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
Pm= pull applied to the tape during Where:
measurement (kg) Cs = correction due to sag or the
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull difference between the tape reading and
for which the tape is calibrated (kg) the horizontal distance between supports
L = measured length of line (m) (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the tape (sq w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
cm) W = total weight of tape between supports
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape (kg)
material (kg/cm2) L = interval between supports or the
L’ = corrected length of the measured unsupported length of tape (m)
line (m) P = tension or pull applied on the tape
(kg)
 ¿ 2.034 ×10−4 +1.627 ×10−3 +5.493× 10−3
¿ 7.323 ×10−3 m

A 30-m steel tape weighs 1.5kg and is

supported at its end points and at the 5
and 15- meter marks. If a pull of 8 kg is
applied, determine the correction due to
sag between supports and for one tape
length.
NORMAL TENSION

0.204 W √ AE
P N=
√ PN −PS

Where:
PN = normal tension or the pull which
will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
Given:
W = total weight of tape between
L = 30 m supports (kg)
W = 1.5 kg A = cross- sectional area of tape
L1 = 5 m (cm2)
L2 = 10 m E = modulus of elasticity of tape
L3 = 15 m material (kg/ cm2)
P = 8 kg Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg
Required:
Cs Example 2-8

Solution: Determine the normal tension required to

make a tape exactly 30.0 m between its
1.5 kg kg ends when used in an unsupported mode, if
w= =0.05
30 m m the tape has a cross-sectional area of
0.045cm2 and weighs 0.90 kg. Assume that
the tape is exactly 30.0 m when supported
2 3 throughout its length under a standard
w2 L3 ( 0.05 ) ( 5 ) pull of 6.0 kg, and its modulus of
C s 1= =
24 P2 2
24 ( 8 ) elasticity is 2.10x106 kg/cm2.

¿ 2.034 ×10−4 m Given:

N = 30.0 m
2 3
w2 L3 ( 0.05 ) ( 10 ) E = 2.10x106 kg/cm2
C s 2= = A = 0.045cm2
24 P2 2
24 ( 8 ) W = 0.90 kg
¿ 1.627 ×10−3 m Ps = 6.0 kg

2 3 Required: PN
w2 L3 ( 0.05 ) ( 15 )
C s 3= =
24 P2 2
24 ( 8 ) Solution:
¿ 5.493 ×10−3 m
0.204 W √ AE
C s=C s 1 +C s 2+C s 3 P N=
√ PN −PS
 done on windy days, efforts should be
0.204 (0.90)( √ ( 0.045 ) ( 2.10 × 106 ) )
P N= taken to support the tape from being
√ P N −6 affected by the blowing wind.

Try: PN = 7.0 kg COMBINED CORRECTIONS

PN = 56.44 kg
The corrections for the effects of
incorrect length of the tape,
Try: PN = 17.0 kg
temperature, tension, slope, and sag may
PN = 17.01 kg
be combined as a single net correction
per tape length. Each correction is
Try: PN = 17.01 kg
computed separately and it is important
PN = 17.01 kg
to identify which correction tends to
make the tape too long or too short.

CORRECTION DUE TO ALIGNMENT

Example 2-9:
A 30-m tape weighs 12.5 g/m and has a
Error due to alignment is generally the
cross-section of 0.022 cm2. It measures
least important among the different
correctly when supported throughout under
errors encountered in taping. Utmost care
a tension of 8.0 kg and at a temperature
in aligning a tape is not extremely
of 20°C. When used in the field, the tape
important since the error is practically
is only supported at its ends, under a
negligible for measurements of ordinary
pull of 9.0 kg, and at an average
precision.
temperature of 28°C. Determine the
distance between the zero and 30-m marks,
The correction due to incorrect
if E=2.10x106 kg/cm2 & C=0.0000116/1°C
alignment, Ca, can be calculated by
employing the slope correction formulas.
Given:
The only difference is that both h and s
L = 30 m
are in the horizontal plane; that is, h
w = 12.5 g/m
is the distance the tape is off-line at
A = 0.022 cm2
one end and s the length of tape used.
PS = 8.0 kg
Due to poor alignment, resulting errors
are systematic in effect and such errors TS = 20°C
make the measured length slightly longer PM = 9.0 kg
than the correct distance. T = 28°C
E = 2.10x106 kg/cm2
The error cannot be eliminated, but can C = 0.0000116/1°C
be reduced to a negligible amount by
lining-in carefully, setting pins Required:
properly, stretching the tape taut, and L’
keeping the tape straight. The tape may
also be laid out straight by snapping it Solution:
while tension is being applied.
( Pm −Ps ) L ( 9.0−8.0 ) 30
CORRECTION DUE TO WIND CP= =
AE (0.022)(2.10 x 106 )
A strong wind blowing perpendicular to ¿ 6.494 ×10−4 m
the direction of taping will move the
middle and unsupported portion of the
tape to one side of the line measured.
C t=CL ( T −T s )=¿ 0.0000116/1)(30)(28-20)
This introduces an error to the ¿ 2.784 ×10−3 m
measurement which is similar to the
effect of sag but is usually much less.
12.5 2 ( )3
To avoid this type of error, it is
preferable not to undertake any taping
C s=
(
W 2 L3 1000
=
30)
work during windy days. If it cannot be
avoided and the measurement has to be
24 P2 24 ( 9 )2
 method will yield a relative precision of
¿ 2.170 ×10−3 m
only between
1/300 and 1/1000.
C total=±C p ±C t ±C s
=6.494 × 10−4 +2.784 × 10−3 −2.170× 10−3 The equipment for stadia measurements
−3 consists of a telescope with two
¿ 1.2634 ×10 m horizontal hairs called STADIA HAIRS and
a graduated rod called a STADIA ROD. The
L' =L ±C t=30+0.00 13=30.00 13 m telescope of most surveying instruments
are equipped with stadia hairs which are
placed an equal distance on either side
RECITATION/ SEATWORK-1 of the horizontal cross hair. The spacing
Prob 1: The sides of a rectangular parcel of the stadia hairs is so designed that
of property were measured and recorded as at a distance of 100 meters their
249.50m and 496.85m. It was determined, intercept on a vertical rod will be about
however, that the 30-m tape used in 1 meter. At 200 meters, then, the
measuring was actually 30.05m long. intercept should be about 2 meters, and
Determine the correct area of the so on. It is important that the line of
rectangle in hectares. sight is horizontal and it intersects the
rod at right angles.
Prob 2: It is required to lay out a
building 80m by 100m with a 30-m long
metallic tape which was found to be 0.15m D=Ks+ C
too short. Determine the correct
dimensions to be used in order that the Where:
building shall have the desired C = stadia constant, the distance from
measurements. the center of the instrument to the
principal focus. Usually zero for
DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY internal focusing telescope.
K = stadia interval factor of the
TACHYMETRY (or tacheometry) is another instrument, most instruments are so
procedure of obtaining horizontal designed that this value is made equal to
distances. It is based on the optical 100.
geometry of the instruments employed and s = stadia interval, is determined in the
is an indirect method of measurement. A field by observing the difference between
TRANSIT OR A THEODOLITE is used to the upper stadia hair reading and the
determine subtended intervals and angles lower stadia hair reading.
on a graduated rod or scale from which
distances are computed by trigonometry. Example 2-10 :
Tachymetric measurements are performed An instrument set up at A sighted a
either by the STADIA METHOD or the stadia
SUBTENSE BAR METHOD. rod held at a distant point B. The upper
and lower stadia hair readings were
STADIA METHOD observed as 1.400m and 0.950m,
respectively. If the stadia interval
This method provides a rapid means of factor (K) is 100, and the instrument
determining horizontal distances. It was constant ( C ) is 0.30m, determine the
introduced in 1771 by JAMES WATT OF length of line AB.
SCOTLAND and was at that time referred to
as a MICROMETER for measuring distances.
The precision of the stadia method
D=Ks+ C=100 ( 1.400−0.950 ) +0.30=45.3 m
depends upon the following factors: the
refinement with which the instrument was
manufactured, the skill of the observer, SUBTENSE BAR METHOD
the length of measurement, and the
effects of refraction and parallax. The SUBTENSE BAR is a convenient and
Horizontal distances determined by this practical device used for quick and
accurate measurement of horizontal
distances. The bar, which is precisely 2 2.8 Geodimeter
meters long, consists of a rounded steel 2.9 Tellurometer
tube through which runs a thin invar rod.
At each end of the frame the target marks DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND
are housed. It is mounted horizontally on MATHEMATICAL METHODS
a tripod and placed perpendicular to the
line of sight by means of a sighting By graphical or mathematical methods,
device on top of the bar. unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
The accuracy of the subtense method distances geometrically. These methods
depends mainly upon the precision with are
which the subtending angle is measured. widely employed in plane table surveys,
For sights of about 150 m or less and and in triangulation work. Determining
using a 1 sec theodolite, a relative distances by scaling from maps or aerial
precision photographs could also provide
of 1/3000 can easily be obtained. When sufficiently accurate results
the measured is farther increased, the
accuracy correspondingly diminishes. DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

The subtense bar method is often used in There are a few mechanical devices which
obtaining distances over very rough or could also be employed for the
inaccessible terrain such as across measurement of distances. These devices,
canyons, wide rivers, ravines, and even however, are only applicable for low
across busy city streets. precision surveys or where quick
measurements are desired.

Some of which are:

1. Odometer
2. Measuring Wheel
3. Optical Rangefinder

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

1 α
D=
α
=cot ( )
2 The development of electronic distance
[ ( )]
tan
2
measurement
significant
(EDM)
advance
has
in
provided a
surveying
instrumentation & techniques. These
electronic instruments allow a rapid and
Where accurate determination of linear
D = HORIZONTAL DISTANCE distances, horizontal and vertical angles
α = the angle subtended by the targets. suitable even for large extent surveys
requiring higher order of precision.
Example 2-11:
A 2-m long subtense bar was first set up Classifications:
at A and subsequently at B, and the a. Electro-optical Instruments
subtended angles to the bar, as read from b. Microwave Instruments
a theodolite positioned somewhere along
the middle of line AB, were recorded as EDM instruments are now used for
0°24’51” and 0°20’30”, respectively. determining linear measurements required
Determine the length of AB. in traversing, engineering constructions,
Optical tooling, triangulation,
trilateration, and various other tasks
2.6 where precise measurements or lay-outs
2.6.1 Odometer are needed. They are extremely useful in
2.6.2 Measuring Wheel measuring distances over rough and rugged
2.6.3 Optical Rangefinder terrain which are difficult to access, or
2.7 Distance by Photogrammetry
where conventional taping methods would
be impractical.

GEODIMETER

It is an acronym for geodetic distance

meter. It is set up at one station,
projects a pulsating visible light beam
to a reflector (at another station) which
returns the light to the instrument. Its
use is based upon the known velocity of
light.

TELLUROMETER

The tellurometer utilized high frequency

microwave transmission and was capable of
measuring distances up top 80km day or
night. Distances are computed on the
basis of the velocity of radio waves.