INDUSTRIAL SUMMAR TRAINING REPORT

MECHANICAL WORKSHOP. N.E. RAILWAY GORKHPUR

A
Training Report Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirments
For the award of Degree of

Diploma In
Electrical Engineering

AMBEKESHWAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

LUCKNOW

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO
SINGH PAWAN SUDAMA ADARS DHAR DUBEY
BRANCH –EE 2nd YEAR HOD
E19200832800025 BRIJESH KUMAR DOHARE
 Table of contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii

1. Introduction 1-2

About 220kv Hardoi Road LUCKNOW 1

2. Transformers 3-5

Types of Transformers 3-5

Power transformer 4
Instrument transformer 4
Autotransformer 5
On the basis of working 5
On the basis of structure 5

3. Specification of C.T. used in 220Kv Hardoi Road LUCKNOW 6

4. Substation 7-13

Types of substation 8

According to the service requirement 8

According to the constructional features 8

Substation characteristics 10

Steps in designing substation 10

Earthing and bonding 10

Substation earthing calculation methodology 11
Earthing material 11
Switch yard fence earthing 12

Conductors used in substation designing 12

 5. Chronological training diary 14-17

Power line carrier communication(PLCC) 14

Applications 14

Principle of PLCC 15

5.2.1 Wave trap or line trap 15

5.2.2 Coupling capacitor 16
5.2.3 Protective device of coarse voltage arrester 16
5.2.4 Coupling of filter 16
5.2.5 H.F. cable 16

6. Bus bars 18-19

7. Insulators 20-25

Circuit breakers 21
Oil circuit breaker 22
Air blast circuit breaker 22
Sulphar hexafluoride circuit breaker (SF6) circuit breaker 23
Vacuum circuit breaker 24

8. Metering and Indication equipment 26-29

Relay 26

Relays used in control panel of substation 27

Differential relay 27
Over current relay 27
Directional relay 28
Tripping relay 28
Auxiliary relay 29

9. Miscellaneous Equipments 30-31

Capacitor bank 30
Fuse 31
Bus coupler 31

10. Protection of substation 32-33

Transformer protection 32
Conservation and breather 32
Marshalling box 32
Transformer cooling 33

11. Conclusion 34

References 35
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This s an is on outcome of contribution made by some of the

peoples therefore it is my sole responsibility to acknow ledge
them. I am greatiy thankful to the sincere efforts made by
Mr.BASANT PRAJAPATL (SDO) without whom this project
would be abstract. I also thank the staff of 22Kv subststion ,
Hardoi Road who took out their precious time to tell me about
the various equpmenrs my special thanks is dedicating to Mr.
J.P.RAWAT

Imention the outstanding support given by parents who paved

the way for me to overcome with this project report.
 List of figures

Figure no. Name of figure P

a
g
e

n
o
.
220Kv Hardoi Road LUCKNOW
Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1 Transformer
Figure 2.2 Power transformer 4
Figure 2.3 Instrument transformer 4
Figure 2.4 Auto transformer 5
Figure 2.5 Core type 5
Figure 2.6 Shell type 5
Figure 3.1 Current transformer 6
Figure 4.1 View of substation 7
Figure 4.2 Transformer substation 8
Figure 5.1 Power line carrier communication (PLCC) 1
4
Figure 6.1 Typical representation of bus bars 1
8
Figure 7.1 Insulators used in substation 2
0
Figure 7.2 Circuit breaker arrangements 2
1
Figure 7.3 Oil circuit breaker 2
2
Figure 7.4 Air blast circuit breaker 2
3
Figure 7.5 SF6 Circuit breaker 2
3
Figure 7.6 Vacuum circuit breaker 2
4
Figure 8.1 Typical view of Relay 2
6
Figure 8.2 Differential Relay 2
7
Figure 8.3 Over current Relay 2
7
Figure 8.4 Directional Relay 2
8
Figure 8.5 Tripping Relay 2
8
Figure 8.6 Auxiliary Relay 2
9
Figure 9.1 Capacitor bank 3
0
Figure 9.2 Substation fuse 3
1
Figure 9.3 Bus coupler 3
1
 1. INTRODUCTION

The creation of Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd. (UPPCL) on January 14, 2000 is the result
of power sector reforms and restructuring in UP (India) which is the focal point of the Power
Sector, responsible for planning and managing the sector through its transmission, distribution and
supply of electricity.
UPPCL will be professionally managed utility supplying reliable and cost efficient electricity to
every citizen of the state through highly motivated employees and state of art technologies,
providing an economic return to our owners and maintaining leadership in the country.
We shall achieve this being a dynamic, forward looking, reliable, safe and trustworthy
organization, sensitive to our customers interests, profitable and sustainable in the long run,
providing uninterrupted supply of quality power, with transparency and integrity in operation
.

1.1 ABOUT 220KV Hardoi Road LUCKNOW

Figure 1.1 220Kv Hordoi Road LUCKNOW

The main bus 33KV is connected to grid located at Sector-05, Hardoi Road Lucknow .
. Now the transmission line first parallel connected with lightning arrester to diverge surge, followed by
CVT connected parallel. CVT measures voltage and steeps down at 110V.
A.C. for control panel, at the location a wave trap is connected to carrier communication at higher
frequencies. A current transformer is connected in series with line which measure current and step down
current at ratio 800:1 for control panel.
Switchgear equipment is provided, which is the combination of a circuit breaker having
an isolator at each end. A transformer is connected to main bus though a bus coupler. The main bus has
total capability of 160 MVA for 33 KV, which is subdivided into two transformer capacity of 80 MVA
(40MVA+40MVA) parallel connected for 33KV and other two transformer capacity of 80KV
(40KV+40KV) are parallel connected for substation.
At both ends of transformer lightning arrester current transformer and switchgear equipment provided.
Transformer step downs voltage from 220KV to 33KV. The main bus is provided with switchgear
equipment & a current transformer. This gives way to six feeders transmitting power LUCKNOW. The
main bus is connected to jack bus or transfer bus through a bus coupler & 11KV is provided with
switchgear equipment. This gives way to feeders transmitting power to Sector-05, R a m k o l a ,

A step down transformer of 11KV/440V is connected to control panel to provide supply to the equipments
of the substation. Capacitor bank is connected to main bus of 11KV. It is provided to improve power factor
& voltage profile.
 2. TRANSFORMERS

Figure: 2.1 Transformer

Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at
same frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage &
high voltage to low voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static induction
principle.
When the energy is transformed into a higher voltage, the transformer is called step up
transformer but in case of other is known as step down transformer.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Power transformer
Instrument transformer
Auto transformer
On the basis of working
On the basis of structure
POWER TRANSFORMER:

Figure 2.2 Power Transformers

Types of power transformer:
Single phase transformer
Three phase transformer

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:

Fig: 2.3 Instrument Transformers

a) Current transformer
b) Potential transformer
 AUTO TRANSFORMER:

Fig 2.4 Auto Transformer

a) Single phase transformer

b) Three phase transformer

ON THE BASIS OF WORKING

Step down: Converts high voltage into low voltage.
Step up: Converts low voltage into high voltage.

ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

Figure 2.5 core type Figure 2.6 Shell type

3. SPECIFICATION OF C.T. USED IN 33/11 KV SUB STATION,
( PADRAUNA)

Figure 3.1 Current transformer

Standard: IS-2785
Highest System Voltage: 145 KV
Frequency: 50Hz
C.T. Current: 25 KA/1Sec.
Rated primary current: 800 Ampere
 4. SUBSTATIONS

Figure 4.1 View of substation

The present day electrical power system is A.C.i.e. electrical power is generated, transmitted & distributed
in the form of the alternating current. The electric power is produced at power plant stations which are
located at favorable places generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers
through a large network of transmission 7 distribution.
At many places in the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristics e.g.
voltage, ac to dc, frequency, power factor etc. of electric supply. This accomplished by suitable apparatus
called substation. For example; generation voltage (11 KV or 33 KV) at the power station is set up to high
voltage (say 220 KV or 132 KV) for transmission of electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g.
transformer etc.) used for this purpose in the substation. Similarly near the consumer’s localities, the
voltage may have to be step down to utilization level. This job is again accomplished by suitable apparatus
called substation.
The assembly of apparatus to change some characteristic of electric power supply is called substation.
The two most ways to substation classified are :-

TYPES OF SUBSTATION
According to the service requirement:
Transformer substation
Switch substation
Power factor correction substation
Frequency change substation
Converting substation
Industrial substation
 According to the constructional features:
Indoor substation
Outdoor substation
Underground substation
Pole mounted substation

TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

Figure 4.2 Transformer substation

They are known as transformer substations as because transformer is the main component
employed to change the voltage level, depending upon the purposed served transformer substations may
be classified into:

STEP UP SUBSTATION
The generation voltage is steeped up to high voltage to affect economy in transmission of electric
power. These are generally located in the power houses and are of outdoor type.
 PRIMARY GRID SUBSTATION
Here, electric power is received by primary substation which reduces the voltage level to
11KV for secondary transmission. The primary grid substation is generally of outdoor
type.
SECONDARY SUBSTATIONS
At a secondary substation, the voltage is further steeped down to 11KV. The 11KV lines
runs along the important road of the city. The secondary substations are also of outdoor
type.

4.1.1.1.3 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

These substations are located near the consumer’s localities and step down to 400V, 3-
phase, 4-wire for supplying to the consumers. The voltage between any two phases is
400V & between any phase and neutral it is 230V.

SUBSTATION CHARACTERISTICS:

Each circuit is protected by its own circuit breaker and hence plant outage does not
necessarily result in loss of supply.

A fault on the feeder or transformer circuit breaker causes loss of the transformer and feeder circuit, one
of which may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.

A fault on the bus section circuit breaker causes complete shutdown of the substation. All circuits may
be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of the circuit.
Introduction of bypass isolators between bus bar and circuit isolator allows circuit breaker maintenance
facilities without loss of that circuit.
 STEPS IN DESIGNING SUBSTATION:

The First Step in designing a Substation is to design an Earthing and Bonding System.

Earthing and Bonding:

The function of an earthing and bonding system is to provide an earthing system connection to
which transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the
maximum fault current. The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical damage
occurs on the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and
maintenance personnel. The earthing system also guarantees equipotent bonding such that there
are no dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation. In
designing the substation, three voltage have to be considered these are:

Touch Voltage:

This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the potential at earthed
equipment whilst a man is standing and touching the earthed structure.

Step Voltage:

This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance of 1m with his feet
while not touching any other earthed equipment.

Mesh Voltage:

This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the earthing grid.
 Substation Earthing Calculation Methodology

Calculations for earth impedances, touch and step potentials are based on site measurements of ground
resistivity and system fault levels. A grid layout with particular conductors is then analyzed to determine
the effective substation earthing resistance, from which the earthing voltage is calculated.

In practice, it is normal to take the highest fault level for substation earth grid calculation purposes.
Additionally, it is necessary to ensure a sufficient margin such that expansion of the system is catered for.

To determine the earth resistivity, probe tests are carried out on the site. These tests are best performed in
dry weather such that conservative resistivity readings are obtained.

Earthing Materials

4.3.3.4 Conductors:

Bare copper conductor is usually used for the substation earthing grid. The copper bars
themselves usually have a cross-sectional area of 95 square millimeters, and they are laid at a
shallow depth of 0.25-0.5m, in 3-7m squares. In addition to the buried potential earth grid, a
separate above ground earthing ring is usually provided, to which all metallic substation plant is
bonded.

Connections:

Connections to the grid and other earthing joints should not be soldered because the heat generated
during fault conditions could cause a soldered joint to fail. Joints are usually bolted.

Earthing Rods:

The earthing grid must be supplemented by earthing rods to assist in the dissipation of earth fault currents
and further reduce the overall substation earthing resistance. These rods are usually made of solid copper,
or copper clad steel.

Switchyard Fence Earthing:

The switchyard fence earthing practices are possible and are used by different utilities. These are:
Extend the substation earth grid 0.5m-1.5m beyond the fence perimeter. The fence is then
bonded to the grid at regular intervals.
Place the fence beyond the perimeter of the switchyard earthing grid and bond the fence to its own
earthing rod system. This earthing rod system is not coupled to the main substation earthing grid.

CONDUCTORS USED IN SUBSTATION DESIGN:

An ideal conductor should fulfills the following requirements:

Should be capable of carrying the specified load currents and short time currents.
Should be able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces comprise self weight, and
weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit forces and atmospheric forces such as wind and
ice loading.
Should be corona free at rated voltage.
Should have the minimum number of joints.
Should need the minimum number of supporting insulators.
Should be economical.

The most suitable material for the conductor system is copper or aluminums. Steel may be used but
has limitations of poor conductivity and high susceptibility to corrosion.
In an effort to make the conductor ideal, three different types have been utilized, and these include:
Flat surfaced Conductors, Stranded Conductors, and Tubular Conductors

Overhead Line Terminations

Two methods are used to terminate overhead lines at a substation.
Tensioning conductors to substation structures or buildings
Tensioning conductors to ground winches.
The choice is influenced by the height of towers and the proximity to the substation. The following
clearances should be observed:

VOLTAGE LEVEL MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

less than 11kV 6.1m

11kV - 20kV 6.4m

20kV - 30kV 6.7m

greater than 30kV 7.0m

Table 1 Clearance in accordance with voltage value

 5. CHRONOLOGICAL TRAINING DIARY
( based on study & observation at different Departments and
sections)

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION

Introduction:

Figure 5.1: PLCC (POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION)

Reliable & fast communication is necessary for safe efficient & economical power supply. To
reduce the power failure in extent & time, to maintain the interconnected grid system in optimum
working condition; to coordinate the operation of various generating unit communication
network is indispensable for state electricity board.
In state electricity boards, the generating & distribution stations are generally located at a
far distance from cities. Where P & T communication provided through long overhead lines in
neither reliable nor quick.
As we have available very reliable physical paths viz. the power lines, which
interconnected, hence power line carrier communication is found to be most economical and
reliable for electricity boards.
 APPLICATIONS:
The PLCC can be used for the following facilities:
Telephony
Teleprotection
Remote control or indication
Telemetry
Teleprinting

PRINCIPLE OF PLCC:
The principle of PLCC is the simple one:
All type of information is modulated on carried wave at frequency 50Hz to 500 KHz. The modulated HF
carrier fed into the power line conductor at the sending end and filtered out again at the
respective stations. Long earlier system double side band amplitude modulation was more
common but the present amplitude modulated system.
Since high voltage power lines are designed to carry large quantities of energy on the high voltage and
the communication system at low voltage, they cannot be directly connected to high voltage
lines. Suitably designed coupling equipments have therefore to be employed which will permit
the injection of high frequency carrier signal without undue loss and with absolute protection of
communication equipments or operating personal from high voltage hazard.
Therefore, the coupling equipment essentially comprises the following:

Wave trap or line trap:

Wave trap is connected in series with power line between the point of connection of coupling capacitor
and S/S. Wave trap offers negligible impedance to HF carrier. Wave trap stands
electromechanically and thermally for short circuit current in the event of fault on the line. On
the basis of blocking frequency bank, the wave trap can be following type:
ALL WAVE
SINGAL FREQUENCY
DOUBLE FREQUENCY
BROAD BAND
Coupling capacitor:
The modulated carrier is let into power line through coupling capacitor specially designed
to with stand line voltage under all weather condition. The upper end of the coupling capacitor is
connected directly to the line and the lower end is connected to the ground through a carrier
frequency chock coil or drain coil. Thus coupling capacitor forms the link between the PLCC
equipment and power line. The coupling capacitor used in UPSEB is 2200pf capacitance.
The coupling capacitor are designed for outdoor use and hence to withstand normal
atmospheric phenomenon such as temperature & humidity changes, rain, snow, anticipated wind
load, nominal wire tension etc. at full rated voltage. In some case capacitive voltage transformers
(CVT) used as a source of line voltage for metering and protection as also used coupling
capacitor for PLCC.

Protective Device of Coarse Voltage Arrester:

This is connected across the primary of the coupling filter i.e. one end is connected to the
bottom of the coupling capacitor and other end is earthed. This is provided to protect the
coupling filter against line surges. An air gap is provided, where voltage of the order of 1.8 to
2KV as observed across due to lighting etc. on line.

Coupling of Filter:
The coupling filter is inserted between the low voltage terminal of the coupling capacitor
and the carrier frequency connection of the carrier terminal. Some time an earth switch is also
provided with this unit. This unit mainly performs two functions; firstly it isolates the connection
of equipment from the power line. Secondly it serves to match characteristic impedance of the
power line to that of the H.F. cable to connection equipments.

H.F. Cable:
H.F. cable normally used to connect the coupling filter to another coupling terminal. The
cable is insulated to withstand the test voltage of 4KV. The impedance of this H.F. cable is so as
to match with the output of the PLCC terminal and secondary impedance of coupling filter.
 TYPES OF COUPLING:
The following three types of coupling are being used in UPSEB depending on the
requirement:
Phase to ground coupling
Phase to phase coupling
Internal coupling

COUPLING LOSSES:
Composite loss
Tapping loss
H.F. cable loss
Additional loss
 6. BUSBARS

Figure 6.1 Typical representation of bus bars

When numbers of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus bar is used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are made
up of copper rods operate at constant voltage. The following are the important bus bars
arrangements used at substations:
Single bus bar system
Single bus bar system with section alisation.
Duplicate bus bar system
In large stations it is important that break downs and maintenance should interfere as little
as possible with continuity of supply to achieve this, duplicate bus bar system is used. Such a
system consists of two bus bars, a main bus bar and a spare bus bar with the help of bus coupler,
which consist of the circuit breaker and isolator.
In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and
repairs. An isolating switch or isolator accomplishes this. Isolator operates under no load
condition. It does not have any specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity. In
some cases isolators are used to breaking charging currents or transmission lines.
While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then isolator while closing a
circuit the isolator is closed first, then circuit breakers. Isolators are necessary on supply side of
circuit breakers, in order to ensure isolation of the circuit breaker from live parts for the purpose
of maintenance.
A transfer isolator is used to transfer main supply from main bus to transfer bus by using
bus coupler (combination of a circuit breaker with two isolators), if repairing or maintenance of
any section is required.
 7. INSULATORS

The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductors (bus bar) and confine the
current to the conductors. The most common used material for the manufacture of insulator is
porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension type, post insulator etc.)
and their use in substation will depend upon the service requirement. For example, post insulator
is used for bus bars. A post insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast
iron base. The hole in the cap is threaded so that bus bars can be directly bolted to the cap.

Figure 7.1 Insulators used in substations

With the advantage of power system, the lines and other equipment operate at very high
voltage and carry high current.
The arrangements of switching along with switches cannot serve the desired function of
switchgear in such high capacity circuits. This necessitates employing a more dependable means
of control such as is obtain by the use of the circuit breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break
a circuit either manually or automatically under all condition as no load, full load and short
circuit condition.
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts can be
opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the
system, the trip coils of breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some
mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
When contacts of a circuit breaker are separated, an arc is struck; the current is thus able
to continue. The production of arcs are not only delays the current interruption, but is also
generates the heat. Therefore, the main problem is to distinguish the arc within the shortest
possible time so that it may not reach a dangerous value.
The general way of classification is on the basis of the medium used for arc extinction.

Figure 7.2 Circuit breaker arrangements

Circuit breakers
They can be classified into:
Oil circuit breaker
Air-blast circuit breaker
Sulphar hexafluoride circuit breaker (SF6)
Vacuum circuit breakers
Note: SF6 and Vacuum circuit breaker are being used in 33KV distribution substation.
Oil Circuit Breaker

Figure 7.3 Oil circuit breaker

A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to dissipate the heat and
extinguish the arc; the intense heat of the arc decomposes the oil, generating a gas whose high
pressure produces a flow of fresh fluid through the arc that furnishes the necessary insulation to
prevent a restrike of the arc.
The arc is then extinguished, both because of its elongation upon parting of contacts and
because of intensive cooling by the gases and oil vapor.

Air blast circuit breaker

Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto reclosure, unit type multi break
constructions, simple assembly, modest maintenance are some of the main features of air blast
circuit breakers. A compressors plant necessary to maintain high air pressure in the air receiver.
The air blast circuit breakers are especially suitable for railways and arc furnaces, where the
breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast circuit breakers is used for interconnected lines and
 important lines where rapid operation is desired.

Figure 7.4 Air blast circuit breaker

High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/ cm2 stored in the air reservoir. Air is
taken from the compressed air system. Three hollow insulator columns are mounted on the
reservoir with valves at their basis. The double arc extinguished chambers are mounted on the
top of the hollow insulator chambers. The current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction
chambers to each other in series and the pole to the neighboring equipment. Since there exists a
very high voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chambers
assembly is mounted on insulators.

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Figure 7.5 SF6 Circuit breaker

 In such circuit breaker, sulphar hexafluoride (SF 6) gas is used as the arc quenching
medium. The SF6 is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons.
The SF6 circuit breaker have been found to a very effective for high power and high voltage
service. SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for voltage 115 KV to 230 KV, power rating
10 MVA.
It consists of fixed and moving contacts. It has chamber, contains SF6 gas. When the
contacts are opened, the mechanism permits a high pressure SF 6 gas from reservoir to flow
towards the arc interruption chamber. The moving contact permits the SF6 gas to let through
these holes.

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

Figure 7.6 Vacuum circuit breaker

Vacuum circuit breakers are circuit breakers which are used to protect medium and high
voltage circuits from dangerous electrical situations. Like other types of circuit breakers, vacuum
circuit breakers literally break the circuit so that energy cannot continue flowing through it,
thereby preventing fires, power surges, and other problems which may emerge. These devices
have been utilized since the 1920s, and several companies have introduced refinements to make
them even safer and more effective.
Rating of 132 KV SF6 circuit breaker:
Breaking current: 50A
Making capacity: 80KA
Total break time < 60msec
Rated short circuit breaking current:
Symmetrical: 31.5 KA
Asymmetrical: 36.86 KA
Rated duration of short circuit current: 3sec
Rated nominal current: 1250 A
Rated voltage: 145 KV
Rated SF6 gas pressure: 6 KG
 8. METERING AND INDICATION EQUIPMENT
RELAY:

Figure 8.1 Relay

In a power system it is inevitable that immediately or later some failure does occur
somewhere in the system. When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must be quickly
detected and disconnected from the system. Rapid disconnection of faulted apparatus limits the
amount of damage to it and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the system. For high
voltage circuits relays are employed to serve the desired function of automatic protective gear.
The relays detect the fault and supply the information to the circuit breaker.
The electrical quantities which may change under fault condition are voltage, frequency,
current, phase angle. When a short circuit occurs at any point on the transmission line the current
flowing in the line increases to the enormous value. This result in a heavy current flow through
the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip
circuit of the breaker making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the
rest of the system. In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from the
damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the system. Basically relay work on the
following two main operating principles:
Electromagnetic attraction relay
Electromagnetic induction relay
 Relays used in control panel of the substation;

DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:

Figure 8.2 Differential Relay

A differential relay is one that operates when vector difference of the two or more
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. If this differential quantity is equal or greater
than the pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty
section.

OVER CURRENT RELAY:

Figure 8.3 Overcurrent Relay

This type of relay works when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The
actuating source is the current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current transformer.
These relay are used on A.C. circuit only and can operate for fault flow in the either direction.
This relay operates when phase to phase fault occurs.
 DIRECTIONAL RELAY:

Figure8.4 Directional Relay

This relay operates during earth faults. If one phase touch the earth due to any fault. A
directional power relay is so designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of
magnetic field derived from both voltage and current source of the circuit it protects. The
direction of torque depends upon the current relative to voltage.

TRIPPING RELAY:

Figure 8.5 Tripping Relay

This type of relay is in the conjunction with main relay. When main relay sense any fault in
the system, it immediately operates the trip relay to disconnect the faulty section from the section
 AUXILIARY RELAY:

Figure 8.6 Auxiliary Relay

An auxiliary relay is used to indicate the fault by glowing bulb alert the employee.
 9. MISCELLANOUS EQUIPMENT

CAPACITOR BANK:

Figure 9.1 Capacitor bank

The load on the power system is varying being high during morning and evening which
increases the magnetization current. This result in the decreased power factor. The low power
factor is mainly due to the fact most of the power loads are inductive and therefore take lagging
currents. The low power factor is highly undesirable as it causes increases in current, resulting in
additional losses. So in order to ensure most favorable conditions for a supply system from
engineering and economical stand point it is important to have power factor as close to unity as
possible. In order to improve the power factor come device taking leading power should be
connected in parallel with the load. One of the such device can be capacitor bank. The capacitor
draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralize the lagging reactive component of
load current.
Capacitor bank accomplishes following operations:
Supply reactive power
Increases terminal voltage
Improve power factor
FUSE:

Figure 9.2 Substation Fuse

A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current through it
for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit under normal operating conditions; the
fuse element is at a nature below its melting point. Therefore it carries the normal load current
overheating. It is worthwhile to note that a fuse performs both detection and interruption
functions.

BUS COUPLER:

Figure 9.3 bus coupler

The bus coupler consists of circuit breaker and isolator. Each generator and feeder may
be connected to either main bus bar or spar bus bar with the help of bus coupler. Repairing,
maintenance and testing of feeder circuit or other section can be done by putting them on spar
bus bar, thus keeping the main bus bar undisturbed.
 10. PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION:

Transformer protection:
Transformers are totally enclosed static devices and generally oil immersed. Therefore
chances of fault occurring on them are very easy rare, however the consequences of even a rare
fault may be very serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the system. This
provides adequate automatic protection for transformers against possible faults.

Conservator and Breather:

When the oil expands or contacts by the change in the temperature, the oil level goes
either up or down in main tank. A conservator is used to maintain the oil level up to
predetermined value in the transformer main tank by placing it above the level of the top of the
tank.
Breather is connected to conservator tank for the purpose of extracting moisture as it
spoils the insulating properties of the oil. During the contraction and expansion of oil air is
drawn in or out through breather silica gel crystals impregnated with cobalt chloride. Silica gel is
checked regularly and dried and replaced when necessary.

Marshalling box:
It has two meter which indicate the temperature of the oil and winding of main tank. If
temperature of oil or winding exceeds than specified value, relay operates to sound an alarm. If
there is further increase in temperature then relay completes the trip circuit to open the circuit
breaker controlling the transformer.

Transformer cooling:
When the transformer is in operation heat is generated due to iron losses the removal of
heat is called cooling.
There are several types of cooling methods, they are as follows:

Air natural cooling:

In a dry type of self cooled transformers, the natural circulation of surrounding air is used
for its cooling. This type of cooling is satisfactory for low voltage small transformers.

Air blast cooling:

It is similar to that of dry type self cooled transformers with to addition that continuous
blast of filtered cool air is forced through the core and winding for better cooling. A fan produces
the blast.

Oil natural cooling:

Medium and large rating have their winding and core immersed in oil, which act both as
a cooling medium and an insulating medium. The heat produce in the cores and winding is
passed to the oil becomes lighter and rises to the top and place is taken by cool oil from the
bottom of the cooling tank.

Oil blast cooling:

In this type of cooling, forced air is directed over cooling elements of transformers
immersed in oil.

Forced oil and forced air flow (OFB) cooling:

Oil is circulated from the top of the transformers tank to a cooling tank to a cooling plant.
Oil is then returned to the bottom of the tank.

Forced oil and water (OWF) cooling:

In this type of cooling oil flow with water cooling of the oil in external water heat
exchanger takes place. The water is circulated in cooling tubes in the heat exchanger.
 11. CONCLUSION

Now from this report we can conclude that electricity plays an important role in our life.
We are made aware of how the transmission of electricity is done. We too came to know about
the various parts of the Substation system.
The Uttar Pradesh Cooperation Limited has got radio communication in microwave
range in order to transmit and receive data with various Substations in Uttar Pradesh to get
reliable transmission and distribution of electricity.
 References

1. www.yahooanswers.com

2. www.britannica.com

3. www.webopedia.com

4. www.encyclopedia.com

5. www.worldbook.com

6. www.encyclopediadramatica.com/