Logic Controllers
Logic Controllers
Programmable logic controllers provide dependable, highspeed control and monitoring demanded
by a wide variety of automated applications.
Before the automotive industry discovered the advantages of PLC’s, the process of modifying relay
circuitry was a headacheinducing endeavour. In the past, annual car model changes forced plant
engineers to constantly modify production equipment managed by relay circuitry. In some cases,
the engineers had to scrap entire relaycontrolled panels and replace them with completely
redesigned systems. Now, PLC’s allow engineers to implement numerous manufacturing changes
with relative ease, which reduces changeover costs and downtime.
Prior to PLC’s, contactor or relay controls solved many of these control tasks. This is often referred
to as hardwired control. Electricians had to design circuit diagrams, specify and install electrical
components, and create wiring lists before wiring the components necessary to perform a specific
task. Design errors would force the electrician to trace the wires to identify the problem and then
reconnect the wires. A change in function or a system expansion required extensive component
changes and rewiring.
Now, PLC software programming makes wiring changes between devices and relay contacts easier.
Although hard wiring is still necessary for connecting field devices, it’s less intensive than before.
What is a PLC?
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines a PLC as a "digitally operating
electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal storage of instructions by
implementing specific functions, such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to
control through digital or analogue I/O modules various types of machines or processes."
Basically, it's a solidstate, programmable electrical/electronic interface that can manipulate,
execute, and/or monitor, at a very fast rate, the state of a process or communication system. It
operates on the basis of programmable data contained in an integral microprocessorbased system.
A PLC is able to receive (input) and transmit (output) various types of electrical and electronic
signals and can control and monitor practically any kind of mechanical and/or electrical system.
Therefore, it has enormous flexibility in interfacing with computers, machines, and many other
peripheral systems or devices.
It's usually programmed in relay ladder logic and is designed to operate in an industrial
environment.
How does a PLC work?
To know how the PLC works, it is essential that we have an understanding of its central processing
unit's (CPU's) scan sequence. The methodology basically is the same for all PLC’s. However, as
special hardware modules are added into the system, additional scanning cycles are required.
A PLC interfaces numerous types of external electrical and electronic signals. These signals can be
AC or DC currents or voltages. Typically, they range from 4 to 20 milliamperes (mA) or 0 to
120VAC, and 0 to 48VDC. These signals are referred to as I/O (input/output) points. Their total is
called the PLC's I/O capability. From an electronic pointofview, this number is based on how many
points the PLC's CPU is able to look at, or scan, in a specified amount of time. This performance
characteristic is called scan time. From the practical perspective of the user, however, the number
of I/O modules needed as well as the number of I/O points contained on each I/O module will drive
what the system's I/O capability should be.
It's important to have sufficient I/O capability in your PLC system. It's better to have more than less
so that, when more I/O points are required at a future time, it's easier to write the existing spare
I/O points into the software (since the hardware is already there). There's no harm to the operating
system in having spare I/O points; the software can be programmed to ignore them, and these
points will have a negligible effect on the PLC's scan time.
The PLC's software program
The software program is the heart of a PLC and is written by a programmer who uses elements,
functions, and instructions to design the system that the PLC is to control or monitor. These
elements are placed on individually numbered rungs in the relay ladder logic (RLL). The software's
RLL is executed by the processor in the CPU module.
There are many types of PLC software design packages available. One frequently selected software
package is of the RLL format and includes contacts, coils, timers, counters, registers, digital
comparison blocks, and other types of special data handling functions. Using these elements, the
programmer designs the control system. The external devices and components are then wired into
the system identical to that of the programmer's software ladder logic. Not all of the software
elements will have a hardwired, physical counterpart, however.
As the PLC's processor scans (top down) through the software program (rungbyrung), each rung
of RLL is executed. The hardwired device that the software is mirroring then becomes active. The
software is thus the controlling device and provides the programmer or technician the flexibility to
either "force a state" or "block a device" from the system operation. For example, a coil or contact
can be made to operate directly from the software (independent of the control cabinet's hardwiring
to source or field input devices). Or, a device can be made to appear invisible (removed from the
system's operation), even though it's electrically hardwired and physically in place.
Peripheral devices
Peripheral devices to the PLC and its I/O base(s) can be anything from a host computer and control
console to a motor drive unit or field limit switch. Printers and industrial terminals used for
programming are also peripheral devices.
These external operating devices, with their sometimes harsh and/or fast signal characteristics,
must be able to interface with the PLC's sensitive microprocessor. Various types of I/O modules are
available to do this job.
Input module
The input module has two functions: reception of an external signal and status display of that input
point. In other words, it receives the peripheral sensing unit's signal and provides signal
conditioning, termination, isolation and/or indication for that signal's state.
The input to an input module is in either a discrete or analogue form. If the input is an ONOFF
type, such as with a push button or limit switch, the signal is considered to be of a discrete nature.
If, on the other hand, the input varies, such as with temperature, pressure, or level, the signal is
analogue in nature.
Peripheral devices sending signals to input modules that describe external conditions can be
switches (limit, proximity, pressure, or temperature) push buttons, or logic, binary coded decimal
(BCD) or digitaltodigital (A/D) circuits. These input signal points are scanned, and their status is
communicated through the interface module or circuitry within each individual PLC and I/O base.
Output module
The output module transmits discrete or analogue signals to activate various devices such as
hydraulic actuators, solenoids, motor starters, and displays the status (through the use of LEDs) of
the connected output points. Signal conditioning, termination, and isolation are also part of the
output module's functions. The output module is treated in the same manner as the input module
by the processor.