Mahatma and Modern India

The Mahatma and Modern India
Author(s): Judith M. Brown

Source: Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 3, No. 4, Gandhi Centenary Number (1969), pp. 321-342
Published by: Cambridge University Press
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Modern Asian Studzes III, 4 (I969), pp. 32I-342
fAe Mahatma and Modern Indicl
BY JUDITH M. BRQWN
CENTENARY celebrations of the birth of any prominent man attract

assessments of his character, career and influence. Nothing could be
more understandable, particularly in the case of M. K. Gandhi, who
was by common consent one of the greatest leaders Asia has produced
in an era of colonial nationalisms and decolonization, who in his own
life time was called a saint and a machiavellian politician, and who
has become in independent India both a national myth and an embar
rassment. Accounts of the importance of Gandhi in modern India tend
to fall into two main categories. There are those who dismiss him, often
regretfully, as an idealist whose utopian plans for a democracy of
village commonwealths and a non-violent society have collapsed in the
face of economic and political necessity and the machinations of
unscrupulous politicians. In the words of Jayaprakash Narayan, 'If you
consider the political ideologies attaining in India today, you svould
find that somehow one who is called the Father of the Nation is com-
pletely missing from all of them'.l Such pessimism assesses Gandhi as
if he had been solely a dispenser of blue-prints for a brave new world,
and fails to see him as a dynamic leader whose greatest influence
flowed from the type of movement he led and the techniques he used,
rather than from the peculiarly personal ideals he held. On the other
hand, there are those who hail him as the Father of India and try to
draw direct causal connexions between his ideals and many of the major
changes which have occurred in India since I947 particularly the
oicial abolition of Untouchability and the institution of panchayat raj.
But this is the perspective of the biographer. It underrates the complexi-
ties of politics and society and their interaction, and turns a blind eye
to the innumerable cross currents which make up the main stream of
Indian social and political activity.
Bearing in mind these types of analyses and their weaknesses, I
have limited the scope of this article to two objectixles. Firstly, I trace
some of the main ideas Gandhi put forward, discuss influences which
coincide with or militate against these ideas, and investigate their fate
in modern India. I conclude that generally it is fruitless to look for
the Mahatma's influence in contemporary India in terms of direct
1 p. Mason (ed), India and Ceylon: Unity and Diz)ersity, London, I967, p. 295.
c
322 JUDITH M. BROWN
'legacies'. This may seem a rather negative undertaking; but it clears

the ground for the second, more positive part of my argument-that to
see the influence of Gandhi on India's development it is more fruitful
to look at his leadership of the national movement, in which he was
manifestly posverful, than to search for Gandhian 'legacies' in solutions
to social and political problems. For in such cases, despite the myth
of the Mahatma, his ideals are only one of many contributory and
competing factors in modern India.
One important area of discussion must be the nature and power of
the government, for it is in this sphere that Gandhians like Narayan
feel most bitterly that India has deviated from the paths Gandhi
indicated. Gandhi was not a systematic political philosopher, and his
ideas changed considerably in the course of his life. But at the root of
all his later thought were the beliefs set out in his booklet, Hind Swaraj.2
Written in I909, it showed that a recent visit to England had finally
persuaded Gandhi that western civilization, with its factories and
machinery, mass communications, noise and violence, was depriving
man of quiet and the power to cultivate those spiritual qualities which
lie at the heart of Gandhian philosophy, particularly those he described
as truth and non-violence.3 As a corollary he turned against the par-
liamentary forms of government and the power of the executive which
appeared to accompany such civilization, and resisted their imposition
on India under the British raj. The precise nature of the indigenous
government Gandhi favoured for India changed with the years. At
first he envisaged a benevolent autocracy; but by I9I8 he believed that
some form of elected government on parliamentary lines was necessary
as an interim stage of political development. Writing to someone he
had met in London in I906 and I909 when the ideals of Hind Swaray
were forming in his mind, he discussed this apparent inconsistency
You have reminded me of what I used to say in London, viz., that

benign autocracy was the best form of Government, and have asked me
how I reconcile [this with] my activity in connection with the Home Rule
movement. I still retain the position held by me in London. But that form
of Government is an impossibility today. India must pass through the
throes of Parliamentary Government and, seeing that it is so, I naturally
support a movement which will secure the best type of Parliamentary
Government....4
2 Hind Swaraj reproduced in full in fAe Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. I0,
pp. 8-68. (The Collected Works are in process of publication by the Government of
India, New Delhi; they are cited below as C. W.).
3 Indian 0y7inion, X October I909, C. W., Vol. 9, pp. 3889.
4 Gan&i to Florence Winterbottom, X I }Sebruary I9I8, C. W., Vol. I4, p. 2 I0.
THE MAHATMA AND MODERN INDIA 323
His ideal by I93I was the withering away of the state, what he called
'enlightened anarchy'. But realizing that such an ideal was unattainable
in reality, he insisted that in the immediate future the main character-
istic of the state should be the least possible government,5 and the
complete decentralization of power.
The end to be sought is human happiness combined with full mental

and moral growth. This end can be achieved under decentralization.
Centralization as a system is inconsistent with the non-violent structure
of society.6
The culmination of Gandhi's plans for the decentralization of power are

in a document dated 30 January I948, the day of his assassination. In
this he advocated the disbanding of the Congress as a political group,
its transformation into a social service organization, and the devolution
of authority to three tiers of elected national servants, of which the
bottom tier should be the village panchayat.7
But after Indian independence when leaders were forging a new
constitution it became abundantly clear that Gandhi's ideal was only
one strand in current thought. Dr Ambedkar, Chairman of the Draft-
ing Committee, proclaimed that
The love of the intellectual Indian for the village community is of course
infinite if not pathetic.... I hold that these village republics have been
the ruination of India.... What is the village but a sink of localism, a
den of ignorance, narrow-mindedness and communalism? I am glad the
Draft Constitution has discarded the village and adopted the individual
as its unit.8
Beside such radical criticisms of any proposal to construct an Indian

polity on the basis of the village unit, there were also the implications
of Congress plans for a socialist society. In the words of the foremost
exponent of this stream of thought, Jawaharlal Nehru, 'Political free-
dom, independence, were no doubt essential, but they were steps only
in the right direction; without social freedom and a socialist structure
of sc ciety and the State, neither the country nor the individual could
5 Gfoung India, 2 July I 93 I, quoted in S. Abid Husain, The Way of Gandhi and J%ehru
(2nd edition), Bombay, I96I, pp. 37, 50.
6 Harijan, 8January Ig42, ibid., p. 36.
7 V. P. Varma, The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarsodaya, Agra,
I 959, pp. I 99-20 I .
8 H. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', C. H. Philips

(ed), Politics and Society In India, London, I963, pp. I57-8.
324 JUDITH M. BROWN
develop much'.9 Implicit in such plans was the increase of state power
to redistribute wealth, to organize resources and production, and to
provide the sanction of force behind legislative reform of certain social
practices. It is ironic that Gandhi, who had spent so much effiort
decrying the so-called unbridled power of the British raj, found
himself at the end of his life in uneasy alliance with future Indian rulers
who planned far greater interference in society, and envisaged wider
governmental powers than the British had ever dared to contemplate.
It was not only the ideology of Nehru and the socialists which jostled
with Gandhian ideals for prominence in independent India's new
government. There were severe practical problems, too. After Partition
large areas of the country were badly disorganized by communal
violence and the influx of refugees, and needed firm administrative
control. The structure of government which India inherited from the
departing raj was essentially authoritarian, and devolution on the
grand scale would probably have resulted in political chaos. Moreover,
leaders who had spent most of their lives in conflict with the raj for
control of government were naturally reluctant to relinquish authority
to village communities when unfettered power eventually came within
their grasp.
Out of this conflict of ideals and political necessity emerged the
federal constitution of India, conferring large powers on the central
and state governments. By this time Gatldhi was dead. It was left to
the premier of the U.P. to complain that the 'constitutioll is a miserable
failure. The spirit of Indian culture has not breathed on it: the Gand-
hism by which we swear so vehemently at home and abroad does not
inspire it. It is just a piece of legislation like, say, the Motor Vehicles
Act.'l° Since I950, and particularly since the establishment of the
Planrling Commission, government control has reached out from Delhi
and the State capitals into nooks and crannies of public life where the
British never ventured, and deep into people's private lives, too. In
theory anyway, government regulates social customs, it orders when
children shall attend school, it rations and distributes food on occasion,
it interests itself in methods of agriculture, it determines the size of
landholdings, it regulates and initiates industrial enterprise as svell as
performing the traditional roles of the tax-collector and the policeman.
9 J. Nehru, 24n Jutobiography, London, I936, p. I66. For a study of Nehru's

socialist and democratic beliefs, see ;1:). E. Smith, J%ehru and Democracy, Calcutta, I 958.
10 Address to University Convocation, Agra, I9 November I949, quoted by
H. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', Philies op. cit.,
p. I59.
'The little Snger has become the whole hand. Government is cvery--
where and inescapable.'ll
But amidst this growth of government power has been one develop-
ment which at frst sight looks explicitly Garldhian in origin and sub-
stance, the irlstitution of panchayat raj. This entails the devolution of
much power over local concerns and substantial funds to a three-tiered
structure of elected bodies at the levels of village, developmerlt block
and district. The breakthrough towards panchayat raj came with tlle
publication in I957 of the Report of the Team for the Study of Communaty
Projects and Jfifational Extension Service. The chairman of the team which
produced the reportj Balwantray Mehta, was a former Gandhian
worker from Gujarat, and through him a direct connexion between
Gandhi's ideals and panchayat raj can be traced. But Mehta himself
insisted that it was not dogmatic adherence to Gandhian ideals which
prompted this reform; rather it was administrative necessity.l2 The
C:ommunity Development projects of the early I950S, desigrled largely
to increase food production, had not succeeded in their object, and
it was hoped that the devolution of some real power to local communi-
ties via panchayat raj would remedy this.l3
So far political commentators and anthropologists have been unable
to produce any comprehensive picture of the actual working of this new
structure, as it is still in its early stages and the evidence is piecemeal.
In some areas -Sood production and the general level of village pros-
perity has increased rapidly;l4 but these are perhaps exceptional. As
a report from Rajasthan in I960 commerlted, villagers were willing to
spend communal money on schools, dispensaries and roads which would
benefit them all. But the improvemerlt of irrigation and other ameni-
ties, crucial to economic development, rarely benefited the whole
village, and consequently panchayats found it difficult to decide how to
allocate funds.I5 In other places, as in parts of Gujarat where the go-
ahead Patidar caste is strong, village development forges on without
the help of new panchayats, which are even looked down on by villagers
11 W. H. Morris-Jones, 7Che Government and Politics of India (2nd edition), London,

I967 p. I6s
12 E]. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', Philips,

of. cit., p. I83.
13 G. Rosen, Democracy and Economzc Change zn India, (Revised edition), Berkeley and
Los Angeles, I967, p. 94.
8 14 For two successful panchayats in Bihar, see K. Nair, Blossoms zn the Dust, London,
I962, pp. 94-7
15 Report of a Study 7Ceam on Democratic Decentralization zn Rajasthan, quoted in Rosen,
op.czt., p.95-
326 JUDITH M BROWN
as somewhat irrelevant government creations.l6 The fate of panchayats

really seems to depend on the state of the individual village in the first
place whether or not there are interested local leaders) whether there
is a dominant caste willing to use it constructively, or whether there are
competing castes or warring factions which use the panchayat as a new
arena for their traditional battles rather than as an agency for self-
government and an instrument of development.
It is also debatable whether pa1achayat raj is working in a way which
is really consonant with Gandhi's vision. Although power has been
devolved to village levels its accompaniment is an army of development
officers and workers from village level upwards. These bring the pres-
tige and authority of government with them, and though theoretically
they work in cooperation with the elected panchayat, there is danger
that their presence may make local autonomy into a sham. Similarly,
Gandhi envisaged a harmonious, non-violent society and state if central
power was devolved to the localities but in many places panchayats
are at the mercy of castes or factions disputing local supremacy.I7
In such cases they do nothirlg to promote village harmony. Quite the
reverse, they increase existing divisions and rivalries by providing fur-
ther prizes for the successful. Panchayat raj demonstrates at the local
level how democracy can most cruelly divide in a complicated and
diverse society, just as instalments of constitutional reform did at a
higher level in the last forty years of the British raj.
A discussion of the nature and extent of state power in modern Tnclia
is important because it seems to be typical of the fate of so many of the
ideals Gandhi wished India to reflect, ideals and plans which some
commentators like to see as hls 'legacy' to India. Butin this case Gandhi's
ideal was only one strand in a conflict of differing ideals and political
necessities. It was only put into practice when it coincided with
overriding political and economic pressures towards a similar goal,
and even then, the end product, contemporary 15anchayat raj, is often
distorted from the Gandhian ideal by the necessities of political control
and the power of existing social groups.
Virtually identical is the fate of Gandhi's hopes for the economic
future of India. His vision was self-sufficient village communities
producing the Ilecessities for simple, rural life, with no need for towns
16 Nair, op. cit., pp. I70-8. For a case where the traditional council continued to
rule the village and the statutory panchayat was merely an instrument of liaison with
the administration, see F. G. Bailey, Politics and Social Change. Orissa in I959, Bombay,
I963, p. 96
17 H. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', Philips

0p. Cit., pp. I 68, I 84.
THE MAHATMA AND MODERN INDIA
327
with their factories and their endless possibilities for exploiting the
poor.l8 This clashed with the plans of other Indian leaders for a
prosperous India able to hold its own as a modern, industrialized
nation. What could have been more inimical to the Gandhian ideal
than Nehru's pronouncement, 'I am all for tractors and big machinery,
and I am convinced that the rapid industrialization of India is essen-
tial . . .' ?19 Such a clash obviously embarrassed Indian leaders at the
height of the natioralist movement, and a whole section of Nehru's
The Discoveay of India is devoted to reconciling the two views.20 At the
heart of the difference was Gandhi's vision of a non-violent society.
iFor Nehru it was a question of making India politically and economi-
cally strong. He wrote:
It can hardly be challenged that, in the context of the modern world,

no country can be politically and economically independent, even within
the framework of international inter-dependence, unless it is highly
industrialized and has developed its power resources to the utmost.2l
For Gandhi the overriding necessity was not such conventional strength,
but non-violence, as he explained in I939.
Rural economy . . . eschews exploitation altogether, and exploitation is

the essence of violence. You have to be rural-minded before you can be
non-violent and to be rural-minded you have to have faith in the spinning-
wheel.22
In practice the naivety of Gandhian economics has given way to the

Five Year Plans with emphasis on rapid industrialization. The Second
Plan, for example, particularly stressed the development of heavy
industries in order to make India independent of foreign supplies of
producer goods, and consequently able to accumulate capital and
reduce the foreign debt.23 Such reasoning would have been anathema
to Gandhian simplicity. However, in deference to Gandhian ideals
and the clear need to increase rural incomes, the government has
subsidized cottage industries. But the Third Plan commented curtly
that under the Second Plan 'the results obtained in respect of both
18 For a survey of Gandhi's economic ideal, see Husain, op. cit., pp. 39-46.
19 J. Nehru, She Discovery of India (paperback impression of 4th edition), London,
1960, p. 4I2.
20 Ibid z pps 409-I6 21 Ibid., p. 4I4.
22 Harijan, 4 November I939, quoted in Husain, op. cit., p. 44.
23 Papers relating to the Formation of the Second Five-Lear Plan, I 955, quoted in Rosen,
Op. Cit., p. I 26.
328 J UDI TH M . B R OWN
production and employment were not commensurate with the expendi-

ture incurred'.24
In one area of economic policy, however, Gandhi's ideas did par-
tially coincide with those of Nehru and the more socialist leaders of
Congress that is, the problem of landlordism and landholding.
Gandhi's ideal village was a community of peasants cultivating their
own land and producing their own food, free from landlords who might
subject them to a rural equivalent of the industrial exploitation he so
decried in towns. Nehru's socialist vision included rural equality, while
his industrial plans needed a sourld agricultural base to support the
industrial sector of the economy. Both lines of thought pointed to some
limitation of the great zemindari estates existirlg in parts of India.
Gandhi would have preferred the method to be moral persuasion, but
as early as I928 Nehru had mooted tho limitation of landholding by
law.25 Wherl Corlgress came to power it determined to abolish zemindari
and other titles in land which came between the government and the
peasant, and to enforce maximum limits on landholding, in an attempt
to lessen rural inequality and to provide incentives for productive
peasant cultivators. Despite considerable opposition from the judiciary,
which was corlcerned to protect the property rights of individuals,26
by the end of the Second Flve Year Plan all intermediate titles in
land were abolished, and gradually local governments began to enact
so-called 'ceiling' legislation against large landholders.
However, once again social conditions, particularly the power of the
dominant landholding castes in each area, conspired to defeat the
ideals of Gandhian and socialist planner alike. Take Raichur district,
once part of Hyderabad, as an example. There in I955-6, out of
2 I 3,953 landholders, only 549 officially possessed more than the
'ceiling' legislation allowed when it was passed, although this was known
to be an area of large estates.27 In Andhra as a whole, as in many
other parts of India, landholders redistributed their lands among
their families and relatives a legal dodge which doubtless accounts
for the ease with which such legislation passes through local legislative
assemblies even though they often contain large groups of landholding
representatives.28
The corollary to 'ceilirlg' legislation, the legislative protection of

former tenants, has similarly been ineffiective in many places. Former
24 ROsen, op. cit., p. I75 25 Smith, J%ehru and Democracy, pp. I33-4.
26 For a discussion of the conflicts between Nehru and the judiciary, and conse-
quent additions to the Indian constitution, see ibid., pp. I35-4I.
27 Nair, op. cit., p. 6I. 28 Ibid., p. 62.
tenants often surrender their lands, apparently without compulsion.

But such surrenders are voluntary in name only. For fear of the powerful
landlord nearby, able to make life uncomfortable in the immediate
circle of the village) is greater than belief in protection through the
courts or from a distant government.29 Moreover, there have been
unforeseen eXects of 'ceiling' and tenancy protection laws which are
certainly contrary to the interltions of the legislators. As landholders
share their lands among their relatives there is less surplus land for
temporary tenants to work; and people who formerly earned their
living by taking on temporary tenures harre been degraded to the
position of day labourers.30 Moreovera some powerful landlords like
the Patidars in the Kaira district of Gujarat have, through their control
of the record keepers, manipulated land titles and used some of the
provisioIts of tenancy laws to evict their terlants and turn them into
agricultural labourers.3l This hits the low castes particularly, demon-
strating that power accrues to those who already possess it, irl this case
the local dominant landowlling castes. Clearly it tleeds more than
well-intentioned laws to alter the balarlce of power in rural India.
So far only the fate of Gandhis political and economic ideals has
been corlsidered. It would be a valid criticism to say that after all
Gandhi was not primarily interested or instrumental in formulating
constitutions and economic plans, and that it would be fairer to evaluate
his influence- on moderrl India in an area of life in which he was
supremely interested So let us turn to caste- - a topic to which Gandhi
devoted a rrast amount of time and energy. For Gandhi, caste presented
two distinct problems -the rlature of caste divisions in general, and
the particular issue of Untouchability. To take the more general
question first: Gandhis attitude to the institution of caste developed
considerably over the years Brollght up a strict Hindu in the Vaishnava
tradition,-he accepted caste divisions without question during his time
in South Africa and after his return to India in I9I5* He wrote in a
Marathi magazine in I 9 I 6 that caste was 'a perfectly natural institution
. * * invested with a religious meaning, and a ready agent for social and
moral reform. 'These being my views,' he wrote, CI am opposed to the
movements which are being carried on for the destructiorl ofthe system.'32
At this stage he still upheld the prohibitions on intermarriage and
29 lfairn op. cit., p. 64* 50 Ibid, pp- 644-

31 NI. Weiner, Party Building in a New J%ation. She Indian ;National Congress, Chicago
and London, X 967, pp. 8g-go. Similar examples from Orissa cf powerful landholders
vitiating tenancy protection legislation are given in Bailey, op. cst., pp. 74-5.
32 Bharat Sevak, October I9I6, C. W., Vol. I3, pp. 30I-3.
33o JUDITH M. BROWN
interdining between people who belonged to different varnas, though

not between members of different castes within each of the four great
divisions. In I93X, however, he came out against all restrictions on
intermarriage and interdining; and in I946 it was announced that no
couples could be married at his Sevagram ashram urlless one of them
was an Untouchable. Somewhere in the intervening years, most clearly
between I9I6 and I926 he had begun to distinguish between caste as
actually found in India, and his ideal of caste, what he called varna-
shrama. Varnashrama was a cooperative society with its members divided
into occupational groups, each fulfilling their own functions, but all
of equal status: and it was this ideal of caste to which Gandhi adhered
for the rest of his life.33 In upholding varnashrama as opposed to the
current practice of caste distinctions, Gandhi was compromising
between the claims of orthodoxy and reform. But in his attitude
towards Untouchability there was no element of compromise. As
early as I907 he condemned the practice without hesitation;34 and in
I9I5 wrote, 'If it were proved to me that this is an essential part of
Hinduism, I for one would declare myself an open rebel against
Hinduism itself. . .'.35
There are several strands in Indian thought from the later nineteenth
century onwards which tie up with Gandhi's attitude to caste. Within
the spectrum of the early social reform movement there were many
shades of opinion, ranging from the most timid to the most radical.36
But gradually the radical began to predominate, particularly as the
spread of education and communications helped to weaken parochia-
lisms of all kinds, including the distinctions and loyalties of caste. By
the I9XOS there was a body of opinion which called for the entire
abolition of caste, and an even stronger feeling amongst the educated
that the practice of Untouchability should be prohibited if India was
to stand on equal terms as a modern nation with western countries.
The personal example of Gandhi, whose activities were reported in
mirlute detail during the national movement, was undoubtedly of
great importance in making these ideas acceptable in India. But
33 For the development of Gandhi's view of varnashrama (also called varnadharma

and varnashramadharma), see D. Dalton, 'The Gandhian View of Caste, and Caste
after Gandhi', P. Mason, of. cit., pp. I59-8I. A collection of Gandhi's writings on
caste compiled by R. K. Prabhu is M. K. Gandhi, Yarnashramadharma, Ahmedabad,
I 962.
34 Gandhi to Chhaganlal Gandhi, 2I April I907, C. W., Vol. 6, p. 435.

36 Speech by Gandhi on I May I9I5, Ehe Hindu, 3 May I9I5, C. W., Vol. I3, p. 69.
36 For a survey of the social reform movemerlt, see C. H. Heimsath, Indian J%ational-
ism and Hindt4 Social Reform, Princeton, I964.
THE MAHATMA AND MODERN INDIA 33I
Congress socialism and the actual participation of lower and Untouch-

able castes in civil disobedience also contributed to a radical approach.
At orle point it looked as if the Untouchables under Dr Ambedkar's
leadership would try to find a solution to their problem through political
separatism. But Gandhi's great fast leading to the Poona Pact scotched
this plan. Instead, Congress retained their allegiance, but was com-
mitted to abolishing Untouchability when it came to power.37 Conse-
quently in the I 950 Constitution Untouchable status was abolished, and
this was reinforced by the I 955 Untouchability OXences Act, applicable
to the whole of India.38 On the positive side, scholarships were provided
for Untouchables in schools and colleges, special seats were allotted to
them in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, and a certain
percentage of government jobs were reserved for them.
But what of actual practice? Untouchability is sanctioned by the
tradition of generations, an embedded attitude and social habit hard
to root out. Moreover, as a ritual status given to certain occupational
groups, it cannot be abolished by the stroke of a legislator's pen, but
only as those groups find new occupations- and increasing prosperity
to free them from their degraded status and give them in eXect a new
status to replace the old. In towns this happens more rapidly, except
where Untouchables live in caste blocs or keep their traditional occu-
pations. But in villages there is still plenty of evidence that Untoucha-
bility is as real a status as ever it was.39 Although the problem of the
erstwhile Untouchables is essentially an economic one, such is the
complexity of Indian society that sometimes the very prosperity which
should undermine old ritual distinctions becomes an incentive for
retaining communal identity and degraded status.40 Even the protec-
tive discrimination given to ex-Untouchables in education and govern-
ment has backfired, making former Untouchability a status in which
men have a substantial vested interest.4l Clearly despite Gandhi's
37 A. M. Muzumdar, Social Welfare in India. Mahatma Gandhi's Contributions, New

York, I964, pp. 56-73
38 For the scope of the Constitution and the Untouchability Offences Act, see
M. Galanter, 'Changing Legal Conceptions of Caste', Milton Singer and Bernard
S. Cohn (ed), Structure and Change in Indian Society, Chicago, I968, pp. 3I2-I5.
39 H. Orenstein, 'Leadership and Caste in a Bombay Village', R. L. Park and
I. Tinker (ed), Leadership and Political Institutions in India, Princeton, I959, p. 4I7.
Nair, op. cit., pp. 80, I 87.
40 For the case of the Chamars whose traditionally degrading leather work has
become extremely profitable, see L. I. and S. H. Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition.
Political Development in India, Chicago and London, I967, p. I34.
41 The Mahars of Western India are one of the clearest examples of a group
deliberately trading on the new benefits available to them if they admit to being
332 J UDI TH M . B ROWN
campaign against Untouchability, and despite virtually revolutionary

legislation, Untouchable status persists and is even being artificially
prolonged in modern India.
It is difficult to generalize about the power and importance
of caste distinctions as a whole compared with the specific issue of
Untouchability, since these distinctions cover so many areas of life
and vary in different regions. But it seems that gradually the ritual
importance of caste is weakening as education spreads and as the
endogamous circle begins to sviden.42 However, though the ritual
implications of caste may weaken, caste and sub-caste groups are
finding new areas of activity in public life which make norlsense of
Gandhian ideals of a harmonious society of interdependent groups.
Educational arld economic development, and the devolution of power,
first from an imperial to an Indian raj and then down through State
to jianchayat, have disturbed old balances of power, provided new
opportunities for social and economic advancement, and with them
the means of obtaining corresponding political influence. This process
of change and modernization might be expected to weaken caste ties,
but in some unforeseen ways it has served to reinforce them.
One way is through the reservation of jobs and seats in legislatures
for 'backward' classes, a category which includes some low castes as
well as ex-Untouchables. As in the case of the latter, some low castes
like the Lingayats of Mysore, are determined to retain the status of
'backward' for the political and economic advantages it now affiords
them though iIl fact their economic position has so improved that they
llo longer deserve the title 'backward'.43 In another way political change
has thrown caste groups into prominence. Operating withirl the new
system of mass franchise politicians have to find appropriate methods
of courting political support; and the caste group with its local leaders
and supra-village networks is a ready made instrument for political
mobilization if politicians call capture its loyalty. Realizing this political
potential, political scientists and anthropologists have studied the
modern political role of caste in considerable detail. One thing that
Mahars. Even Christians and Muslims, theoretically casteless communities, in some
places now claim vigorously that they have among them ex-Untouchables who are
eligible for government benefits. See H. R. Isaacs, India's Ex-Untouchables, (ISt
Indian edition), Bombay, I965, pp. II7-20, I7I.
42 M. N. Srinivas, Social Change zn Modern India, Berkeley & Los Angeles, I966,
pp. I28, I38-9.
43 A. Betaille, 'The Future of the Backward Classes: The Competing Demands of

Status and Power', M:ason, op. cit., p. 89. For a discussion of the diEculties involved
in finding a suitable criterion of 'backwardness', see D. E. Smith, India as a Secular
State, Princeton, I 963, pp. 3 I 6-22.
emerges from the recent voluminous literature on that role is the great
variety to be found in diffierent regions, among different castes, and at
diffierent levels of political life. In State level politics alone there are
several distinct patterns of caste activity. Sometimes whole castes go
consciously into politics as organized groups.44 In other cases groups
of castes form political alliances to preserve or better their position.45
Sometimes caste loyalties are only one of a number of means which
politiclans use to attract votes: economic, cultural and social loyalties
and interests are also called into play.46 But though the factors which
'dilute' the power of caste in politics are increasing, caste is certainly
a live issue and a powerful weapon, and where it operates it increases
bitterness in politics hence the derogatory use of the word 'casteism'
in contemporary Indian political jargon. The harmonious ideal of
Gandhi's varnashrama is still an ideal and no reality.
The cases on which this discussion has so far centred make it clear
that Gandhi's ideals have often left little mark on Indian society and
politics; and where they have been influential they have often been
distorted in practice by social conditions. B7hat is left by the Mahatma
in modern India is not a social and political reformation, but merely a
tiny group of devoted Gandhians. Some, under the leadership of
Jayaprakash Narayan, preach the doctrines of Sarvodaya, the welfare
of all. Like Gandhi, they believe that the future of India lies with
village communities and the end of partzr politics and factional strife.
Others, led by Vinoba Bhave, have since I952 toured the country,
asking for gifts of larld and goods to form the basis oScooperative village
communities on the Gandhian model.47 Their political power in terms
of numbers and institutions is minimal. But they have caught the public
imagination by sourlding a note of simplicity and tradition in a period
of rapid change and deviation from traditional paths. In a strange way
they provide a focus for much of the current political discontent in
India, even though many of their ideas are virtually impossible to
enact. They are present as a constant reminder of the heroic days of the
44 E.g., the Nairs of Kerala, Rosen, op. Cit., p. 77; theJatavs of Agra, O. M. Lyneh,
'The Politics of Untouchability: A Case from Agra, India', Singer and Cohn, op. cit.,
pp. 227-35
45 Recently the Rajputs of Gujarat have admitted lower caste Kolis to the status of
Kshatriya and allied with them in the Gujarat Sabha in order to capture power from
the Patidar-dominated Congress, M. N. Srinivas, 'Mobility in the Caste System',
ibid., pp. I98.
46 The Vanniyars of Madras have progressed from the simple form of political
activity in overtly caste parties to this more sophisticated stage where many non-caste
factors eompete for their political loyalty, Rudolphs, op. cit., pp. 26-7, 88-I03*
47 For a discussion of the Sarvodaya movement, see Varma, op. cit.
334 JUDITH M. BROWN
nationalist movement, and are a standing critique of any Indian govern-

ment.
But surely it is to the days of the nationalist movement that we must
turn if we are to see the influence of Gandhi on modern India? To
look for direct causal links between his ideals and what is happening
in contemporary politics and society is really to pose the wrong
questions. Gandhi was not a formulator of constitutions or a planner of
economies; nor even a full time politician, since for long periods he
would retire almost completely from politics, and devote himself to
the service of the Untouchables and to filling India with spinning-
wheels. The concrete preparation for the government of independent
India was done by the Nehrus and Patels of the national movement.
They were the creators of a party machine and the architects of the
new state, and one could rightly ask what their direct legacy was to
modern India in terms of policies and institutions. Gandhi provided
the inspiration and the dynamic leadership, particularly at critical
moments in the movement, and it is his leadership which has left
indelible marks on contemporary India rather than his specific plans
for social and political reform.
Gandlli's role as a leader can be described as essentially that of a
mediator between various groups and forces. In the first place, though
on occasion not even a Congress member, he became the acknowledged
leader and symbol of the anti-British agitation. As such, he held together
a group of political leaders, mediating between their diverse ideologies
and aims. His very rise to power in I920 was based on this mediatory
function. The Congresses held at Calcutta and Nagpur in I 920
completely reversed the earlier Congress policy of cooperating in the
Montagu-Chelmsford constitutional reforms. The reason for this
dramatic revision lay in the political forces Gandhi controlled, and the
way he used them. Congress from its inception until I920 had been the
preserve of educated groups, predominantly Hindus of high caste,
who came from the three Presidencies which had been longest under
British influence. They alone were equipped by their education to
fence with the raj in western style institutions for political power: they
alone had the qualiScations which would make them the beneSciaries
of the concessions of place and power in government service and the
Legislative Councils which were the heart of their political demands.
Standing outside this tiny, sophisticated world of the professional
politicians were vast groups, areas and communities whose aims might
be very different if their political potential was ever released. It was
this potential which Gandhi began to release in I920. His strength, as
shown in the voting patterns at Calcutta and Nagpur, lay in the support
of sections of the Muslim community, roused to activity in the Khilafat
movement, in the support of representatives from regions which had
previously played a peripheral part in politics-Bihar, U.P., the
Punjab, Gujarat and the Hindi-speaking parts of C.P.-and in the
support of merchant groups whose loyalties had previously lain with
the raj. It was not that Gandhi completely swamped the older style
politicians, but rather that this novel support made him the most
dangerous opponent and the most powerful potential ally in the
political situation of Ig20.48 Even B. G. Tilak, in the weeks before he
died, was acutely aware that his followers were faced with a critical
decision by Gandhi's increasing power. According to a contemporary
report, one of 'Tilak's last coherent utterances during his final illness'
was 'that Gandhi should be regarded as a political power and not be
lightly thwarted or opposed by the Nationalists lest they should find
themselves in a minority and lose their lead in politics . . .'.49 The
Presidency politicians realized their predicament and many of them
turned to Gandhi at the end of I920 rather than slide into obscurity;
while Gandhi for his part mediated between them and his own suppor-
ters so that the older politicians retained influence, if not leadership,
in the national movement. One Bombay politician put the situation
neatly:
We have expressed our diSerences as regards the programme of Non-

co-operation to Mahatma Gandhi recently and he has conceded Provincial
autonomy so far as it agreed with the fundamental principles of his
Non-co-operation and thus we are now in a position to work out the pro-
gramme as it may suit us best.... The time is ripe for us all now, reserving
the right to ourselves to express our diffierences amongst ourselves when-
ever a proper occasion arrives, to close up our rarlks and oXer a united
front to the Government under the guidance of the only man-Mahatma
Gandhi who can be somewhat of a leader to us, under the present
circumstances.50
But precisely because of the increasing diversity of those who had

begun to participate in politics with their own particular aims under
48 For an analysis of voting patterns in the Calcutta and Nagpur Congresses and
an investigation of the sources of Gandhi's power, see J. M. Brown, 'Gandhi in India,
I9I5-20: his emergence as a leader and the transformation of politics' (Cambridge
Ph .D. dissertation, I 968 ), pp. 4 I 4-72 .
49 Bombay Presidency Police, Secret Abstract of Intelligence of I920, par. I2II,
S. B. Bombay Presidency, Poona, 27 August.
50 M.R.Jayakar toB. S. Moonje, sJanuary Ig2I,JayakarPapers, Chronological
Correspondence File No. I2, Serial No. 2.
JUDITH M. BROWN
336
Gandhi's leadership, his mediation between the different groups had
on occasion to be dictatorial. One ofthe earliest examples of this occurred
in June I920 at a meeting of the Xl-India Khilafat Conference, when
Gandhi was trying to ride both Hindu and Muslim horses. Congress
had deferred a decision on non-cooperation over the Khilafat issue
until the special session in September, and Gandhi's unenviable task
was to keep the Muslims sufficiently happy and under his control so
as not to alienate the Hindus by wild speeches or actions. He did this
by delivering arl ultimatum to the Muslims: they could have his
mediation and a potential Hindu alliance on his terms only, otherwise
he would retire. The Governor of Bombay reported this incident:
He informed the Khilafat Committee that in order to carry out his pro-
gramme it would be necessary that arl internal committee of two or three
of which he should be the dictator (he used this word) should be formed,
and he proposed that this should be styled the Martial Law Committee
of the Khilafat Movement. He explained the choice of this name by
saying that just as ordinary law was suspended in the use of Martial law,
so in the case of the Khilafat Committee its power of action and criticism
should be suspended pro tem., if they desired his co-operation, in favour
of himself and his 'committee'. This was silently accepted.5l
Both the mediation and the dictatorial tendency were present from
then throughout Gandhi's career. There were those who refused to
accept both. Most spectacular was tlle refusal of the Muslim community
after the brief rapprochement with Congress on the Khilafat issue,
despite Gandhi's insistence that his life's work was to bring together
Hindus and Muslims. Some Hindus as well turned against him, parti-
cularly those under the influence of Subhas Chandra Bose, and the
members of the Hindu Mahasabha. But on the whole the Hindu
politicians preferred to stick together under Gandhi and preserve a
united anti-British front in a Congress which became a coalition of
different interests.
One writer has gone so far as to call the modern Congress an entire
party system irl itself, in which conflicting groups and interests find
expression, conciliation and compromise.52 This process could be seen
until recently not only in the central Congress party, where Nehru
continued Gandhi's mediatory activities after the Mahatma's death,
but also in the localities. At the local level Congress success in retaining
51 Sir George Lloyd to E. S. Montagu, 25 June Ig20, Montagu Papers, India

Office Library, Mss. EUR.D.523 (25).
52 R. Kothari, 'The Party System', She Economic Weekly, 3 June I 96 I, quoted in
Rosen, op. cit., pp. 64.
THE MAHATMA AND MODERN INDIA
337
power and insuring unity has rested very largely, too, on its power as
the Government party to mediate between local groups, and to provide
them with means of expression and roads to power.53 The inclusive,
synthesising nature of Congress has undoubtedly contributed to the
comparative stability of Indian politics in the two decades since
independence, and the successful working of elected, parliamentary
forms of government-phenomena rare in the post-independence
history of Asian and African states. Modern India owes much to the
Mahatma for this, because the nature of Congress was very largely
determined by his ideal of it as the voice of all India, and by the
mediatory qualities of his own leadership.
In a second way Gandhi was a mediator during the national move-
ment-between the educated, high caste groups who had moved
easily in politics since the late nineteenth century, and the wider social
groups which have moved into politics since the First World War. It
is often said that Gandhi was instrumental in creating mass political
awareness and participation in India, and that from I920 onwards he
harnessed together the Seelings of the masses and the ambitions of an
elite. As more work is done on the actual mechanics of Gandhi's
political leadership it becomes clear that this is an over-simplification.
It is quite true that Gandhi moved with ease in the club-rooms of the
Indian Bars and the political associations of the professional politicians,
as well as in the market towns and villages, interpreting the different
groups to each other. But it was between the politicians and those
whom one might call rural and small town elites that Gandhi acted as
political mediator, and rarely between the politicians and the masses.
The legend of the Mahatma's success in making mass political contact
makes this sound like - heresy beside the dogmas of Indian nationalist
history; and of course there were occasions when Gandhi had direct
political influence on ordinary villagers with no claims to the status of
an elite group. For example, during the I920 elections in one U.P.
village not a single person voted after Gandhi had visited the district
the previous day.54 Occasions like this doubtless multiplied with the
years as he became a truly all-India figure. But generally speaking to
the really poor and illiterate Gandhi's message and appeal was social
and religious. To the more prosperous peasants, and the traders and
professional men of small towns his appeal became more overtly
political: while at the highest levels of political participation he could
couch demands in the language of legislatures arld constitutions. It
53 Weiner, op. cit., pp. 469-72.

54 V. Chirol, India Old and New, London, I92I, pp. 20I-2.
D
338 JUDITH M. BROWN
was between these latter groups that Gandhi acted as a political

mediator.
This process can be traced in Gandhi's career right from the time
when he launched himself into Indian politics with the Champaran
satyagraha of I9I7. In Champaran, though he moved through the villa-
ges, his key men were a small group of professional men from Bihar
towns, most of whom were lawyers. Among them was Rajendra
Prasad from Chapra who was to become one of Gandhi's chief hench-
men in Bihar. The only one of the group who had hitherto had much
real political experience was Braj Kishore Prasad, who had been a
member of the Bihar Legislative Council, and had attended Congress.
Among Gandhi's helpers were also business men from local towns who
realized that if Gandhi's campaign against the planting community
was successful it might increase their own power and prosperity in the
area. Of the four main peasant leaders whom Gandhi used, the most
prominent was the son of a prosperous Brahmin cultivator who had
personal grievances to vent against the planters.55 Clearly such mer
belonged to a rural and urban elite, and association with them was not
political contact with the masses. Similarly in the Kaira satyagraha of
I9I8 Gandhi's work was not with the poorest peasants, but with the
prosperous Patidar community of this district of Gujarat, while his
most important helpers were either Patidars themselves or lawyers
from Gujarati towns, working through the infant political associations
they had begun, particularly the Gujarat Sabha, the Gujarat Political
Conference and the local branches of the Home Rule League. Both
Patidar and lawyer, Vallabhbhai Patel was the foremost of these
associates.56 The same pattern of leadership appears in the Rowlatt
satyagraha of I9I9 and in the rlon-cooperation movement begun in
I920. In every case Gandhi used a middle group between the masses
and the politicians in the role of political sub-contractor. In Bihar in
I920 this middle group consisted not only of small town pleaders but
also of Muslim religious leaders, particularly the maulvis, who were
interested in the Khilafat cause.57 In Maharashtra the police reported
that the ordinary villagers understood virtually nothing of what was
said at non-cooperation meetings, but that village officials like the
55 For a description of Gandhi's associates in Champaran, see undated letter from

W. H. Lewis, Subdivisional Officer, Bettiah, to the Commissioner, Tirhut Division,
B. B. Misra (ed), Select Documents on Mahatma Gandhi's Movement in Champaran I9I7-I8,
Bihar, I963, pp. 339-43.
56 J. M. Brown, 'Gandhi In India, I9I5-20', pp. 207-I0.
57 Searchlzght, 29 April I920, Government of India, Home Political, A, September
I 920, Nos. I oo-3.
talatis, patels and shrofs did, and villagers' behaviour would depend on
their bidding.58
But though Gandhi's leadership did not create mass political aware-
ness as is sometimes glibly suggested without a detailed study of the
mechanics of that leadership, his kind of political sub-contracting
significantly extended the range of real political participation both in
towns and in the countryside. This has been reflected in the changing
composition of some local Congress parties, where the high caste, educa-
ted few have had to give way to, or at the very least share power with,
powerful rural elites taking active part in politics for the first time. In
Belgaum, for example, by the mid I g30s there had occurred a dramatic
decline in the power of the Brahmins, who were the earliest leaders
and participants in local politics, in the face of non-Brahmin agricul-
tural castes, particularly the Lingayats.59 An interesting corollary to
this is the very recent indication that in some places the rural elites
mobilized by Gandhi are now being displaced or challenged in politics
by groups from below them in social and economic ranking groups
who were barely touched by Gandhi's leadership. In the Mahatma's
home territory of Gujarat, the Patidars who followed him from I9I8
onwards and effiectively made up the local Congress were in I962
defeated in Kaira district by a Bariya-Rajput alliance under the
banner of a Kshatriya Sabha.60
From I9I7 onwards Gandhi mediated between the small groups to
whom politics had become a natural activity over several decades and
a wider spread of groups who began to be active in politics for the first
time. As he did so he trained a new kind of leader who has risen to
prominence in the years since independence. The Nehrus and Patels
of politics urbane, fluent in English, often educated in England or
qualified at the English Bar are giving way to, or at least needing the
assistance of, men like Kamaraj who until recently spoke no English,
the late Prime Minister Shastri who had never left India until he took
up ofiice. This new style of leader is better equipped to represent and
understand the rural groups whose power has increased since the
introduction of adult suffrage, and to deal with local party bosses than
were the political leaders of the days when politics were still the preserve
of an urban elite.6l India's comparatively smooth transition from
58 Bombay Presidency Police, Secret Abstract of Intelligence of I920, par. I49I
(2I), Poona, I2 November.
59 Weiner, op. cit., pp. 234-5. 60 Ibid., pp I°5-I°
61 The introduction of adult suffrage hastened the proeess of expanding political
participation, and shifted power even more quickly to the dominant rural castes in
the regions, castes whieh then gained more power through the institution of panchayat
JUDITE M. BROWN
34°
elitist politics to a stage of far wider participation in political activity

owes much to Gandhi's ability to interpret between different groups and
to train new leaders who could tap a wider range of support thaxl their
predecessors. This is a political dividend of very great value to an
ex-colonial territory where violence can so easily erupt from the bitter-
ness of social, economic and regional divisions if those divisions are
reflected in a monopoly of political power.
In a third sphere also Gandhi's role was that of mediator in matters
of social and political ideology. Compared with an older generation of
politicians who owed much of their political thinking to education on
English liberal lines, and made Congress the sober morning-dress affair
that it once was, Gandhi appeared both in outward appearance and
in his attitudes and arguments to be far more traditionally Indian.
Indeed this was part of his strength as he stretched out to groups not
yet involved in the sophisticated game of western-style politics. But
in many ways he reinterpreted traditionally Indian ideas to justitr
more modern or western attitudes, and similarly interpreted the more
modern in tertns of the traditional. One of the most obvious examples of
this was his attitude towards caste divisions. His egalitarian ideas owed
much to his western education, but he took care always to clothe these
ideas in traditional forms, stressing that varnashrama was a purification
of corrupt Hindu practice, and not a departure from Hindu tradition.
Similarly he emphasized that his criticism of the contemporary treat-
ment of women in India was not an attack on Hinduism from outside,
but a call to return to the original tenets of Hinduism.
These statements of mine may have verbal simiIarity with the occasional
attacks of Christians, but, apart from this similarity, there is no commorl
ground between us. The Christians, in their attacks, seek to strike at the
roots of Hinduism. I look upon myself as an orthodox Hindu and my
attack proceeds from the desire to rid Hinduism of its defects and restore
it to its pristine glory.62
In somewhat the same way Gandhi's ideal of an Indian nation, and a

good Indian, at first owed much to examples of nationalism and heroism
from outside India. In South Africa he set himself the task of uniting
the Indian community and educating its members in the qualities he
thought made nations great, using his writings and the columns of
Izadiaza Opinion in particular. He drew heavily on the lives of nationalist
raj. This shift in the balance of power to the countryside is one of the main themes dealt
with in Rosen, op. cit.
68 Speech by Gandhi on 20 February I9I8, C. W., Vol. I4, p. 204.
THE MAHATMA AND MODERN INDIA 34I
leaders from outside India, like Massini63 and Mustafa Kamal Pasha;64
arld exhorted his audience to follow men as diverse as Oliver Cromwell,
George Washington and Florence Nightingale, in the belief that nations
were as great as the people they contained.65 By the time he returned
to India, however, his writirlgs were orientated far less towards western
examples, and his stress fell increasingly on the traditionally Indian-
hence his use of words like swaraj and swaleshi, his emphasis on verna-
cular education, village communities and the wearing of khadi. This
new kind of exposition was part of the ideological structure he built up
round his concept of the supremacy of sstyagraha, truth or soul force.
Much of that ideology and the resulting personal idiosyncracies were
rejected in India, but Gandhi's restatement of western political ideals
of nationhood and independence in overtly Indian, even Hindu, terms
and symbols was of great psychological importance to the leadersof the
national movement. It removed the sting of the charge the British had
always laid against them, that they were 'denationalized', representing
nothing but themselves, a group of over-educated babus. It also helped
to unify the groups who participated in the movement by stressing the
traditional in opposition to the divisions which British rule and influence
had caused or exacerbated.66 Even in the mundane matters of dress
and language, by dressing the leaders in khadi and exhorting them to
speak a vernacular, Gandhi brought them closer to the rest of the
population, appearing to iron out the differences between rich and
poor, educated and illiterate. Literally and metaphorically Gandhi
clothed the leaders of modern India in the robes of tradition, and thus
eased India's passage into the modern world.67
63 E.g., a passage in Hind Swsraj, C. W., Vol. I0, pp. 40-I; an article in Invdian
Opinion, 22 July I905, C.W., Vol5, pp.R7-8; numerous references as in Indisn
Opinion, 27 July I907, C.W., Vol. 7, p. I22 and Indian Opinion, 4 April Ig08, C.W.,
Vol. 8, p. I75
64 A course of articles entitled 'Egypt's Famous Leader') Indian Opinion,28 March I 908,
+April I 908, I I April I 908, I 8 April I 908, C. W., Vol. 8, pp. I 66-7, I74-6, I 87-8, I99.
65 Indisn Opinion, g September I905, C.W., Vol. 5, pp. 6I-2; Indian Opinion,
27 July Ig07, C. W., Vol. 7, p. I22.
66 Of course stressing the traditional and the Hindu also involved dangers. The
increasingly Hindu character of the national movement helped to alienate Muslims
and to push them into demands for a Pakistan where they would be free from the
danger of Hindu raj. Use of vernaculars, also, was fraught with uncertainties. It
might bring educated and uneducated together, but it might also emphasize the
difEerences between the regions of India and the claims of their various vernaculars
for official recognition and use.
67 This process of using tradition in the service of modernity is worked out in
some detail in relation to Gandhi's leadership by the Rudolphs in a section of their
recent book, entitled, 'The Traditional Roots of Charisma: Gandhi', iEtudolphsF
ap. cit., pp. I 57-249.
342 JUDITH M. BROWN
In discussing Mahatma Gandhi's influence on modern India it is

misleading to study his ideals and to try to see them as legacies left to
his country, though this is a tempting way to celebrate his centenary.
Society and politics are far too complex to reflect the ideals of one manj
even though he was one of the greatest leaders India has produced and
at times even seemed to personify the Indian nation. Only the collusion
of ideals with social and economic pressures can produce radical change
in traditional societies: where the ideal alone is present, in practice it
is either forgotten or distorted. This can be seen in microcosm in the
fate of satyagraha and its political application in non-violent passive
resistance. This above all was Gandhi's message to India. It was for
him the manifestation of a consuming vision of a non-violent world, as
well as a superbly adaptable technique for conducting and resolving
conflicts. But in modern India the ideal has gone by the board both in
external relations and in internal politics. Military intervention in
Goa, and wars with China and Pakistan have ended an era of non-
violence in foreign affairs and of the diplomacy of non-alignment.68
Within India since Nehru's death the coalition he held together is
splitting up, and political strife has become more bitter and increasingly
erupts irlto open violence. Moreover, the technique of satyagraha,
which Gandhi hoped would never be used in an India which had won
swaraj,69 has become a method of last ditch political blackmail.70
Political, economic and social pressures have conspired to distort the
Gandhian original.
Solutions to the problems of modern India have to be, and are
being, forged by the politicians of the '60s and '70s, in response to the
needs of the day, and not according to an ideology fashioned in the
early I9OOS by one who had no experience of the pressures of admini-
strative and economic necessity in a vast under-developed country,
and whose main concern was to rouse his countrymen to a vision of an
independent destiny. The Mahatma was not the Father of the Nation
in the sense that he bequeathed to it a blue-print for a new order;
but rather because he bridged the gap between the old order and the
new.
68 For evidence of this change, see the figures for the increase in government
expenditure on defence since I962, Rosen, op. cit., p. 37.
69 W. H. Morris-Jones, 'Mahatma Gandhi Political Philosopher ?', Political
Studies, Vol. VIII, I960, p. 30.
70 E.g., the resort to satyagraha by people hoping to get certain towns and areas
included in their own linguistic provinces, Weiner, op. cit., pp. 250-I. The same dis-
tortion of the Gandhian original can be seen in the threats of political leaders to fast
to death when they have been unable to get their way through the normal constitu-
tional channels of politics.

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The Mahatma and Modern India

Author(s): Judith M. Brown

fAe Mahatma and Modern Indicl

CENTENARY celebrations of the birth of any prominent man attract

'legacies'. This may seem a rather negative undertaking; but it clears

You have reminded me of what I used to say in London, viz., that

The end to be sought is human happiness combined with full mental

The culmination of Gandhi's plans for the decentralization of power are

Beside such radical criticisms of any proposal to construct an Indian

8 H. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', C. H. Philips

9 J. Nehru, 24n Jutobiography, London, I936, p. I66. For a study of Nehru's

11 W. H. Morris-Jones, 7Che Government and Politics of India (2nd edition), London,

12 E]. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', Philips,

as somewhat irrelevant government creations.l6 The fate of panchayats

17 H. Tinker, 'Tradition and Experiment in Forms of Government', Philips

It can hardly be challenged that, in the context of the modern world,

Rural economy . . . eschews exploitation altogether, and exploitation is

In practice the naivety of Gandhian economics has given way to the

production and employment were not commensurate with the expendi-

The corollary to 'ceilirlg' legislation, the legislative protection of

tenants often surrender their lands, apparently without compulsion.

29 lfairn op. cit., p. 64* 50 Ibid, pp- 644-

interdining between people who belonged to different varnas, though

33 For the development of Gandhi's view of varnashrama (also called varnadharma

34 Gandhi to Chhaganlal Gandhi, 2I April I907, C. W., Vol. 6, p. 435.

Congress socialism and the actual participation of lower and Untouch-

37 A. M. Muzumdar, Social Welfare in India. Mahatma Gandhi's Contributions, New

campaign against Untouchability, and despite virtually revolutionary

43 A. Betaille, 'The Future of the Backward Classes: The Competing Demands of

nationalist movement, and are a standing critique of any Indian govern-

We have expressed our diSerences as regards the programme of Non-

But precisely because of the increasing diversity of those who had

51 Sir George Lloyd to E. S. Montagu, 25 June Ig20, Montagu Papers, India

53 Weiner, op. cit., pp. 469-72.

was between these latter groups that Gandhi acted as a political

55 For a description of Gandhi's associates in Champaran, see undated letter from

elitist politics to a stage of far wider participation in political activity

In somewhat the same way Gandhi's ideal of an Indian nation, and a

In discussing Mahatma Gandhi's influence on modern India it is

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