hna 's

K r is TEXT BOOK on

(For B.A. and B.Sc. IIIrd year students of All Colleges affiliated to C.C.S. University in Meerut)

(w.e.f. 2013-2014)

By

A. R. Vasishtha Hari Kishan

Retd. Head, Dep’t. of Mathematics M.Sc., Ph.D.
Meerut College, Meerut (U.P.) Head, Dep’t. of Mathematics
D.N. (P.G.) College, Meerut (U.P.)

Mukesh Gupta Rajeev Atrey

M.Sc., Ph.D., M.N.A. Sc. M.Sc., Ph.D.
Principal, Head, Dep’t. of Mathematics Dep’t. of Mathematics
D.P.B.S. (P.G.) College, Anoopshahar, C.S.S.S. Degree College, Machhra Meerut (U.P.)
Bulandshahar (U.P.)

Rajeev Kumar Anil Kumar Siwal

M.Sc., Ph.D. M.Sc., Ph.D.
Head, Dep’t. of Mathematics Prof., Dep’t of App. Science
D.J. (P.G.) College, Baraut, (U.P.) Satyam Group of Colleges, Ghaziabad (U.P.)

(Meerut Edition)

KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

KRISHNA HOUSE, 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut-250 001 (U.P.), India
 Jai Shri Radhey Shyam

Dedicated
to

Lord

Krishna
Authors & Publishers
 P reface
This book on NUMERICAL METHODS & COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
has been specially written according to the latest Revised Unified Syllabus to
meet the requirements of the B.A. and B.Sc. Part-III Students of C.C.S.
University, Meerut in Uttar Pradesh.

The subject matter has been discussed in such a simple way that the students
will find no difficulty to understand it. Each chapter of this book contains
complete theory and a fairly large number of solved examples. Sufficient
Comprehensive Exercises have also been selected from various university
examination papers. At the end of each chapter an exercise containing objective
questions has been given.

We have tried our best to keep the book free from misprints. The authors
shall be grateful to the readers who point out errors and omissions which, inspite
of all care, might have been there.

The authors, in general, hope that the present book will be warmly received
by the students and teachers. We shall indeed be very thankful to our colleagues
for their recommending this book to their students.

The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. S.K. Rastogi, M.D.,
Mr. Sugam Rastogi, Executive Director, Mrs. Kanupriya Rastogi, Director and
entire team of KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut for bringing
out this book in the present nice form.

The authors will feel amply rewarded if the book serves the purpose for
which it is meant. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are always
welcome.

July, 2014 — Authors

 Syllabus

C.C.S. University (w.e.f. 2013-14) Paper Code:

U.S.—328
THIRD YEAR THIRD PAPER
B.A./B.Sc. Paper-III M.M. : 34 / 70

Unit -1
Discussion of different type of Errors, Shift operator, Forward difference Backward
difference and Central difference operators and their relationships, Fundamental theorem
of difference calculus, Divided differences.

Unit -2
Interpolation, Newton–Gregory's forward and backward interpolation formulae.
Newton's divided difference formula, Lagrange's interpolation formula, Formulae based
on central differences: Gauss, Stirling's, Bessel's and Everett's interpolation formulae,
Numerical differentiation.

Unit -3
Solution of transcendental and polynomial equations by iterative methods bisection
method, Regular–falsi method and Newton–Raphson method, Successive iteration
method.

Unit -4
Basic computer organization, Computer arithmetic and Number systems: Binary, octa
and hexadecimal system, Storage devices, Operating system.

Unit -5
Computer software, Programming languages, Computer networking: LAN, WAN and
Computer network topologies.
 B rief C ontents
Dedication.........................................................................(v)
Preface ...........................................................................(vi)
Syllabus ........................................................................(vii)
Brief Contents ...............................................................(viii)
Section-A Numerical Methods ................................N-01–N-190
Unit-1
Chapter- 1: The Calculus of Finite Differences......................................N-03 — N-48
Chapter- 2: Interpolation with Equal Intervals.......................................N-49 — N-78

Unit-2
Chapter- 3: Interpolation with Unequal Intervals of the
Argument....................................................................................N-79 — N-114
Chapter- 4: Central Difference Interpolation Formulae....................N-115 — N-142

Unit-3
Chapter- 5: Solution of Algebraic & Transcendental Equations......N-143 — N-172
Chapter- 6: Numerical Differentiation...................................................N-173 — N-190

Section-B Computer Fundamentals .......................C-01– C-158

Unit-4
Chapter- 1: Basic Computer Organization...............................................C-03 — C-46
Chapter- 2: Number System and Computer Arithmatic.......................C-47 — C-80
Chapter- 3: Operating System .....................................................................C-81 — C-128

Unit-5
Chapter-4: Computer Software and Programming............................C-129—C-140
Chapter- 5: Computer Networks...............................................................C-141 — C-158
 A

NUMERICAL METHODS
C hapters

1. The Calculus of Finite Differences

2. Interpolation with Equal Intervals

Interpolation with Unequal Intervals

3. of the Argument

Central Difference Interpolation

4. Formulae

5. Solution of Algebraic and

Transcendental Equations

6. Numerical Differentiation
 1
T he C alculus of F inite D ifferences

1.1 Finite Differences

he calculus of finite differences is the study of changes that take place in the
T value of the function or the dependent variable, say y = f ( x), with respect to
the finite changes in the independent variable x.
Let y = f ( x) = x 2 be the function of the independent variable x. If there is a finite
increase in x, say Δ x, then f ( x) = x 2 will be increased to f ( x + Δx) = ( x + Δx)2 ,
bearing the increment
f ( x + Δx) − f ( x) = ( x + Δx)2 − x 2 .
Such finite changes are studied in the calculus of finite differences.

1.2 Operator E
(Rohilkhand 2010)
The operator E: Let y = f ( x) be any function of x. By operating E on f ( x) we
mean to simply give an increment to the value of x in the function f ( x). If this
 N-4

increment be denoted by h, then the operation of E on f ( x) means that put x + h in

the function f ( x) wherever there is x i. e.,
E f ( x) = f ( x + h).
Here we should note that E f ( x) does not imply the multiplication of E and f ( x)
but it implies that E is operated on f ( x). The operator E is known as the shift
operator. By E2 f ( x) we mean that the operator E is applied twice on the function
f ( x) i. e.,
E2 f ( x) = E { E f ( x)}
= E { f ( x + h)}, by def. of E
= f ( x + h + h), by def. of E
= f ( x + 2h).
n
Similarly E f ( x) means that the operator E is applied n times on the function f ( x)
i. e.,
E n f ( x) = EE … E (n times) f ( x)
= E n − 1 { E f ( x)} = E n−1 { f ( x + h )}
= E n − 2 { E f ( x + h)} = E n−2 f ( x + 2h)
= E n − 3 f ( x + 3h) = … = E f ( x + n − 1 h) = f ( x + nh).
Remark: The operator E −1 is the inverse operator of the operator E and is
defined as
E −1 f ( x) = f { x + (−1) h} = f ( x − h).

1.3 Forward Difference Operator Δ

Let y = f ( x) be a function of x. Let the consecutive values of x be
a, a + h, a + 2h, … , a + nh differing by h. Then the corresponding values of y are
f (a), f (a + h), f (a + 2h), … , f (a + nh).
The independent variable x is known as argument and the dependent variable y is
known as entry. Thus we are given a set of values of argument and entry. The
number a is the initial value of the argument x and a + nh is the last value of x. The
number h is called the interval of differencing.
The difference f (a + h) − f (a) is called the first forward difference of the function
f ( x) at the point x = a and we denote it by Δ f (a) i. e.,
Δ f (a) = f (a + h) − f (a).
Again the difference f (a + 2h) − f (a + h) is called the first forward difference of
the function f ( x) at the point x = a + h and is denoted by Δ f (a + h) i. e.,
Δ f (a + h) = f (a + 2h) − f (a + h).
Continuing in a similar manner, we ultimately have
Δ f (a + n − 1 h) = f (a + nh) − f (a + n − 1 h).
 N-5

The operator Δ is called the forward or descending difference operator. The

differences Δ f (a), Δ f (a + h), etc. are called first forward differences.
Thus the first forward difference of f ( x) is defined as
Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x).
The difference Δ f (a + h) − Δ f (a) is known as the second forward difference of
f ( x) at the point x = a and is denoted by Δ2 f (a) i. e.,
Δ2 f (a) = Δ f (a + h) − Δ f (a)
= { f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)} − { f (a + h) − f (a)}
= f (a + 2h) − 2 f (a + h) + f (a).
The difference Δ f (a + 2h) − Δ f (a + h) is called the second forward difference of
f ( x) at the point x = a + h and is denoted by Δ2 f (a + h).
Thus Δ2 f (a + h) = Δ f (a + 2 h) − Δ f (a + h)
= { f (a + 3h) − f (a + 2h)} − { f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)}
= f (a + 3h) − 2 f (a + 2h) + f (a + h).
In general, the second forward difference of f ( x) is given by
Δ2 f ( x) = Δ [Δ f ( x)] = Δ [ f ( x + h) − f ( x)] = Δ f ( x + h) − Δ f ( x)
= { f ( x + 2h) − f ( x + h)} − { f ( x + h) − f ( x)}
= f ( x + 2h) − 2 f ( x + h) + f ( x).
The differences of the second forward differences are called third forward
differences and are denoted by Δ3 f (a), Δ3 f (a + h) etc.
Thus Δ3 f (a) = Δ2 f (a + h) − Δ2 f (a)
= { f (a + 3h) − 2 f (a + 2h) + f (a + h)} − { f (a + 2h)
− 2 f (a + h) + f (a)}
= f (a + 3h) − 3 f (a + 2h) + 3 f (a + h) − f (a).
In general, the nth forward difference of f ( x) is given by
Δn f ( x) = Δn − 1 f ( x + h) − Δn − 1 f ( x).
Note 1: If the function f ( x) is a constant, say f ( x) = c , then
Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x) = c − c = 0.
Thus the first forward difference of a constant function is zero.
Note 2: It should be noted that by Δ2 f ( x), we mean that the operator Δ is to be
applied twice on the function f ( x).

1.4 Backward Difference Operator ∇

The difference f (a + h) − f (a) is called the first backward difference of f ( x) at
x = a + h and is denoted by ∇f (a + h) i. e.,
 N-6

∇f (a + h) = f (a + h) − f (a).
Similarly ∇f (a + 2h) = f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)
… … … … … …
∇f (a + nh) = f (a + nh) − f (a + n − 1 h).
The operator ∇ is called the backward or ascending difference operator. The
differences of first backward differences are called second backward differences
and are denoted by
∇ 2 f (a + 2h), ∇ 2 f (a + 3h) etc.
Thus ∇ 2 f (a + 2h) = ∇f (a + 2h) − ∇f (a + h)
= { f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)} − { f (a + h) − f (a)}
= f (a + 2h) − 2 f (a + h) + f (a).
In general, the first backward difference of f ( x) is defined as
∇f ( x) = f ( x) − f ( x − h).
The second backward difference of f ( x) is defined as
∇ 2 f ( x) = ∇ {∇ f ( x)} = ∇ { f ( x) − f ( x − h)}
= ∇f ( x) − ∇f ( x − h)
= { f ( x) − f ( x − h)} − { f ( x − h) − f ( x − 2h)}
= f ( x) − 2 f ( x − h) + f ( x − 2h).
Similarly the nth backward difference of f ( x) is defined as
∇ n f ( x) = ∇ {∇ n − 1 f ( x)} = ∇ n − 1 f ( x) − ∇ n − 1 f ( x − h).

1.5 The Identity Operator I

The operator I, defined by I f ( x) = f ( x), is called the identity operator. The identity
operator I is also often denoted by the symbol 1.

1.6 Equality of Two Operators

Two operators S and T are said to be equal or equivalent if
Sf ( x) = Tf ( x)
for all functions f ( x) and for all values of the argument x.
If the operators S and T are equal, then symbolically we write S = T or S ≡ T .

1.7 Algebraic Properties of Operators E and Δ.

The following algebraic properties of the operators E and Δ follow immediately
from the definitions of these operators.
 N-7

(i) Operators E and Δ are distributive.

Let u ( x) be any function which is the sum of the functions f ( x), g ( x), p ( x), … , so
that
u ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) + p ( x) + …
Thus Eu ( x) = Ef ( x) + Eg ( x) + Ep ( x) + …
Similarly Δ u ( x) = Δ f ( x) + Δ g ( x) + Δ p ( x) + …
(ii) E and Δ are commutative with regard to a constant, i.e.,
E { cf ( x)} = cEf ( x) and Δ { cf ( x)} = cΔf ( x).
(iii) E and Δ obey the law of indices i. e.,
E m E n f ( x) = E m + n f ( x) and Δm Δn f ( x) = Δm + n f ( x).
(iv) E and Δ are not commutative w.r.t. variables, i. e., if
u ( x) = f ( x) g ( x),
then Eu ( x) ≠ f ( x) Eg ( x) and Δ u ( x) ≠ f ( x) Δ g ( x).
(v) Operators E and Δ are linear i. e.,
E { af ( x) + bg ( x)} = a Ef ( x) + b Eg ( x)
and Δ {af ( x) + bg ( x)} = a Δ f ( x) + bΔ g ( x).
(vi) E − n f ( x) = f ( x − nh).
(vii) E2 f ( x) ≠ {Ef ( x)}2 .
(viii) Operators E and Δ cannot stand without the operand.

1.8 Differences of Product and Quotient of Two Functions

(i) The operators Δ and E are linear operators :
As Δ [ f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x)] = { f1 ( x + h) + f 2 ( x + h)} − { f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x)}
= { f1 ( x + h) − f1 ( x)} + { f 2 ( x + h) − f 2 ( x)}
= Δ f1 ( x) + Δ f 2 ( x)
and Δ [af ( x)] = af ( x + h) − af ( x)
= a [ f ( x + h) − f ( x)] = a Δf ( x),
therefore Δ is a linear operator.
Similarly we can show that E is a linear operator.
(ii) The operators Δ and E are commutative in operation with respect to constants :
If c is a constant, then
Δ { c f ( x)} = c f ( x + h) − c f ( x) = c Δf ( x)
and E { c f ( x)} = c f ( x + h) = c Ef ( x).
Note: The operators Δ and E are not commutative with respect to the functions of
x i. e., (variables)
i. e., if u x = f ( x). g ( x), then Δ u x ≠ f ( x) . Δ g ( x)
and Eu x ≠ f ( x) . E g ( x).
 N-8

(iii) The operators Δ and E are distributive :

We have Δ[ f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x) + … ] = Δ f1 ( x) + Δ f 2 ( x) + …
and E [ f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x) + ...] = Ef1 ( x) + Ef 2 ( x) + …
(iv) The operators Δ and E are commutative :
(ΔE) f ( x) = Δ [ Ef ( x)] = Δ f ( x + h)
= f ( x + 2h) − f ( x + h) = Ef ( x + h) − Ef ( x)
= E [ f ( x + h) − f ( x)] = ( E Δ) f ( x)
Thus Δ E = E Δ.
(v) The operators Δ and E are associative :
(ΔE) Δf ( x) = Δ ( EΔ) f ( x).
(vi) The operators Δ and E obey the law of indices :
Δm Δn f ( x) = (ΔΔ … m times) (ΔΔ … n times) f ( x)
= [Δ Δ … (m + n) times] f ( x)
= Δm + n f ( x).
Similarly E m E n f ( x) = E m + n f ( x).
(vii) Difference of the product of two functions :
Δ [ f ( x) g ( x)] = [ E f ( x)] . Δ g ( x) + g ( x) . Δ f ( x).

We have Δ [ f ( x) . g ( x)] = f ( x + h) . g ( x + h) − f ( x) . g ( x), by definition of Δ

= f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x + h) g ( x) + f ( x + h) . g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
[Note]
= f ( x + h) [ g ( x + h) − g ( x)] + g ( x) [ f ( x + h) − f ( x)]
= f ( x + h) . Δ g ( x) + g ( x) . Δf ( x)
= Ef ( x) . Δ g ( x) + g ( x). Δf ( x).
(viii) Difference of the quotient of two functions :

⎡ f ( x) ⎤ g ( x) . Δ f ( x) − f ( x) . Δ g ( x)
Δ⎢ ⎥= ⋅
⎣ g ( x) ⎦ g ( x) . E g ( x)

⎡ f ( x) ⎤ ⎡ f ( x + h) ⎤ ⎡ f ( x) ⎤
We have Δ ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥
⎣ g ( x) ⎦ ⎣ g ( x + h) ⎦ ⎣ g ( x) ⎦
f ( x + h) . g ( x) − f ( x) . g ( x + h)
=
g ( x) . g ( x + h)
[ f ( x + h) − f ( x)] g ( x) − [ g ( x + h) − g ( x)] f ( x)
=
g ( x) . g ( x + h)
[Note]
g ( x) . Δ f ( x) − f ( x) . Δ g ( x)
= ⋅
g ( x) . Eg ( x)
 N-9

1.9 Relations between the Operators

(a) E ≡1+ Δ or Δ ≡ E − 1.
We have Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x) = Ef ( x) − f ( x) = ( E − 1) f ( x).
Thus Δ f ( x) = ( E − 1) f ( x), for any function f ( x).
∴ Δ ≡ E −1 or E ≡ 1 + Δ.
−1 −1
(b) ∇ ≡1− E or E ≡ 1 − ∇.
We have ∇ f ( x) = f ( x) − f ( x − h)
= f ( x) − E −1 f ( x) = (1 − E −1 ) f ( x).
Thus ∇ f ( x) = (1 − E −1 ) f ( x), for any function f ( x).
∴ ∇ ≡ 1 − E −1 or E −1 ≡ 1 − ∇.
(c) E∇ ≡ ∇E ≡ Δ.
We have ( E∇) f ( x) = E {∇ f ( x)}
= E { f ( x) − f ( x − h)}
= E f ( x) − E f ( x − h)
= f ( x + h) − f ( x) = Δ f ( x). …(1)
Also (∇E) f ( x) = ∇ {E f ( x)} = ∇ f ( x + h)
= f ( x + h) − f ( x) = Δ f ( x) …(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
E∇ ≡ Δ and ∇E ≡ Δ.
Thus E ∇ ≡ ∇ E ≡ Δ.
(d) Δ − ∇ ≡ Δ ∇.
We have Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x)
and ∇f ( x) = f ( x) − f ( x − h), where h is the interval of differencing.
Now (Δ ∇) f ( x) = Δ {∇f ( x)} = Δ { f ( x) − f ( x − h)}
= Δ f ( x) − Δ f ( x − h)
= { f ( x + h) − f ( x)} − { f ( x) − f ( x − h)}
= Δ f ( x) − ∇ f ( x)
= (Δ − ∇) f ( x).
Thus (Δ ∇) f ( x) = (Δ − ∇) f ( x), for any func tion f ( x).
∴ Δ ∇ ≡ Δ − ∇.
(e) (1 + Δ) (1 − ∇) ≡ 1.
We have (1 + Δ) (1 − ∇) f ( x) = (1 + Δ) {(1 − ∇) f ( x)}
= (1 + Δ) { f ( x) − ∇ f ( x)}
 N-10

= (1 + Δ) [ f ( x) − { f ( x) − f ( x − h)}]
= (1 + Δ) f ( x − h)
= E f ( x − h) [ ∵ E ≡ 1 + Δ]
= f ( x) = 1 . f ( x).
Thus (1 + Δ) (1 − ∇) f ( x) = 1 . f ( x), for any function f ( x).
∴ (1 + Δ) (1 − ∇) ≡ 1.
(f) E ≡ e hD ≡ 1 + Δ, where D is the differential operator of differential calculus.
(Kanpur 2011)
We have E f ( x) = f ( x + h)
h2
= f ( x) + hf ′ ( x) + f ′ ′ ( x) + …
2!
[By Taylor’s theorem of differential calculus]
h2
= 1. f ( x) + h Df ( x) + D2 f ( x) + …
2!
⎧ h2 D2 ⎫
= ⎨1 + hD + + …⎬ f ( x)
⎩ 2! ⎭
hD
=e f ( x).
Thus E f ( x) = e hD f ( x), for any function f ( x).
∴ E ≡ e hD .
Again we know that E ≡ 1 + Δ. Therefore
E ≡ e hD ≡ 1 + Δ.
Remark. We have e hD ≡ 1 + Δ
⎛ Δ2 Δ3 Δ4 ⎞
⇒ hD ≡ log (1 + Δ) ≡ ⎜ Δ − + − + …⎟
⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠

1 ⎛ Δ2 Δ3 Δ4 ⎞
or D= ⎜Δ − + − + …⎟ ⋅
h ⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠

1.10 The Difference Table

Suppose y = f ( x) is a function of x, x being given at an equal interval. Let the
values of x be a, a + h, a + 2h and so on and the corresponding values of y be
f (a), f (a + h), f (a + 2h) and so on. Then the forward and backward differences
can be calculated from the forward difference table and backward difference table
respectively.
 N-11

Table 1
Forward Difference Table
Argument Entry First differences Second differences
x y = f ( x) Δ f ( x) Δ2 f ( x)
a f (a)
f (a + h) − f (a) = Δ f (a)
a+h f (a + h) Δ f (a + h) − Δ f (a)
= Δ2 f (a)
f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)
= Δ f (a + h)
a + 2h f (a + 2h) Δ f (a + 2h) − Δ f (a + h)
= Δ2 f (a + h)
f (a + 3h) − f (a + 2h)
= Δ f (a + 2h)
a + 3h f (a + 3h) Δ f (a + 3h)− Δ f (a + 2h)
= Δ2 f (a + 2h)
f (a + 4h) − f (a + 3h)
= Δ f (a + 3h)
a + 4h f (a + 4h)
Similarly we can calculate third and higher order differences from the table. Here
we have taken forward differences therefore this table is known as forward
difference table.
Table 2
Backward Difference Table
Argument Entry First differences Second differences
x y = f ( x) ∇ f ( x) ∇2 f ( x)
a f (a)
f (a + h) − f (a)
= ∇ f (a + h)
a+h f (a + h) ∇ f (a + 2h) − ∇ f (a + h)
= ∇ 2 f (a + 2h)
f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)
= ∇ f (a + 2h)
a + 2h f (a + 2h) ∇ f (a + 3h) − ∇ f (a + 2h)
= ∇ 2 f (a + 3h)
f (a + 3h) − f (a + 2h)
= ∇ f (a + 2h)
a + 3h f (a + 3h) ∇ f (a + 4h) − ∇ f (a + 3h)
= ∇ 2 f (a + 4h)
f (a + 4h) − f (a + 3h)
= ∇ f (a + 4h)
a + 4h f (a + 4h)

Similarly we can calculate the differences of higher order from this table.
 N-12

1.11 Fundamental Theorem of the Difference Calculus

The nth difference of a polynomial of degree n is constant and higher order differences are zero
i.e., if f ( x) is a polynomial of degree n in x, then the nth difference of f ( x) is constant and
(n + 1th) difference is zero.
Proof: Let f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + … + a n x n ,
where n is a positive integer and a0 , a1 , … , a n are constants.
We have Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x) [By def. of Δ]
2 n
= [a0 + a1 ( x + h) + a2 ( x + h) + … + a n ( x + h) ]
− [a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + … + a n x n ]
= a1 h + a2 [( x + h)2 − x 2 ] + a3 [( x + h)3 − x 3 ] + …
+ a n [( x + h) n − x n ]
= a1 h + a2 [2 C1 xh + h2 ] + a3 [3 C1 x 2 h + 3
C2 xh2 + h3 ] + …
+ a n [ n C1 x n − 1 h + n C2 x n − 2 h2 + … + n Cn h n ]
= b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + … + b n − 2 x n−2 + na n hx n − 1 , …(1)
where b0 , b1 , b2 , … , b n − 2 are constant coefficients. From (1) we see that Δ f ( x) is
a polynomial of degree n − 1in x. Thus the first difference of a polynomial f ( x) of
degree n is again a polynomial of degree n − 1 in which the coefficient of x n −1
= n . h . the coefficient of x n in f ( x).
Now let Δ f ( x) = φ ( x), where φ ( x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.
Then Δ2 f ( x) = Δ [Δ f ( x)] = Δ φ ( x).
But by (1), Δ φ ( x) is a polynomial of degree n − 2 in which the coefficient of x n − 2
= (n − 1) . h . the coefficient of x n −1 in φ ( x)
= (n − 1) . h . n . h . a n = n (n − 1) h2 a n .
Thus Δ2 f ( x) is a polynomial of degree n − 2 in which the coefficient of x n−2
= n (n − 1) h2 a n .
Continuing the above process, we see that the nth difference of f ( x) is a
polynomial of degree zero
i. e., Δn f ( x) = n (n − 1) (n − 2) … 1 . h n a n x n − n
= n ! h n an x0 = n ! h n an .
Thus the nth difference of f ( x) is constant. So all higher order differences are zero,
i. e., (n + 1th
) and higher differences of a polynomial of degree n are zero.
Note 1: The converse of the above result is also true i. e., if the nth differences of a
tabulated function are constant when values of the independent variable are taken
at equal intervals, the function is a polynomial of degree n.
 N-13

Note 2: Basic assumption of calculus of finite differences. If we are given n + 1

pairs
(a, f (a)), (a + h, f (a + h)), (a + 2h, f (a + 2h)), … , (a + nh, f (a + nh))
of the values of the argument x and the entry f ( x), then f ( x) can be represented by
a polynomial
f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + … + a n x n
of degree n. So, nth differences of f ( x) are all constant and differences of f ( x) of
order higher than n are all zero.

1.12 To Express any Value of the Function in Terms of the

Leading Term and the Leading Differences of the
Difference Table
Show that f (a + nh) = f (a) + n C1 Δ f (a) + n C2 Δ2 f (a) + … + n Cn Δn f (a).
We have f (a + nh) = E n f (a) = (1 + Δ) n f (a)
= {1 + n C1 Δ + n C2 Δ2 + n C3 Δ3 + … + n Cn Δn} f (a)
= f (a) + n C1 Δf (a) + n C2 Δ2 f (a) + … + n Cn Δn f (a).

1.13 One or More Missing Terms (Equal Intervals)

Sometimes we may be given a set of equidistant terms with some terms (one or two
or more) missing. The problem of estimating such terms can be easily tackled by
the use of the operators E and Δ.
Let us suppose that we are given (n + 1) equidistant arguments, ( x = 0, 1, 2, … , n,
say), but the entry y r corresponding to any one of them, say (r + 1th
) argument, is
not given and we want to estimate it. Since we are given n entries, the data can be
represented by a polynomial of (n − 1th ) degree. Hence we may take y x as a
polynomial of (n − 1th
) degree.
∴ Δn − 1 y x = constant
and Δn y x = 0, x = 0, 1, 2, … , n. …(1)
In particular
Δ n y0 = 0 i. e., ( E − 1) n y0 = 0
⇒ [ E n − n C1 E n − 1 + n C2 E n − 2 − … + (−1) n ] y0 = 0
⇒ E n y0 − n C1 E n − 1 y0 + n C2 E n − 2 y0 − … + (−1) n y0 = 0
⇒ y n − n C1 y n − 1 + n C2 y n − 2 − … + (−1) n y0 = 0.
From this equation, the missing entry can be easily calculated.
 N-14

If in a set of (n + 1) equidistant arguments, two entries y r and y s are missing, then

the data can be represented by a polynomial of degree n − 2.So proceeding as above
we have
Δ n − 1 y0 = 0
and Δn − 1 y1 = 0
⇒ ( E − 1) n − 1 y0 = 0
and ( E − 1) n − 1 y1 = 0. …(2)
Expanding and simplifying as above the two missing terms can be estimated by
solving the equations (2). Similarly in a set of n + 1equidistant arguments the three
missing terms can be estimated by solving the equations
Δn − 2 y0 = 0, Δn − 2 y1 = 0, Δn − 2 y2 = 0.

1.14 Factorial Notation

The product of n consecutive factors each at a constant difference, say h, the first factor being x
is called a factorial function or a factorial polynomial of degree n and is denoted by x (n) .Thus
x (n) = x ( x − h) ( x − 2h) … ( x − n − 1 h).
In particular, if h = 1, then
x (n) = x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) … ( x − n + 1).
These functions, because of their properties, play an important role in the theory of
finite differences.
The factorial function helps in finding the various order differences of a
polynomial directly by simple rule of differentiation and similarly given any
difference of a function in factorial notation we can find the corresponding
function by simple integration.
I. To show that Δn x ( n) = n ! h n and Δn + 1 x ( n) = 0.
(Rohilkhand 2002; Bundelkhand 11)
By definition of Δ, we have
Δ x (n) = ( x + h)(n) − x (n)
= ( x + h) ( x + h − h) ( x + h − 2h) … ( x + h − n − 1 h)

− [ x ( x − h) … ( x − n − 1 h)]

= ( x + h) x ( x − h) … ( x − n − 2 h) − x ( x − h) … ( x − n − 2 h)

( x − n − 1 h)
= x ( x − h) … ( x − n − 2 h) [( x + h) − ( x − n − 1 h)]

= x (n − 1) [ x + h − x + nh − h] = nhx (n − 1) …(1)
 N-15

Δ x (n)
or equivalently = n x (n −1) because Δ x = x + h − x = h.
Δ x
Again Δ2 x (n) = Δ Δ x (n)
= Δ { nhx (n − 1)} [From (1)]
= nh Δ x (n−1) , because nh is a constant.
Now replacing n by n − 1 in the relation (1), we have
Δ x (n − 1) = (n − 1) h x (n − 1) .
∴ Δ2 x (n) = nh . (n − 1) h x (n − 2) = n (n − 1) h2 x (n − 2) .
Proceeding in the same manner, we get
Δn − 1 x (n) = n (n − 1) … 2 . h n − 1 x.
∴ Δn x (n) = n (n − 1) … 2 . h n − 1 Δ x
= n (n − 1) … 2 . h n − 1 ( x + h − x)
= n (n − 1) … 2 . 1 . h n − 1 . h
= n ! h n. …(2)
n +1 (n) n n n
∴ Δ x = Δ (n ! h ) = n ! h − n ! h = 0.
In particular when h = 1 we get from (1) and (2)
Δ x (n) = nx (n −1) and Δn x (n) = n !. …(3)
This result leads to the following very important conclusion.
In case of factorial notation, the operator Δ is equivalent to the operator of differentiation if the
interval of differencing is unity.
II. To find Δ−1 x ( n) .
We have Δ x (2) = 2 . hx (1) [∵ Δ x (n) = nhx (n −1) ]

⎡ x (2) ⎤ (1)
or Δ⎢ ⎥= x
⎣ 2 h ⎦
x (2)
or Δ−1 x (1) = + t ( x),
2h
where t ( x) is a periodic function of period h.
x (3)
Similarly, Δ−1 x (2) = + t ( x).
3h
x (n +1)
In general, Δ−1 x (n) = + t ( x).
(n + 1) h
Note: From above we observe that the operator Δ−1 behaves on polynomials of
factorial functions in a similar way as the integration behaves on ordinary
polynomials.
 N-16

1
III. To show that x ( − n) = , the interval of differencing being h.
( x + nh) ( n) (Rohilkhand 2010)
(n) (n−1)
We have x = ( x − n − 1 h) x , …(1)
when the interval of differencing is h.
In particular, for n = 0, x (0) = ( x + h) x (−1) .
But by convention we argee to write x (0) = 1.
1
∴ x (−1) = ⋅
x+h
Again from (1), for n = − 1, x (−1) = ( x + 2 h) x (−2) .
x (−1) 1
∴ x (−2 ) = = ⋅
x + 2h ( x + h) ( x + 2h)
In general, we shall get
1 1
x (− n) = = ⋅ …(2)
( x + h) ( x + 2h) … ( x + nh) ( x + nh)(n)
If the interval of differencing is unity, then we have from (2)
1 1
x (− n) = = ⋅
( x + 1) ( x + 2) … ( x + n) ( x + n)(n)
1
Thus x (− n) = …(3)
( x + n)(n)
Now Δ x (− n) = ( x + h)(− n) − x (− n)
1
=
( x + 2h)( x + 3h) … ( x + nh) ( x + n + 1 h)
1
−
( x + h)( x + 2h)( x + 3h) … ( x + nh)
1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥
( x + 2h)( x + 3h) … ( x + nh) ⎣⎢( x + n + 1 h) x + h⎥⎦
− nh
= ⋅
( x + h)( x + 2h)( x + 3h) … ( x + nh)( x + n + 1 h)
∴ Δ x (− n) = − nhx (− n +1 )
= − nhx (− n −1) …(4)
Δ x (− n)
or equivalently = − nx (− n +1) because Δ x = x + h − x = h.
Δ x
Similarly, Δ2 x (− n) = Δ [− nhx (− n−1) ] = (− nh) Δ [ x (− n −1) ]
= (− nh) (− n − 1) hx (− n − 2)
= (−1)2 n (n + 1) h2 x (− n − 2) , …(5)
and so on.
 N-17

If h = 1, then from (4) and (5), we get

Δ x (− n) = − nx (− n −1) , ⎫⎪
⎬
Δ2 x (− n) = (− n) (− n − 1) x (− n − 2) , etc. ⎭⎪
Thus in the case of negative index for factorial function the operator Δ ≡ D.
Generalised factorial functions
The generalised factorial function corresponding to any given function f ( x) is
defined by

[ f ( x)](n) = f ( x) f ( x − h) f ( x − 2h) … f ( x + n − 1 h), n = 1, 2, 3, …

1
and [ f ( x)](− n) = , n = 1, 2, 3, … .
f ( x + h) f ( x + 2h) … f ( x + nh)

Also we agree to write [ f ( x)](0) = 1.

As an illustration let us take f ( x) = ax + b.
Then f ( x − h) = a ( x − h) + b = ax + b − ah,
f ( x − 2h) = a ( x − 2 h) + b = ax + b − 2ah,
… … … …

f ( x − n − 1 h) = a [ x − (n − 1) h] + b = ax + b − nah + ah.
∴ (ax + b)(n) = (ax + b) (ax + b − ah) (ax + b − 2ah) … (ax + b − nah + ah).

1.15 Methods of Representing any given Polynomial in

Factorial Notation
First Method (Direct Method)
Express 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10 and its differences in factorial notation, the interval of
differencing being unity.
Let 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10 ≡ Ax (3) + Bx (2) + Cx (1) + D
= Ax ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + Bx ( x − 1) + Cx + D, …(1)
where A, B, C and D are constants to be determined.
Putting x = 0 in (1), we get
D = − 10.
Again putting x = 1 in (1), we get
2 − 3 + 3 − 10 = C + D
⇒ C = 2.
Putting x = 2 in (1), we get
16 − 12 + 6 − 10 = 2 B + 2C + D
 N-18

⇒ 0 = 2 B + 4 − 10 ⇒ B = 3.
3
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides of (1), we get A = 2.
Putting the values of A, B, C and D in (1), we get
f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10
= 2 x (3) + 3 x (2) + 2 x (1) − 10.
By the rule of simple differentiation, we have
Δ f ( x) = 6 x (2) + 6 x (1) + 2
Δ2 f ( x) = 12 x (1) + 6
Δ3 f ( x) = 12.

Steps in First Method

(i) The given function is expressed term by term in factorial functions with
certain unknown coefficients as shown in (1).
(ii) To get the values of the unknown coefficients we put x = 0, 1, 2, …
successively in the L.H.S. and R.H.S. of (1) and then the resulting equations
are solved to find the values of A, B, C, etc.
(iii) The values of A, B, C, etc. thus found are substituted in the R.H.S. of (1) to
get the given polynomial in factorial notation.

Second Method (Method of detached coefficients

or synthetic division)
We have 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10 ≡ Ax (3) + Bx (2) + C x (1) + D …(1)
= Ax ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + Bx ( x − 1) + Cx + D
= x [ A ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + B ( x − 1) + C ] + D.
If we divide the given polynomial by x then the remainder will be −10 and the
quotient is 2 x 2 − 3 x + 3. The value of D in (1) is taken as −10.
Again divide the quotient 2 x 2 − 3 x + 3 by x − 1 as done below :

2x − 1
x − 1 ) 2x 2 − 3x + 3

2x 2 − 2x
−x+3
− x+1
2
∴ The quotient is 2 x − 1 and the remainder is the value of C i. e., C = 2.
 N-19

Again divide 2 x − 1 by x − 2 as done below :

2
x − 2 ) 2x − 1
2x − 4
3
The quotient 2 is the value of A and the remainder 3 is B. Thus the given
polynomial when expressed in factorial notation is
2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10 = 2 x (3) + 3 x (2) + 2 x − 10.
The above method can be simplified by the procedure of detached coefficients in
the following way :
Taking the coefficients of the various powers of x in the given polynomial, we have

2 −3 3 −10 = D …(a)
1
0 2 −1
2 −1 2=C …(b)
2
0 4
2 3= B …(c)
3
0
2= A

Steps in the method of detached coefficients

(i) First make the given polynomial complete (if it is not so) by supplying the
missing terms with zero coefficients. Then write the coefficients of different
powers of x in order beginning with the coefficient of highest power of x. The
constant term −10 is the value of D.
(ii) Put 1 in the left hand side column of (a) and write zero below the coefficient
of highest power of x. In this case we have written 0 below 2 which is the
coefficient of x 3 . The sum of 2 and 0 is 2 which we write below 0 in the third
row. Now we multiply 2 by 1 of the left hand column of (a) and write their
product 2 in the second row below −3 of the first row. Adding −3 and 2 we
get −1 which we put in the third row below 2 of the second row. Now we
multiply −1by 1 of the left hand column of (a) and then write their product
−1in the second row below 3 of the first row. Adding 3 and −1we get 2 which
we put below −1. This 2 is the value of C.
(iii) Now we write 2 in the left hand column of (b). Below 2 of the third row we
write 0 and adding 2 and 0 we get 2 which we write in the fifth row below 0
of the fourth row. Now we multiply 2 of the fifth row by 2 of the left hand
column of (b) and write their product 4 in the fourth row below −1 of the
 N-20

third row. Adding −1 and 4 we get 3 and we write it in the fifth row below 4
of the fourth row. This 3 is the value of B.
(iv) Now we write 3 in the left hand column of (c). Below 2 of the fifth row we
write 0 and adding 2 and 0 we get 2 which we write in the seventh row below
0 of the sixth row. This 2 is the value of A.

1.16 Differences of Zero

If n and m are positive integers, we have in usual notation of finite difference
calculus
Δn x m = ( E − 1) n x m
= [ E n − n C1 E n −1 + n C2 E n − 2 − … + (−1) n −1 n
Cn−1 E + (−1) n ] x m
= E n x m − n C1 E n −1 x m + n C2 E n − 2 x m − …
… + n Cn−1 (−1) n −1 E x m + (−1) n x m
= ( x + n) m − n C1 ( x + n − 1) m + n C2 ( x + n − 2) m − …
+ n Cn −1 (−1) n −1 ( x + 1) m + (−1) n x m .

Putting x = 0 and writing [Δn x m ] x =0 as Δn 0 m , we have

Δn 0 m = n m − n C1 (n − 1) m + n C2 (n − 2) m − … + n Cn −1 (−1) n −1 . …(1)

The quantities Δn 0 m are known as differences of zero because the leading term is
always zero.

We can calculate the values of Δn 0 m for various integral values of n and m. For
example,
if n = 1, m = 3, Δ 0 3 = 13 = 1,
n = 2, m = 3, Δ2 0 3 = 23 − 2 . 13 = 6,
n = 3, m = 3, Δ3 0 3 = 33 − 3 . 23 + 3 . 13 = 6, etc.
Recurrence relation between Δn 0 m , Δn − 1 0 m − 1 and Δn 0 m − 1 . From (1), we
have
Δn 0 m = n m − n C1 (n − 1) m + n C2 (n − 2) m − … + n Cn −1 (−1) n −1
n (n − 1)
= n m − n (n − 1) m + (n − 2) m − … + n (−1) n −1
2!
⎡ (n − 1) (n − 2) m ⎤
= n ⎢n m −1 − (n − 1) m + − … + (−1) n −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2! ⎥⎦
= n [n m −1 − n −1
C1 (n − 1) m −1 + n −1
C2 (n − 2) m −1 − … + (−1) n−1 ]
= n [(1 + n − 1) m −1 − n −1
C1 (1 + n − 2) m −1 + n −1
C2 (1 + n − 3) m −1
− … + (−1) n −1 ]
 N-21

= n [ E n −1 (1) m −1 − n −1
C1 E n −2 (1) m −1 + n −1
C2 E n − 3 (1) m −1
− … + (−1) n −1 (1) m −1 ] [∵ (1) m −1 = 1]
= n [ E − 1] n −1 (1) m −1 = n Δn−1 (1) m −1
= n Δn −1 E (0) m −1 [ ∵ E (0) = 1]
n −1 m −1
=nΔ (1 + Δ) 0
n −1
=nΔ 0 m −1 + n Δn 0 m −1 .
This is the required recurrence relation between differences of zero for different
values of n and m.

1.17 Leibnitz’s Rule

In differential calculus, to find the nth derivative of product of two functions, we
use Leibnitz’s theorem
D n (u . v) = ( D n u) . v + n C1 ( D n −1 u) . v + … + u . D n (v).
In calculus of finite differences an analogous formula exists to find the nth
difference (Δn ) of product of two functions and is given by
Δn (u . v) = (Δn u) . v + n C1 (Δn −1 Eu) . (Δv) + n C2 (Δn − 2 E2 u) .
(Δ2 v) + …… + ( E n u) . (Δn v).
This is called Leibnitz’s rule for differences.
Note: For convenience a polynomial in x is considered as the second function i. e.,v.

1.18 Numbers and their Accuracy

Numbers can be divided into two groups, one, exact and the other approximate.
2 3 1 3
Exact numbers are 2, 5, 8, 11, , , , , …, π, e,…, etc. Approximate numbers are
5 2 3 2
those numbers that represent the numbers to a certain degree of accuracy. An
approximate value of π is 3.1416, or if we want a better approximation, it is
3.14159265. But we are unable to write the exact value of π. In a number the digits
which carry real information as to the size of the number apart from the
exponential portion are called significant digits or significant figures. Thus the
numbers 3.1416, 0.55557 and 50786 each contains five significant digits. The
number 0.00042 has only two significant digits, viz, 4 and 2, since the zeros serve
only to fix the position of the decimal point. Often, we come across numbers with a
large number of digits, so during the calculation work it will be necessary to cut
them to a usable number of figures. This process of cutting off superfluous digits
and retaining as many of them as desired is called rounnding off. The numbers are
rounded off according to the following rule :
To round off a number to n significant digits, all digits to the right of the nth digit
are discarded and if this discarded number is
 N-22

(i) less than half a unit in the nth place, the nth digit is left unaltered;
(ii) greater than half a unit in the nth place, the nth digit is increased by unity;
(iii) exactly half a unit in the nth place, the nth digit is increased by unity if it is odd,
otherwise it is left unchanged.
Then we say that the number is correct to n significant figures. The following
numbers are rounded off to four significant figures :
1.6473 to 1.647
20.0567 to 20.06
0.753378 to 0.7534
6.14159 to 6.142

1.19 Different Types of Errors

Usually errors can be classified in three categories : Inherent, Round-off and
Truncation errors.
(i) Inherent Errors : These errors have their origin in human mistakes or they are
committed in collection of data. In computations, inherent errors can be
minimized by using better techniques for the collection of data. The main causes
for this type of error are uncertainty in measurement, outright blunders and
non-availability of exact expressions for certain numbers.
(ii) Round-off Errors : Due to the limitations of the computing aids,
mathematical tables, desk calculators or the digital computers, numbers have to be
rounded off, causing what are called rounding-off errors. Such errors can be
minimized by using computing aids of higher precision. In hand computations to
reduce the round-off error we should follow a useful rule :
At each step of the computation, retain at least one more significant figure than that given in
the data, perform the last operation and finally round off.
(iii) Truncation Errors : The errors which arise when an infinite process is
approximated by a finite one, are called truncation errors. For example, such errors
arise when a definite integral is computed by Simpson’s rule or when an infinite
series is summed by any approximate formula, etc.

1.20 Absolute, Relative and Percentage Errors

The numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its approximate
value is defined as absolute error. Let X be the true value of a quantity and X1 be
its approximate value, then the absolute error E A is given by
E A = X − X1 = δX . …(1)
The ratio of the absolute error and the true value of the quantity is defined as
relative error.
 N-23

The relative error ER is given by

E δX
ER = A = . …(2)
X X
The 100 times the relative error is defined as the Percentage Error.
The percentage error EP is given by
EP = 100 ER . …(3)
Let ΔX be a number such that
| X1 − X | ≤ ΔX . …(4)
Then ΔX is an upper limit for the magnitude of the absolute error and measures
absolute accuracy. Similarly, the quantity
ΔX ΔX
≈ .
| X | | X2 |
is the measure of the relative accuracy.

Example 1: Find the value of E2 x 2 when the values of x vary by a constant increment of 2.
Solution: We have
E2 x 2 = EEx 2 = E ( x + 2)2 [ ∵ interval of differencing is 2]

= ( x + 2 + 2)2 = ( x + 4)2
= x 2 + 8 x + 16
Example 2: Evaluate E n e x when interval of differencing is h.
Solution: We have E (e x ) = e x + h
E2 (e x ) = EEe x = Ee x + h = e x +2 h
E3 (e x ) = EE2 e x = Ee x +2 h = e x +3 h
… … … …
n x x + nh
E e =e .
Example 3: Evaluate the following :
3
(i) Δ (1 − x) (1 − 2 x) (1 − 3 x) (ii) Δn (e ax + b ),
the interval of differencing being unity.
Solution: (i) Here f ( x) = (1 − x) (1 − 2 x) (1 − 3 x)
= − 6 x 3 + 11x 2 − 6 x + 1.
The polynomial f ( x) is of degree 3.
We know that for a polynomial of nth degree, the nth difference is constant being
equal to a n h n n ! where a n is the coefficient of x n in the polynomial, h is the interval
of differencing.
 N-24

Here a n = − 6, h = 1, n = 3.
∴ Δ3 f ( x) = (−6) . (1)3 . 3 ! = − 36.
(ii) Here f ( x) = e ax + b .
Now Δ f ( x) = f ( x + 1) − f ( x).
a ( x +1) + b
∴ Δ (e ax + b ) = e − e ax + b = e ax + b (e a − 1)
Δ2 (e ax + b ) = Δ (Δ e ax + b ) = Δ {e ax + b (e a − 1)}
ax + b
= (e a − 1) (Δ e )
= (e a − 1) e ax + b (e a − 1)
= (e a − 1)2 e ax + b .
Proceeding in this way, we get
Δn (e ax + b ) = (e a − 1) n e ax + b .
Example 4: Evaluate
2
(i) Δ (cos 2 x) ; (ii) Δ2 (3e x ),
the interval of differencing being h.
Solution: (i) We have Δ2 (cos 2 x) = ( E − 1)2 cos 2 x [∵ Δ ≡ E − 1]
= ( E2 − 2 E + 1) cos 2 x
= E2 cos 2 x − 2 E cos 2 x + cos 2 x
= cos {2 ( x + 2h)} − 2 cos 2 ( x + h) + cos 2 x
= cos (2 x + 4h) − 2 cos (2 x + 2h) + cos 2 x
= cos (2 x + 4h) − cos (2 x + 2 h) − cos (2 x + 2h) + cos 2 x
= 2 sin (2 x + 3h) sin (− h) + 2 sin (2 x + h) sin h
= − 2 sin h [sin (2 x + 3h) − sin (2 x + h)]
= − 2 sin h [2 cos (2 x + 2h) sin h]
= − 4 sin2 h cos (2 x + 2h).
(ii) We have Δ (3e x ) = 3 (Δ e x ) = 3 (e x + h − e x ) = 3 (e x e h − e x ) = 3e x (e h − 1).
∴ Δ2 (3e x ) = Δ (Δ 3e x ) = Δ {3e x (e h − 1)}
= 3 (e h − 1) (Δ e x ) = 3 (e h − 1) (e x + h − e x )
= 3 (e h − 1) e x (e h − 1) = 3e x (e h − 1)2 .
⎛ Δ2 ⎞ E ex
Example 5: Show that e x = ⎜ ⎟ e x ⋅ 2 x ; the interval of differencing being h.
⎝ E⎠ Δ e (Rohilkhand 2010, 11)
Solution: Let f ( x) = e x .
We know that E f ( x) = f ( x + h).
 N-25

∴ E e x = e x + h.
Now Δ f ( x) = f ( x + h) − f ( x).
∴ Δ e x = e x + h − e x = e x (e h − 1),
Δ2 e x = Δ (Δ e x ) = Δ { e x (e h
− 1)}
= (e h − 1) Δ (e x ) = (e h − 1)2 e x .
⎛ Δ2 ⎞
Also ⎜ ⎟ e x = (Δ2 E −1 ) e x
= Δ2 ( E −1 e x ) = Δ2 (e x − h )
⎝ E⎠
= Δ2 (e x e − h ) = e − h Δ2 e x = e − h (e h − 1)2 e x .
⎛ Δ2 ⎞ x E e x −h e x +h
Hence, h 2 x
⎜ ⎟ e ⋅ 2 x = e (e − 1) e ⋅ h = e −h e x +h = e x .
⎝ E⎠ Δ e (e − 1)2 e x

⎛ Δ2 ⎞
Example 6: Evaluate ⎜ ⎟ x 3 .
⎝ E⎠
⎛ Δ2 ⎞ 3 ⎡( E − 1)2 ⎤ 3 ⎛ E 2 − 2 E + 1⎞ 3
Solution: We have ⎜ ⎟ x =⎢ ⎥ x = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x [∵ Δ ≡ E − 1]
⎝ E⎠ ⎢⎣ E ⎥⎦ ⎝ E ⎠

= ⎛⎜ E − 2 + ⎞⎟ x 3
1
= Ex 3 − 2 x 3 + E −1 x 3
⎝ E⎠
= ( x + 1)3 − 2 x 3 + ( x − 1)3
= x 3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1 − 2 x 3 + x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 1 = 6 x.
Example 7: Evaluate
(i) Δ tan −1 x (ii) Δ ( x + cos x).
−1
Solution: (i) We have Δ tan x = tan −1 ( x + h) − tan −1 x
( x + h) − x ⎡ h ⎤
= tan −1 = tan −1 ⎢ 2⎥
⋅
1 + ( x + h) x ⎢⎣1 + hx + x ⎥⎦
(ii) We have Δ ( x + cos x) = Δ x + Δ cos x
= {( x + h) − x } + {cos ( x + h) − cos x }
2x + h
sin ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
h
= h + 2 sin
2 ⎝ 2⎠

= h − 2 sin ⎛⎜ x + ⎞⎟ sin ⋅
h h
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
⎧ Δ f ( x)⎫
Example 8: Show that Δ log f ( x) = log ⎨1 + ⎬⋅
⎩ f ( x) ⎭ (Kanpur 2008)
Solution: We have Δ log f ( x) = log f ( x + h) − log f ( x)
 N-26

⎡ f ( x + h)⎤ ⎡ E f ( x)⎤ ⎡(1 + Δ) f ( x)⎤

= log ⎢ ⎥ = log ⎢ ⎥ = log ⎢ ⎥
⎣ f ( x) ⎦ ⎣ f ( x) ⎦ ⎣ f ( x) ⎦
⎡ f ( x) + Δ f ( x)⎤ ⎡ Δ f ( x)⎤
= log ⎢ ⎥ = log ⎢1 + ⎥⋅
⎣ f ( x) ⎦ ⎣ f ( x) ⎦
Example 9: Evaluate
10
(i) Δ [(1 − ax) (1 − bx 2 ) (1 − cx 3 ) (1 − dx 4 )]
⎡ 5 x + 12 ⎤
(iii) Δn ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1
(ii) Δ2 ⎢ 2 ⎥ (Rohilkhand 2012)
⎢⎣ x + 5 x + 6⎥⎦ ⎝ x ⎠

(iv) Δn (ab cx ). (Kanpur 2009)

Solution: (i) We know that for a polynomial of degree n, Δr f ( x) = 0 for r > n.
∴ Δ10 [(1 − ax) (1 − bx 2 ) (1 − cx 3 ) (1 − dx 4 )] = Δ10 (abcd x10 ) = abcd Δ10 x10
= abcd (10 !).
⎡ 5 x + 12 ⎤ 2 ⎡2 ( x + 3) + 3 ( x + 2)⎤
(ii) We have Δ2 ⎢ 2 ⎥=Δ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x + 5 x + 6⎥⎦ ⎣ ( x + 2) ( x + 3) ⎦
⎡ 2 3 ⎤
= Δ2 ⎢ + ⎥⋅
⎣ x + 2 x + 3⎦
⎡ 2 3 ⎤ ⎡ 2 3 ⎤ ⎡ 2 3 ⎤
Now Δ⎢ + ⎥=⎢ + ⎥−⎢ + ⎥
⎣ x + 2 x + 3⎦ ⎣ x + 3 x + 4⎦ ⎣ x + 2 x + 3⎦
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ ⎡ 3 3 ⎤
=⎢ − ⎥+⎢ − ⎥
⎣ x + 3 x + 2⎦ ⎣ x + 4 x + 3⎦
2 3
=− − ⋅
( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)
⎡ 2 3 ⎫⎤
Δ2 ⎡
3 ⎤
= Δ ⎢Δ ⎧⎨
2
∴ + + ⎬
⎣⎢ x + 2 x + 3⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎩ x + 2 x + 3⎭ ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 3 ⎤
= Δ ⎢− − ⎥
⎣ ( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)⎦
⎡ 2 3 ⎤
= ⎢− − ⎥
⎣ ( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 4) ( x + 5)⎦
⎡ 2 3 ⎤
− ⎢− − ⎥
⎣ ( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
=−2⎢ − ⎥
⎣( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 2) ( x + 3)⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
−3⎢ − ⎥
⎣( x + 4) ( x + 5) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)⎦
 N-27

⎡ ( x + 2) − ( x + 4) ⎤ ⎡ ( x + 3) − ( x + 5) ⎤
=−2⎢ ⎥ −3 ⎢ ⎥
⎣( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)⎦ ⎣( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 5)⎦
⎡ −2 ⎤ ⎡ −2 ⎤
=−2⎢ ⎥ −3⎢ ⎥
⎣( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 4)⎦ ⎣( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 5)⎦
4 6
= + ⋅
( x + 2) ( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 3) ( x + 4) ( x + 5)

(iii) We have Δn ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = Δn −1 Δ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅
1 1
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
1 x − ( x + 1) (−1)
Δ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
1 1
Now − = = ⋅
⎝ x⎠ x + 1 x x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)
⎧ (−1) ⎫ ⎡ 1 ⎤
Δ2 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = Δ Δ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = Δ ⎨
1 1
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠ ⎬ = (−1) Δ ⎢ ⎥
⎩ x ( x + 1)⎭ ⎣ x ( x + 1)⎦
⎧ 1 1 ⎫
= (−1) ⎨ − ⎬
⎩ ( x + 1) ( x + 2) x ( x + 1)⎭
x − ( x + 2) (−1) (−2)
= (−1) = ⋅
x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) x ( x + 1) ( x + 2)
(−1) (−2) (−3)
Δ3 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
1
⋅
⎝ x ⎠ x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) ( x + 3)
(− 1) (− 2) (− 3) … (− n)
Δn ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
1
Similarly
⎝ x ⎠ x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) … ( x + n)

(−1) n n !
= ⋅
x ( x + 1) … ( x + n)
(iv) We have Δ (ab cx ) = a Δ b cx = a { b c ( x +1) − b cx }
= a { b cx b c − b cx } = a (b c − 1) b cx .
Now Δ2 (ab cx ) = ΔΔ (ab cx ) = Δ { a (b c − 1) b cx }
= a (b c − 1) Δ b cx
= a (b c − 1)2 b cx .
Proceeding in the same way, we have
Δn (ab cx ) = a (b c − 1) n b cx .
Example 10: Show that
n −1
Σ Δ2 f k = Δ f n − Δ f 0 .
k =0
n −1 n −1
Solution: We have Σ Δ2 f k = Σ Δ (Δ f k )
k =0 k =0
n −1
= Σ (Δ f k +1 − Δ f k )
k =0 [ ∵ Interval of differencing is 1]
 N-28

= (Δ f1 − Δ f 0 ) + (Δ f 2 − Δ f1 ) + (Δ f 3 − Δ f 2 )

+ … + (Δ f n−1 − Δ f n−2 ) + (Δ f n − Δ f n−1 )

= Δ f n − Δ f0 .
Example 11: Show that Δr y k = ∇ r y k + r .
Solution: We have ∇ r y k + r = (1 − E −1 ) r y k + r [∵ ∇ ≡ 1 − E −1 ]
r
⎛ E − 1⎞ r −r
=⎜ ⎟ y k + r = ( E − 1) E y k + r
⎝ E ⎠
= ( E − 1) r ( E − r y k + r ) = ( E − 1) r y k + r − r
= Δr y k . [ ∵ Δ ≡ E − 1]
Example 12: Construct a forward difference table for the following values :
x: 0 5 10 15 20 25
f ( x) : 7 11 14 18 24 32
Solution:
x y Δ y Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y Δ5 y
0 7
4
5 11 −1
3 2
10 14 1 −1
4 1 0
15 18 2 −1
6 0
20 24 2
8
25 32
Example 13: Prove that
(a) f (4) = f (3) + Δf (2) + Δ2 f (1) + Δ3 f (1)
(b) f (4) = f (0) + 4 Δ f (0) + 6 Δ2 f (−1) + 10 Δ3 f (−1), as far as third differences.
Solution: (a) We have
f (4) − f (3) = Δ f (3)
= Δ [ f (2) + Δ f (2)] [ ∵ Δ f (2) = f (3) − f (2)]
= Δ f (2) + Δ2 f (2)
= Δ f (2) + Δ2 [ f (1) + Δ f (1)]
[ ∵ Δ f (1) = f (2) − f (1)]
2 3
= Δ f (2) + Δ f (1) + Δ f (1).
∴ f (4) = f (3) + Δ f (2) + Δ2 f (1) + Δ3 f (1).
 N-29

(b) We have f (4) = E5 f (−1) = (1 + Δ)5 f (−1)

5 5
= {1 + C1 Δ + C2 Δ2 + 5
C3 Δ3 } f (−1),
taking only upto 3rd differences
= f (−1) + 5 Δ f (−1) + 10 Δ f (−1) + 10 Δ3 f (−1)
2

= [ f (−1) + Δ f (−1)] + 4 [Δ f (−1) + Δ2 f (−1)] + 6Δ2 f (−1)

+ 10 Δ3 f (−1)
= [ f (−1) + Δ f (−1)] + 4Δ [ f (−1) + Δ f (−1)] + 6Δ2 f (−1)
+ 10 Δ3 f (−1)
= f (0) + 4 Δ f (0) + 6 Δ2 f (−1) + 10 Δ3 f (−1).
[∵ f (−1) + Δ f (−1) = f (−1) + f (0) − f (−1) = f (0)]
Example 14: Obtain the missing terms in the following table :
x : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f ( x) : 1 8 ? 64 ? 216 343 512
Solution: Here we are given six values, so a polynomial of degree 5 may be fitted
which will have its 6th difference as zero,
i. e., Δ6 f ( x) = 0 for all values of x
i. e., ( E − 1)6 f ( x) = 0 V x [ ∵ Δ ≡ E − 1]
6 5 4 3 2
i. e., ( E − 6 E + 15 E − 20 E + 15 E − 6 E + 1) f ( x) = 0 V x
i. e., E6 f ( x) − 6 E5 f ( x) + 15 E4 f ( x) − 20 E3 f ( x) + 15 E2 f ( x)
− 6 E f ( x) + f ( x) = 0 V x
i. e., f ( x + 6) − 6 f ( x + 5) + 15 f ( x + 4) − 20 f ( x + 3) + 15 f ( x + 2)
− 6 f ( x + 1) + f ( x) = 0 V x, …(1)
here interval of differencing is unity.
Putting x = 1 and 2 in (1), we get
f (7) − 6 f (6) + 15 f (5) − 20 f (4) + 15 f (3) − 6 f (2) + f (1) = 0
…(2)
and f (8) − 6 f (7) + 15 f (6) − 20 f (5) + 15 f (4) − 6 f (3) + f (2) = 0.
…(3)
Putting the values of f (8), f (7), f (6), f (4), f (2), f (1) in (1) and (2), we get
343 − 6 × 216 + 15 f (5) − 20 × 64 + 15 f (3) − 6 × 8 + 1 = 0
and 512 − 6 × 343 + 15 × 216 − 20 f (5) + 15 × 64 − 6 f (3) + 8 = 0
i. e., 15 f (5) + 15 f (3) = 2280
and 20 f (5) + 6 f (3) = 2662
i. e., f (5) + f (3) = 152 …(4)
and 10 f (5) + 3 f (3) = 1331 …(5)
Solving (4) and (5), we get
f (3) = 27, f (5) = 125.
 N-30

Example 15: Estimate the missing term in the following table :

x : 0 1 2 3 4
y = f ( x) : 1 3 9 ? 81
Explain why value differs from 33 or 27.
Solution: Since we are given 4 values, therefore
Δ4 f ( x) = 0 V x
i. e., ( E − 1)4 f ( x) = 0 V x
i. e., ( E4 − 4 E3 + 6 E2 − 4 E + 1) f ( x) = 0 V x,
i. e., E4 f ( x) − 4 E3 f ( x) + 6 E2 f ( x) − 4 E f ( x) + f ( x) = 0 V x,
i. e., f ( x + 4) − 4 f ( x + 3) + 6 f ( x + 2) − 4 f ( x + 1) + f ( x) = 0 V x,
here interval of differencing is 1.
Putting x = 0, we get
f (4) − 4 f (3) − 6 f (2) − 4 f (1) + f (0) = 0. …(1)
Substituting the values of f (0), f (1), f (2), f (4) in (1), we get
81 − 4 f (3) + 6 × 9 − 4 × 3 + 1 = 0
i. e., 4 f (3) = 124 i. e., f (3) = 31.
Example 16: Find the first term of the series whose second and subsequent terms are
8, 3, 0, − 1, 0.
Solution: Given
x : 0 1 2 3 4 5
f ( x) : ? 8 3 0 −1 0
As five values of [ x, f ( x)] are given, we have
Δ5 f ( x) = 0 or ( E − I )5 f ( x) = 0
or [ E5 − 5
C1 E4 + 5
C2 E3 − 5
C3 E2 + 5
C4 E − 5
C5 ] f ( x) = 0
5 4 3 2
or E f ( x) − 5 E f ( x) + 10 E f ( x) − 10 E f ( x) + 5 E f ( x)
− f ( x) = 0
or f ( x + 5) − 5 f ( x + 4) + 10 f ( x + 3) − 10 f ( x + 2) + 5 f ( x + 1)
− f ( x) = 0.
For x = 0, we have
f (5) − 5 f (4) + 10 f (3) − 10 f (2) + 5 f (1) − f (0) = 0
or 0 − 5 × (−1) + 10 × 0 − 10 × 3 + 5 × 8 − f (0) = 0
or 15 − f (0) = 0 giving f (0) = 15
Hence first term of the series is 15.
Example 17: Given u0 = 3, u1 = 12, u2 = 81, u3 = 200, u4 = 100, u5 = 8 ; find
Δ5 u0 . (Rohilkhand 2008)
Solution: We have
Δ5 u0 = ( E − 1)5 u0
 N-31

= ( E5 − 5 E4 + 10 E3 − 10 E2 + 5 E − 1) u0
= u5 − 5u4 + 10 u3 − 10 u2 + 5u1 − u0
= 8 − 500 + 2000 − 810 + 60 − 3 = 755.
Example 18: Find f (6) given that f (0) = − 3, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 12, the
third differences being constant. (Kanpur 2010)
Solution: We construct the following difference table :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)
0 −3
9
1 6 −7
2 9
2 8 2
4
3 12
We have f (6) = f (0 + 6) = E6 f (0) = (1 + Δ)6 f (0)
= (1 + 6Δ + 15Δ2 + 20 Δ3 ) f (0)
[higher differences being zero]
= f (0) + 6 Δ f (0) + 15 Δ f (0) + 20 Δ3 f (0)
2

= − 3 + 6 × 9 + 15 × (−7) + 20 × 9
= − 3 + 54 − 105 + 180
= 126.
Example 19: Represent the function
f ( x) = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9
and its successive differences in factorial notation.
Solution: Let f ( x) = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9 ≡ Ax (4) + Bx (3)
+ Cx (2) + Dx (1) + E.
Using the method of synthetic division (method of detached coefficients), as
shown in the table ahead, we get
x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9 ≡ x (4) − 6 x (3) + 13 x (2) + x (1) + 9.
Since in the factorial notation, the operator Δ is equivalent to differentiation, we
get
Δ f ( x) = 4 x (3) − 18 x (2) + 26 x + 1
Δ2 f ( x) = 12 x (2) − 36 x (1) + 26
Δ3 f ( x) = 24 x − 36
Δ4 f ( x) = 24.
 N-32

Table for finding A, B, C, D, E

1 1 −12 42 −30 9= E
0 1 −11 31
2 1 −11 31 1= D
0 2 −18
3 1 −9 13 = C
0 3
4 1 −6 = B
0
1= A
Note 1: While using the method of synthetic division, we should first of all see
whether the given expression is complete or not. If any power of x is missing, we
should first make the expression complete by taking its coefficient zero and then
employ the method of synthetic division.
Note 2: The reader is advised to use the direct method, viz., by taking
f ( x) = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9 ≡ x (4) + Ax (3) + Bx (2) + Cx (1) + 9
and calculating the coefficients A, B and C by comparing the coefficients of like
powers of x on both sides. It may be pointed out that the coefficients of the highest
power of x and the constant terms remain unchanged while transforming to
factorial notation. This point reduces calculation work to some extent.
Example 20: Find the function whose first difference is
9 x 2 + 11x + 5.
Solution: Let f ( x) be the required function.
Then Δ f ( x) = 9 x 2 + 11x + 5.
Let 9 x 2 + 11x + 5 ≡ 9 x (2) + Ax (1) + B
= 9 x ( x − 1) + Ax + B.
Putting x = 0, we get B = 5.
Putting x = 1, we get A = 20.
∴ Δ f ( x) = 9 x (2) + 20 x (1) + 5.
Integrating it, we get
x (3) x (2) x (1)
f ( x) = 9 ⋅ + 20 ⋅ +5⋅ + C , where C is a constant.
3 2 1
∴ f ( x) = 3 x (3) + 10 x (2) + 5 x (1) + C
= 3 x 3 + x 2 + x + C.
 N-33

Example 21: Find the lowest degree polynomial which takes the following values :
x : 0 1 2 3 4 5
f ( x) : 0 3 8 15 24 35

Solution: We know that

f (a + nh) = f (a) + n C1 Δ f (a) + n C2 Δ2 f (a) + … + n Cn Δn f (a)
…(1)
Putting a = 0, h = 1, n = x, we get
f ( x) = f (0) + x
C1 Δ f (0) + x
C2 Δ2 f (0) + x
C3 Δ3 f (0) + …
x (2) 2
= f (0) + x (1) Δ f (0) + Δ f (0) + … …(2)
2!
Now we prepare the difference table for the given data to find
Δ f (0), Δ2 f (0), Δ3 f (0) etc.

x f ( x) Δ f ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)
0 0
3
1 3 2
5 0
2 8 2
7 0
3 15 2
9 0
4 24 2
11
5 35
Putting the values of f (0), Δ f (0), Δ2 f (0), Δ3 f (0) in (2), we get
x (2)
f ( x) = 0 + 3 x (1) + 2 ⋅ + 0 = 3 x + x ( x − 1) = x 2 + 2 x.
2!
Example 22: Find the relation between α, β and γ in order that α + βx + γ x 2 may be
expressible in one term in the factorial notation. (Kanpur 2009)
2 (2)
Solution: Let f ( x) = α + βx + γ x = (a + bx) ,
where a and b are some unknown constants.
Now (a + bx)(2) = (a + bx) { a + b ( x − 1)} = (a + bx) (a − b + bx)
= (a + bx)2 − ab − b 2 x
= (a2 − ab) + (2ab − b 2 ) x + b 2 x 2 .
∴ α + βx + γ x 2 = (a2 − ab) + (2ab − b 2 ) x + b 2 x 2 .
Comparing the coefficients of various powers of x, we get
 N-34

α = a2 − ab, β = 2ab − b 2 , γ = b 2 .
Eliminating a and b from these equations, we get
γ 2 + 4αγ = β 2 ,
which is the required relation between α , β and γ.
Example 23: Find the function whose first difference is e x .
Solution: We know that
Δ e x = e x + h − e x = e x (e h − 1),
where h is the interval of differencing.

1 ⎛ ex ⎞
∴ ex = h
Δ e x = Δ ⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟ ⋅
e −1 ⎝ e − 1⎠
ex
Hence the required function f ( x) is ⋅
eh − 1
Example 24: Prove that
n (n + 1)
Δn 0 n +1 = Δn 0 n .
2
Solution: Using the relation Δn 0 m = n [Δn −1 0 m −1 + Δn 0 m −1 ], we get
Δn 0 n +1 = n [Δn −1 0 n + Δn 0 n ]
Δn −1 0 n = (n − 1) [Δn − 2 0 n −1 + Δn −1 0 n −1 ]
Δn − 2 0 n −1 = (n − 2) [Δn − 3 0 n − 2 + Δn − 2 0 n − 2 ]
… … … … …
… … … … …
2 3 2 2 2
Δ 0 = 2 [Δ 0 +Δ 0 ]
Δ 0 2 = 1 [Δ0 01 + Δ1 01 ].
By back substitution of these values, we get
Δn 0 n +1 = n Δn 0 n + n (n − 1) Δn −1 0 n −1 + n (n − 1) (n − 2)
Δn − 2 0 n − 2 + …+ n (n − 1) (n − 2) … 2 . 1 Δ1 01
= nn ! + n (n − 1) (n − 1) ! + n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 2) ! + …
… + n (n − 1) (n − 2) … 2 . 1 . 1 !
= n ! { n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + … + 2 + 1}
n (n + 1) n (n + 1) n n
= n !⋅ = ⋅Δ 0 . [ ∵ Δn 0 n = n !]
2 2
Example 25: Find Δ3 ( x 2 . a x ) by Leibnitz’s rule.
Solution: We have Δ3 ( x 2 . a x ) = Δ3 (a x . x 2 )
 N-35

= (Δ3 a x ) . x 2 + 3
C1 (Δ2 Ea x )(Δ x 2 ) + 3
C2 (Δ E2 a x ) . (Δ2 x 2 )
3
+ C3 ( E3 a x ) . (Δ3 x 2 )
= a x (a h − 1)3 . x 2 + 3 (Δ2 a x + h ) . {( x + h)2 − x 2 }
+ 3 . (Δ a x + 2 h ) . (2h2 ) + 0
= a x (a h − 1)3 x 2 + 3a x + h (a h − 1)2 (2 xh + h2 )
+ 2h
+ 3a x (a h − 1) . (2h2 ).

Δ2 Δ2 sin ( x + h)
Example 26: Evaluate sin ( x + h) + ,
E E sin ( x + h)
h being the interval of differencing.
Solution: We have
Δ 2 Δ2 sin ( x + h)
sin ( x + h) +
E E sin ( x + h)
( E − 1)2 ( E − 1)2 sin ( x + h)
= sin ( x + h) +
E sin ( x + 2h)
( E2 − 2 E + 1) sin ( x + h)
= ( E − 2 + E −1 ) sin ( x + h) +
sin ( x + 2h)
= [sin ( x + 2h) − 2 sin ( x + h) + sin x]
⎡sin ( x + 3h) − 2 sin ( x + 2h) + sin ( x + h)⎤
+⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin ( x + 2h) ⎦
2 sin ( x + 2h) [cos h − 1]
= 2 sin ( x + h) [cos h − 1] +
sin ( x + 2h)
= 2 (cos h − 1) {sin ( x + h) + 1}.

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (a) Define operators E and Δ and show that E ≡ 1 + Δ .

(b) Discuss if operators E and Δ obey the distributive, commutative,
associative and indices laws of algebra.
⎡ a2 x + a4 x ⎤
2. Show that Δ2 ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
= a2 x + (a2 + 1)2 a4 x .
⎢⎣ (a − 1) ⎥⎦
3. Evaluate the following :
⎡ 2x ⎤
(i) Δ ⎢ ⎥ (ii) Δ cot 2 x
⎣( x + 1) !⎦
(iii) Δ sinh (a + bx) (iv) Δ cosh (a + bx)
 N-36

Δ2 x 3
(v) Δ tan ax (vi)
E x3
(vii) Δ4 ae x (viii) Δ tan −1 ax.
4. Show that
b⎞ n ⎡ ⎛ b + π⎞⎤
(i) Δn sin (a + bx) = ⎛⎜2 sin ⎟ sin ⎢a + bx + n ⎜ ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦

b n ⎡ ⎛ π + b⎞ ⎤
(ii) Δn cos (a + bx) = ⎛⎜2 sin ⎞⎟ cos ⎢a + bx + n ⎜ ⎟ ⋅
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
− sin b
(iii) Δ cot (a + bx) = ⋅
sin (a + bx) sin (a + b + bx)

5. If f ( x) = e ax , show that f (0) and its leading differences form a geometrical

progression .
6. Prove that, if f ( x) and g( x) are any functions of x,
(i) Δ [ f ( x) + g( x)] = Δf ( x) ± Δ g( x),
(ii) Δ [a f ( x)] = a Δ f ( x), a being a constant,
(iii) Δ [ f ( x) g( x)] = f ( x + 1)Δ g( x) + g( x) Δ f ( x)
⎡ f ( x) ⎤ g ( x) Δ f ( x) − f ( x) Δ g( x)
(iv) Δ ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ g ( x)⎦ g( x) g ( x + 1) (Kanpur 2012)
7. Evaluate the following :
(i) Δ ( x 2 + e x + 2).
(ii) Δ3 [ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d]
(iii) Δ2 e x
8. Evaluate Δn [ax n + bx n −1 ].

9. Prove that Δ log x = log ⎛⎜1 +

h⎞
⎟⋅
⎝ x⎠
10. Prove that
⎡ ⎤
cos ⎢a ⎛⎜ x + ⎞⎟ + b⎥ ⋅
ah h
(i) Δ sin (ax + b) = 2 sin
2 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎡ ⎤
(ii) Δ cos (ax + b) = − 2 sin ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ sin a ⎛⎜ x + ⎞⎟ +
ah h
⎢⎣ ⎝ b⎥
⎝2⎠ 2⎠ ⎦
11. Prove that ∇ = Δ E −1 = E −1 Δ = I − E −1 .
12. Prove that Δ3 = E3 − 3 E 2 + 3 E − I.
13. Prove that
n
(i) En = Σ ⎛⎜ n⎞⎟ Δ r , where ⎛⎜ n⎞⎟ = n C
r =0 ⎝ r⎠ ⎝ r⎠ r
 N-37

n
(ii) Δn = Σ (−1) n− r ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ E r .
n
r =0 ⎝ r⎠
14. For the function f ( x) = C x , show that
n
Δn C x = C x Σ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (−1) n− r . C rh .
n
r =0 ⎝ r ⎠

15. For the function f ( x) = x m , m is a positive integer, show that

n
Σ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (−1) n− r ( x + rh) m .
n
Δn x m =
r =0 r ⎠
⎝
16. Find the successive differences of f ( x) = ab cx and sum the first n
differences.
17. Find the function whose first difference is
(i) a, (ii) ax + b,
(iii) sin x, (iv) e a + bx ,
(v) 5 x .
18. If the interval of differencing is unity, then show that x (n) = n ! x Cn . Hence
or otherwise prove that
(i) Δr x
Cn = x
Cn− r , (ii) Δn x Cn = 1.

19. Find the value of

Δ
(i) [2 x (5) ], (ii) Δ [9 x (4) ],
Δ x
Δ
(iii) [3 x (2) ], (iv) Δ [−5 x (−4) ].
Δ x
20. Find the value of
Δ
(i) [3 x (4) − 2 x (3) − 3 x (2) + x − 5]
Δ x
(ii) Δ [2 x (−2) − 3 x (3) − 4 x (−1) ]
Δ2
(iii) [3 x (4) − 5 x (−2) ]
Δ x2
21. Show that x (r) ( x − rh)(n) = x (r + n) .

22. A second degree polynomial passes through (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 7) and (3, 13).
Find the polynomial.
23. A third degree polynomial passes through the points (0, − 1), (1, 1), (2, 1) and
(3, 2). Find the polynomial.
24. Prove that if m is a positive integer, then
 N-38

( x + 1)(m) x (m) x (m − 1)
(i) = +
m! m ! (m − 1) !

(ii) x (m + 1) + mx (m) = x. x (m) .

25. Find the constructing the difference table, tenth term of the series
3, 14, 39, 84, 155, 258, … .
2
⎛Δ Ux ⎞ ⎛ Δ2 U ⎞
26. What is the difference between ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ 2 x ⎟ ?
⎝ E Ux ⎠ ⎝ E Ux ⎠

If U x = x 3 and interval of differencing is one, find expressions for both.

27. Evaluate the missing term in the following :

x : 100 101 102 103 104

f ( x) = log x : 2 ⋅ 0000 2 ⋅ 0043 — 2 ⋅ 0128 2 ⋅ 0170
28. (i) Estimate the missing term in the following :
x : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y : 2 4 8 ? 32 64 128
Explain why the result differs from 16? (Kanpur 2008)
(ii) Estimate the production of cotton in the year 1935 from the data given
below :
Year x : 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937

Production 17 ⋅ 1 13 ⋅ 0 14 ⋅ 0 9⋅6 — 12 ⋅ 4 18 ⋅ 2
f ( x) :
(In millions)
29. (i): Find the missing term in the following table :

x : 16 18 20 22 24 26
y : 39 85 — 151 264 388

(ii) Interpolate f (2) from the following data :

x : 1 2 3 4 5

f ( x) : 7 ? 13 21 37
and explain why the value obtained is different from that obtained by
putting x = 2 in the expression 2 x + 5 ?
30. Find the successive differences of x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9, when the
interval of differencing is unity.
 N-39

31. Prove that

Δ3 u0 = u3 − 3u2 + 3u1 − u0 .
32. Show that if u x = 2 x then Δu x = u x .
33. Find a function for which Δu x = 2u x .
34. If u x = x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) prove that
Δu x = 3 x ( x − 1)
35. Find a function u x for which
Δu x = x ( x − 1.
)
2
36. Express x − 3 x + 1 in factorials. Hence or otherwise find its third
difference.
37. Calculate Δ−1 x 3 .
38. Obtain the function whose first difference is
(i) x 3 + 4 x 2 + 9 x + 12.
(ii) x 3 + 2 x 2 + 5 x + 12 (Kanpur 2011; Garhwal 10)
n 2 x
39. Find Δ ( x . a ).
40. Sum the series (n − 1)2 ⋅ n C1 + (n − 3)2 ⋅ n C3 + (n − 5)2 ⋅ n C5 + ...
41. Obtain the missing terms in the following table :
x : 0 ⋅1 ⋅2 ⋅3 ⋅4 ⋅5 ⋅6
f ( x) : ⋅135 ? ⋅111 ⋅100 ? ⋅082 ⋅074
(Purvanchal 2009; Rohilkhand 11)
42. Given u0 = 1, u1 = 11, u2 = 21, u3 = 28, u4 = 29; find Δ4 u0 .
43. Given U0 + U8 = 1⋅ 9243, U1 + U7 = 1⋅ 9590
U2 + U6 = 1⋅ 9823, U3 + U5 = 1⋅ 9956. Find U4 .
44. Write down the polynomial of lowest degree which satisfies the following
set of numbers
0, 7, 26, 63, 124, 215, 342, 511.
45. Prove that
Δ2 x (n) = n (n − 1) x (n − 2) .
46. Prove that
Δ2 x (− m) = m (m + 1) x (− m − 2) .
47. Evaluate
(i) (2 Δ2 + Δ − 1) ( x 2 + 2 x + 1)
(ii) (Δ + 1) (2Δ − 1) ( x 2 + 2 x + 1)
(iii) ( E − 2) ( E − 1) (2 x / h + x)
 N-40

(iv) ( E2 − 3 E + 2) (2 x / h + x)
48. Use the method of separation of symbols to prove the following identities :
(i) Δ n u x = u x + n − n C1 u x + n − 1 + n C2 u x + n − 2 + … + (− 1) n u x .
1 2 1.3 4 1.3.5
(ii) U x − Δ U x −1 + Δ Ux −2 − Δ6 U x − 3 + …
8 8.16 8.16.24
1 1
= U x + 1 /2 − ΔU x + 1 /2 + Δ2 U x + 1 /2 − …
2 4

(iii) U x = U x − 1 + ΔU x − 2 + Δ2 U x − 3 + … + Δn − 1 U x − n + ΔnU x − n .

(Rohilkhand 2010; Bundelkhand 12)

49. Prove that
Δ f [ f ( x − 1) Δ g ( x − 1)] = ∇ [ f ( x) Δ g ( x)] = Δ [ f ( x − 1) ∇ g ( x)]
(Rohilkhand 2010)
− hD
50. Prove that e = 1− ∇ .
1 Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y
51. Show that Dy = [Δy − + − + …]
h 2 3 4
1 11 4
and Δ2 y = 2 [∇ 2 y + ∇ 3 y + ∇ y + … ].
h 12 (Garhwal 2010)
52. Calculate the value of
(i) Δ2 0 5 , (ii) Δ3 0 6 , (iii) Δ4 0 5 , (iv) Δ5 0 5 ,
(v) Δ 0 n .
53. Express the function 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10 in factorial notation, the interval
of differencing being unity. Also find its successive differences.
(Kanpur 2010)
54. Express each of the following as a product of suitable factors
(i) (2 x + 5)(3) if h = 1
(ii) (3 x − 4)(−2) if h = 1 .
55. Given f (0) = 3, f (1) = 12, f (2) = 81, f (3) = 200, f (4) = 100 and
f (5) = 8. Form a difference table and find Δ5 f (0).
56. If
x : 1 2 3 4 5
y : 2 5 10 20 30
4
find by forward difference table Δ y (1).
57. If f (0) = − 3, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 8 and f (3) = 12, prepare forward difference
table to find Δ3 f (0).
58. Taking fifth order differences of U x to be constant and given
 N-41

U0 , U1 , … , U6 , prove that
1 25 (c − b) + 3 (a − c )
U 1 = c +
2 2 256
2

where a = U0 + U5 , b = U1 + U4 , c = U2 + U3 . (Purvanchal 2009)

A nswers 1
2. a2 x + (a2 + 1)2 a4 x
x ⋅2x
3. (i) − (ii) − cosec 2 x + 1
( x + 2)!

cosh ⎛⎜ a + + bx⎞⎟ sinh ⎛⎜ a + + bx⎞⎟

b b b b
(iii) 2 sinh (iv) 2 sinh
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
sin a 6
(v) ⋅ (vi)
cos ax cos a ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2
a
(vii) a (e − 1)4 e x . (viii) tan −1 2 2
1+ a x + a2 x
7. (i) 2hx + h2 + e x (e h − 1) (ii) 6ah3
(iii) (e h − 1)2 e x .
8. a (n !).
(b c h − 1) n − 1
16. ab c x (b c h − 1) ⋅ ⋅
bch − 2
1 2 ⎛
ax + ⎜ b − a⎞⎟ x + C
1
17. (i) ax + b (ii)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1 e a + bx
(iii) − sin x (iv) b
(v) 5 x / 4
2 e −1
19. (i) 10 x ( x − h) ( x − 2h) ( x − 3h) (ii) 36hx ( x − h) ( x − 2h)
−6
(iii)
( x + h) ( x + 2h) ( x + 3h)
20 h
(iv) .
( x + h) ( x + 2h) ( x + 3h) ( x + 4h) ( x + 5h)
20. (i) 12 x (3) − 6 x (2) − 6 x (1) + 1 (ii) [− 4 x (−3) − 9 x (2) + 4 x (−2) ] h
(iii) 36 x (2) − 30 x (−4)
22. x2 + x + 1
1 3 1
23. P ( x) = − ( x + 3 x 2 − 16 x + 6) = − x (3) − x (2) + x (1) − 1
6 6
25. 1110
 N-42

Δ 2 Δ2 u 6 xh2 + 6h3
26. ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ u x = 6h2 (3 x − h) and 2 x =
⎝ E⎠ E ux ( x + 2h)3
27. 2 ⋅ 0086
28. (i) 16 ⋅ 1 (ii) 6.60
29. (i) 95 ⋅ 9 (ii) 9 ⋅ 5
30. Δf ( x) = 4 x 3 − 30 x 2 + 52 x + 1, Δ2 f ( x) = 12 x 2 − 48 x + 26,
Δ3 f ( x) = 24 x − 36 and Δ4 f ( x) = 24 .
33. u x = 3 x
x (3)
35.
3
36. f ( x) = x (2) − 2 x (1) + 1 , Δf ( x) = 2 x (1) − 2, Δ2 f ( x) = 2, Δ3 f ( x) = 0
x (4) h
37. + x (3) + x (2) + t( x), where t ( x) is a periodic function of period h
4h 2
x4 5 x3 7 x2 49 x
38. (i) + − + +k
4 6 4 6
x (4) 5 x (3)
(ii) + + 4 x (2) + 12 x (1) + k
4 3
39. a x (a h − 1) n − 2 [ x 2 (a h − 1)2 + n (2hx + h) a h (a h − 1) + n (n − 1) h2 a2 h ]
1
40. [n 2 n − 1 + n (n − 1) 2 n − 2 ]
2
41. f (0 ⋅ 1) = 0 ⋅ 123, f (0 ⋅ 4) = 0 ⋅ 090
42. 0
43. u4 = 0 ⋅ 9999
44. x3 + 3 x2 + 3 x
47. (i) 5h2 + 2hx + 2h − x 2 − 2 x − 1 (ii) 5h2 + 2hx + 2h − x 2 − 2 x − 1
(iii) − h (iv) − h
52. (i) 30 (ii) 537 (iii) 688
(iv) 120 (v) 1
53. f ( x) = 2 x (3) + 3 x (2) + 2 x (1) − 10, Δ f ( x) = 6 x 2 + 2,
Δ2 f ( x) = 12 x + 6, Δ3 f ( x) = 12
54. (i) (2 x + 5) (2 x + 3) (2 x + 1)
1
(ii)
(3 x − 1) (3 x + 2)
55. 755
56. − 8
57. 9
 N-43

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The first forward difference of f ( x) is defined as Δ f ( x) =
(a) f ( x + h) − f ( x) (b) f ( x) − f ( x + h)
(c) f ( x) − f ( x − h) (d) f ( x − h) − f ( x)
2. The first backward difference of f ( x) is defined as ∇ f ( x) =
(a) f ( x) − f ( x − h) (b) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
(c) f ( x − h) − f ( x) (d) f ( x) − f ( x + h)
3. If f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 3 x − 10, then Δ3 f ( x) =
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 2 (d) 12
4. The value of Δ3 (1 − x) (1 − 2 x) (1 − 3 x) is
(a) −6 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) −36 (Rohilkhand 2011)
5. If Δ u x = x ( x − 1,
) then u x is
1
(a) x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + C (b) x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + C
3
(c) ( x − 1) ( x − 2) + C (d) x ( x − 2) + C
(Rohilkhand 2011)
6. Which of the following relations is correct ?

1⎡ Δ2 Δ3 ⎤ 1⎡ Δ2 Δ3 ⎤
(a) D = ⎢Δ − + −…⎥ (b) D = ⎢Δ + + + …⎥
h⎣ 2! 3! ⎦ h⎣ 2! 3! ⎦

1 ⎡ Δ2 Δ3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ Δ2 Δ3 ⎤
(c) D = ⎢Δ + + + …⎥ (d)D = ⎢Δ − + −…⎥
h ⎣ 2 3 ⎦ h ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
(Garhwal 2010)
7. If E and Δ are operators with their usual meanings, then the relation
between them is
(a) E = 1 + Δ (b) E = 1 + Δ−1
(c) E = 1 − Δ (d) E −1 = 1 + Δ (Garhwal 2010)
n n n−1
8. The value of Δ (ax + bx ) is
(a) n ! (b) an !
(c) (n − 1) ! (d) b (n − 1) !
 N-44

9. If f (0) = − 3, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 8 and f (3) = 12, then Δ3 f (0) is

(a) 9 (b) 6
(c) 3 (d) 5
Δ
10. Value of [2 x (5) ] is equal to :
Δx
10
(a) (b) 10 x ( x − h) ( x − 2h) ( x − 3h)
x ( x − h) ( x − 2h) ( x − 3h)

(c) 10 x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) (d) none of these

(Rohilkhand 2011)
2
11. Value of ∇ f ( x) is equal to
(a) f ( x) − 2 f ( x − h) + f ( x − 2h) (b) f ( x) − f ( x − h)
(c) f ( x + h) − f ( x) (d) none of these(Garhwal 2010)
12. If m and n are positive integers such that m < n, then Δm x (n) is
n! n! ( n − m)
(a) h m x (n − m) (b) hm x m
(n + m)! (n − m)!
n! n!
(c) h m x (n + m) (d) h m x (n + m)
(m + n)! (n − m)! (Garhwal 2010)
13. If f ( x) is a polynomial of degree n, then Δn +1 f ( x) is equal to :
(a) zero (b) constant
(c) f ( x + nh) (d) none of these
14. If f ( x) is a polynomial of degree n, then Δn f ( x) is equal to :
(a) zero (b) constant
(c) f ( x + nh) (d) none of these
15. The value of f (4) when difference is one, is :
(a) f (3) + Δf (2) + Δ 2 f (1) − Δ 3 f (1)
(b) f (3) − Δ f (2) + Δ 2 f (1) − Δ 3 f (1)
(c) f (3) − Δf (2) − Δ 2 f (1) − Δ 3 f (1)
(d) f (3) + Δf (2) + Δ 2 f (1) + Δ 3 f (1) (Meerut 2013B)
16. The value of x (−1) is :
1
(a) ( x + h) (b)
( x − h)
1
(c) (d) ( x − h)
( x + h)
17. If E and D are operators with their usual meanings, then the relation
between them is :
 N-45

1
(a) E = log D (b) E = log (1 + D)
h
(c) E = e hD (d) none of these
2
18. Δ y2 is equal to :
(a) y 4 − y 2 + 1 (b) y4 − 2 y 3 + y 2
(c) y 4 − y 3 − 2 y 2 (d) y4 + 3 y 3 + 2 y 2
19. ∇x 2 is equal to (when h = 1) :
(a) 2x (b) 2 x − 1
(c) 2 x + 1 (d) none of these
20. Δ x (n) is equal to :
(a) nh x n −1 (b) nhx n +1
(c) hx (n −1) (d) hx n +1
21. If Δn − 1 f ( x) = constant and Δ n f ( x) = 0, then the degree of polynomial f ( x)
is :
(a) n (b) (n − 1)
(c) (n + 1) (d) none of these
22. Value of Δ 2 cos 2 x is :
(a) 4 sin2 h cos (2 x + 2h) (b) 4 cos 2 h cos (2 x + 2h)
(c) − 4 sin2 h cos (2 x + 2h) (d) − 4 cos 2 h cos (2 x + 2h)
23. The first forward difference of a constant function is :
(a) constant (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) none of these
24. The value of (1 + Δ)(1 − ∇) is :
(a) 1 (b) − 1
(c) 0 (d) 2
25. The value of E n f ( x) is :
(a) f ( x + h) (b) f ( x + x − 1h)
(c) f ( x + nh) (d) none of these
26. The value of Δ 2 f (a + h) is equal to :
(a) f (a + 3h) + 2 f (a + 2h) + f (a + h)
(b) f (a + 3h) − 2 f (a + 2h) + f (a + h)
(c) f (a + 3h) − 2 f (a + 2h) − f (a + h)
(d) none of these
27. The value of ∇ 2 f (a + 2h) is equal to :
(a) f (a + 2h) − 2 f (a + h) + f (a)
(b) f (a + 2h) − 2 f (a + h) − f (a)
(c) f (a + 2h) + 2 f (a + h) + f (a)
(d) f (a + 2h) + 2 f (a + h) − f (a)
 N-46

28. The value of Δ [ f ( x) g( x)] is equal to :

(a) f ( x). Δg( x) + g( x). Δf ( x) (b) Ef ( x). Δg( x) + g( x). Δf ( x)
(c) Ef ( x). g( x) + Eg( x). f ( x) (d) Δf ( x). g( x) + Δg( x). f ( x)
⎡ f ( x)⎤ g( x). Δf ( x) − f ( x). Δg( x)
29. The denominator of the expression Δ ⎢ ⎥= to be
⎣ g( x) ⎦ ...
true is :
(a) f ( x). Eg( x) (b) f ( x). Ef ( x)
(c) g( x). Eg( x) (d) Ef ( x). g( x)
3
30. The value of Δ is :
(a) E3 − 3 E 2 + 3 E − 1 (b) E 3 + 3 E 2 + 3 E + 1
(c) E 3 − 3 E 2 − 3 E + 1 (d) E 3 + 3 E 2 − 3 E + 1
31. If f ( x) = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 42 x 2 − 30 x + 9 , then Δ4 f ( x) is :
(a) 25 (b) 26 (c) 30 (d) 24
−1
32. E f ( x) is equal to :
(a) f ( x − h) (b) f ( x + h)
−1
(c) [ f ( x + h)] (d) none of these
(Meerut 2013B)
x
33. If Δ f ( x) = e , then f ( x) is :
(a) e x (b) e − x
ex ex
(c) h (d)
e −1 1− e h (Meerut 2013B)
th
34. If the n differences of a tabulated function are constant when values of the
independent variable are taken at equal intervals, the function is a
polynomial of degree :
(a) n (b) n + 1
(c) n − 1 (d) none of these
35. The value of Δ log x is equal to :

(a) log ⎛⎜1+

h⎞
(b) log ⎛⎜1−
h⎞
⎟ ⎟
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠

(c) log ⎛⎜1+

x⎞
(d) log ⎛⎜1−
x⎞
⎟ ⎟
⎝ h⎠ ⎝ h⎠
36. The value of Δ tan −1 x is equal to :
⎛1 + hx + x 2 ⎞
(a) tan −1 (1 + hx + x 2 ) (b) tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h ⎠
⎛ h ⎞
(c) tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (d) tan −1 (hx + x 2 )
⎝1 + hx + x 2 ⎠
 N-47

⎛ Δ2 ⎞ 3
37. The value of ⎜ ⎟ x is :
⎝ E⎠
(a) 3x (b) 6x (c) −6x (d) 8x
5
38. If u0 = 3, u1 = 12, u2 = 81, u3 = 200, u4 = 100, u5 = 8 then Δ u0 is :
(a) 755 (b) 750 (c) 775 (d) 760
39. The missing term in the following table is :
x : 0 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 1 3 9 … 81
(a) 25 (b) 41
(c) 31 (d) 35
40. If f (0) = − 3, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 8, f (3) = 12, then f (6) is :
(a) 126 (b) 120
(c) 130 (d) 135
41. Value of Δ 2 sin x is :
1 x
(a) −4 sin2 sin( x + 1) (b) −4 sin sin( x + 1)
2 2
2 1
(c) −4 sin sin x (d) none of these
2 (Meerut 2013B)
3 3
42. The value of Δ 0 is :
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8 (Meerut 2013B)
x
43. If h = 1, then Δ 2 is equal to :
(a) 2 x (b) 2 x + 1 − 2
(c) 2 x + 1 − 2 x − 1 (d) 2 x − 1 − 2 x (Meerut 2013B)
2 3
44. ∇ x is equal to (when h = 1) :
(a) 6x (b) 6 x + 6
(c) 6 x + 3 (d) none of these
(Meerut 2013B)
45. If Δ , ∇ and I represent the forward, backward and identity operator
respectively then (I + Δ) (I − ∇) =
(a) I − Δ 2 (b) I − ∇ 2
(c) I (d) Δ ∇ − I (Meerut 2013B)
r x
46. Δ Cn is equal to :
x x
(a) Cr − n (b) Cn − r
x!
(c) (d) none of these
( x − n)! r ! (Meerut 2013B)
 N-48

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c)
26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (a)
36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (a)
41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (c)
46. (a)

¨
 2
I nterpolation with E qual I ntervals

2.1 Introduction
uppose we are given the values of a function f ( x), i. e., the entries, for a set of
S values of the independent variable x, i. e., the arguments.
Interpolation. The interpolation is defined as the technique of estimating the
value of f ( x) for any intermediate value of the argument.
Theile defines interpolation as “the art of reading between the lines of a table”.
Let us suppose we are given the census figures for the population of India for four
years 1931, 1941, 1951 and 1961 and we want to estimate the figure for any
intermediate year, e. g., for 1955 or 1958, etc. This can be done by applying the
technique of interpolation. The interpolation may be defined as the “technique of
obtaining the most likely estimate of a certain quantity under certain assumptions”.
If the form of the function f ( x) is known, we can find f ( x) for any value of x by
simple substitution. But in case, the form of the function is unknown or if it is quite
complicated, then the problem of determining the nature of the function or
replacing the function by a comparatively simpler one is also the problem of
parabolic or polynomial interpolation.
 N-50

Extrapolation. If we have to estimate the value of f ( x) for any value of the

argument outside the given range of the arguments, the technique is known as
extrapolation. For example, the estimation of the population figure for the year 1965
in the above example falls in the domain of extrapolation.
Assumptions: The following are the fundamental assumptions in any method
of interpolation :
(i) There are no sudden jumps or falls in values of the entries for the period under
consideration. In other words, the given data does not refer to abnormal periods
such as periods of famines, wars, epidemics, etc., which may result in sudden
changes in the values of f ( x). Mathematically it means that the data can be
represented by a smooth or continuous curve which implies that the given data can
be represented by a polynomial of certain degree, which is determined by the
following theorem.
One and only one polynomial curve of degree less than or equal to n passes through a given set of
(n + 1) distinct points.
All the formulae of interpolation are based upon the fundamental assumption that
the data is expressible or can be expressed as a polynomial function, with fair
degree of accuracy.
(ii) In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, the rise or fall in the data has
been uniform. Thus in the above example of population we assume that the rate of
growth of population over the period 1931 to 1961 has been uniform.

2.2 The Various Methods of Interpolation Are as Follows

(a) Graphic method. (b) Method of curve fitting.
(c) Use of the calculus of finite differences formulae.
(a) Graphic Method: We can easily plot a graph between the values of x and the
corresponding values of y for a given function y = f ( x). From the graph so
obtained, we can find out the value of y for given value of x.
For example, consider the following data :
Year ( x) : 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Population ( y) : 46 66 81 93 101
(in thousands)

Suppose we have to interpolate population for the year 1925.

Steps in Graphic Method
(i) Take a suitable scale for the values of x and y and plot the various points on
the graph paper, for given values of x and y.
(ii) Draw a free hand curve passing through the plotted points.
(iii) Find the point on the curve corresponding to x = 1925 and find the
corresponding value of y.
 N-51

Drawbacks in the method: It is a very approximate method of estimating the

value of y. In most of the cases it is not reliable.
(b) Method of curve fitting: This method can be used only in those cases in
which the form of the function is known. Then by the method of least squares we
can fit the curve of known form to the given set of observations and with the help of
the fitted curve we can calculate the unknown value.
Drawbacks in the method:
(i) The method is not exact.
(ii) The method becomes complicated when the number of observations is
sufficiently large.
(iii) The form of the function for the given set of observations is assumed to be
known.
(iv) When some additional observations are included in the data then the
calculation for finding the unknown constants are to be done afresh.
The only merit of this method lies in the fact that it gives closer approximation
than the graphical method.
Let us consider the above example, in which we have to find the population for the
year 1925. Let us assume that the function y = f ( x) is a first degree polynomial of
the form
y = a + bx.
Now our problem is to find the values of a and b from the given data to get the fitted
curve. The calculations can be done in tabular form.
Table 1

x x − 1911 z = ( x − 1911) / 10 y yz z2
1891 − 20 −2 46 − 92 4
1901 − 10 −1 66 − 66 1
1911 0 0 81 0 0
1921 10 1 93 93 1
1931 20 2 101 202 4
Total 0 387 137 10
Then by the method of least squares, we have to minimise
S = Σ ( y − a − bz )2 .
∂S
This gives = 0 ⇒ Σ ( y − a − bz ) = 0 …(1)
∂a
∂S
and = 0 ⇒ Σ ( y − a − bz ) z = 0 …(2)
∂b
i. e., Σ y = na + b Σ z …(3)
 N-52

and Σ yz = a Σ z + b Σ z 2 . …(4)
2
Putting the values of Σ y, Σ z , Σ y z , Σ z from the table 1 and putting n = 5 in
equations (3) and (4), we get
387 = 5a + 0 or a = 77 ⋅ 4
and 137 = 0 + 10 b or b = 13 ⋅ 7.
∴ the required fitted polynomial is
y = 77 ⋅ 4 + 13 ⋅ 7 z . …(5)
Now we have to find the population for
1925 − 1911
x = 1925 i. e., for z = = 1⋅ 4.
10
Putting z = 1⋅ 4 in (5), we get
y = 77 ⋅ 4 + (13 ⋅ 7) (1⋅ 4) = 96 ⋅ 58.
Hence the population for the year 1925 is estimated to be 96 ⋅ 58 thousand.
(c) Use of the calculus of finite differences formulae: The study of the use of
finite difference calculus for the purpose of interpolation can be divided into three
cases which are as follows :
(i) The technique of interpolation with equal intervals.
(ii) The technique of interpolation with unequal intervals.
(iii) The technique of central differences.
The use of these methods, though they are approximate, have distinct advantages
over the methods of graphs and curve fitting.
Merits: (i) These methods do not assume the form of the function to be known.
(ii) These methods are less approximate than the method of graphs.
(iii) The calculations remain simple even if some additional observations are
included in the given data.
Drawbacks in the methods: There is no definite rule to verify whether the
assumptions for the application of finite difference calculus are valid for the given
set of observations.

2.3 Interpolation With Equal Intervals

(i) Newton-Gregory Formula for Forward Interpolation.
If a, a + h, a + 2 h, … , a + nh are (n + 1) equidistant values of the argument x so that a
function y = f ( x) assumes the values f (a), f (a + h), f (a + 2h), … , f (a + nh),
then
u (1) u (2) 2 u (n) n
f (a + uh) = f (a) + Δ f (a) + Δ f (a) + … + Δ f (a)
1! 2! n!
 N-53

n u (r ) r
= Σ Δ f (a),
r =0 r!
(r )
where u = u (u − 1) (u − 2) … { u − (r − 1)}.
Proof: Since we are known (n + 1) pairs of values of the argument x and the entry
f ( x), therefore f ( x) can be represented as a polynomial in x of degree n.
Let f ( x) = A0 + A1 ( x − a) + A2 ( x − a) ( x − a − h)
+ A3 ( x − a) ( x − a − h) ( x − a − 2h) + …
+ An ( x − a) ( x − a − h) … ( x − a − n − 1 h), …(1)
where A0 , A1 , A2 , … , An are constants.
To find the constants A0 , A1 , A2 , … , An we put successively the values
a, a + h, a + 2h , … , a + nh
in (1) for x. Thus, we get
f (a) = A0 ⇒ A0 = f (a),
f (a + h) − f (a) Δ f (a)
f (a + h) = A0 + A1 h ⇒ A1 = = ,
h h
f (a + 2h) = A0 + 2h A1 + 2h . hA2
f (a + 2h) − 2 [ f (a + h) − f (a)] − f (a)
⇒ A2 =
2h 2
f (a + 2h) − 2 f (a + h) + f (a) 1
= 2
= 2
Δ2 f (a).
2h 2!h
1
Similarly, A3 = Δ3 f (a),
3 ! h3
… … …
1 n
An = n
Δ f (a).
n!h
Putting the values of A0 , A1 , … , An found above in (1), we get
Δ f (a) Δ2 f (a)
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a) ( x − a − h)
h 2 ! h2
Δ3 f (a)
+ ( x − a) ( x − a − h) ( x − a − 2h) + …
3 ! h3
Δn f (a)
+ ( x − a) ( x − a − h) ( x − a − 2h) … ( x − a − n − 1 h).
n ! hn
This is known as Newton-Gregory formula for forward interpolation.
x−a
Putting = u or x = a + hu, the formula takes the form
h
u (u − 1) 2
f (a + uh) = f (a) + u Δ f (a) + Δ f (a)
2!
 N-54

u (u − 1) (u − 2) u (u − 1) (u − 2) … (u − n + 1)
+ Δ3 f (a) + … + Δn f (a) …(2)
3! n!
The result (2) can be written as
1 (2) 2
f (a + uh) = f (a) + u(1) Δ f (a) + u Δ f (a) + …
2!
1 (n) n
+ u Δ f (a)
n!
where u(n) = u (u − 1) (u − 2) … (u − n + 1).
This is the form in which Newton-Gregory formula for forward interpolation is
often written.
Note: The reason for the name “forward” interpolation formula lies in the fact
that this formula contains values of the tabulated function from f (a) onward to
the right and none to the left of this value. This formula is used mainly for
interpolating the values of y near the beginning of a set of tabulated values and for
extrapolating values of y a short distance backward (i. e., to the left) from f (a).
Alternative Proof of Newton-Gregory forward difference interpolation
formula.
We have f (a + uh) = E u f (a) = (1 + Δ) u f (a)
⎡ u (u − 1) 2 u (u − 1) … (u − n + 1) n ⎤
= ⎢1 + u Δ + Δ +…+ Δ ⎥ f (a)
⎣ 1. 2 1. 2 . 3 … . n ⎦
[ ∵ f ( x) has been assumed to be a polynomial of degree n, so Δn +1 f (a)
etc.,
will be equal to zero]
u (2) 2 u (n) n
= f (a) + u (1) Δ f (a) + Δ f (a) + … + Δ f (a).
2! n!
Remark: If the first tabulated value of the argument x is 0 and the interval of
differencing h is 1, then by Newton-Gregory forward difference interpolation
formula, we have
x ( x − 1) 2
f ( x) = f (0) + x Δ f (0) + Δ f (0) + …
2!
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) … ( x − n + 1) n
+ Δ f (0).
n!
(ii) Newton-Gregory Formula for Backward Interpolation:
(Purvanchal 2009; Bundelkhand 11)
If a, a + h, a + 2h, … , a + nh are (n + 1) equidistant values of the argument x so that the
function y = f ( x) assumes the values f (a), f (a + h), f (a + 2h), … , f (a + nh), then
f (a + nh + uh) = f (a + nh) + u ∇ f (a + nh)
u (u + 1) 2 u (u + 1) (u + 2) 3
+ ⋅ ∇ f (a + nh) + ∇ f (a + nh) +
2! 3!
u (u + 1) (u + 2) … (u + n − 1) n
…+ ∇ f (a + nh).
n!
 N-55

Proof: Since we are known (n + 1) pairs of values of the argument x and the entry
f ( x), therefore f ( x) can be represented as a polynomial in x of degree n.
Let f ( x) = A0 + A1 ( x − a − nh) + A2 ( x − a − nh) ( x − a − nh + h)
+ A3 ( x − a − nh) ( x − a − nh + h) ( x − a − nh + 2h)
+ … + An ( x − a − nh) ( x − a − nh + h) … ( x − a − h),
…(1)
where A0 , A1 , … , An are constants.
To find the constants A0 , A1 , A2 , … , An we put successively the values
a + nh, a + (n − 1) h, a + (n − 2) h, … , a + h, a
in (1) for x. Thus, we get
f (a + nh) = A0 or A0 = f (a + nh),
f (a + nh − h) = A0 + A1 (− h)
f (a + nh) − f (a + nh − h) 1
or A1 = = ∇ f (a + nh),
h h
f (a + nh − 2h) = A0 + A1 (−2h) + A2 (−2h) (− h)
− A0 + 2 A1 h + f (a + n − 2h)
or A2 =
2h 2
− f (a + nh) + 2 [ f (a + nh) − f (a + nh − h)] + f (a + n − 2h)
=
2h 2
f (a + nh) − 2 f (a + n − 1 h) + f (a + n − 2h)
=
2 h2
1
= 2
∇ 2 f (a + nh).
2!h
1 1
Similarly, A3 = ∇ 3 f (a + nh), … , An = ∇ n f (a + nh).
3 ! h3 n ! hn
Substituting the values of A0 , A1 , … , An in (1), we get
∇f (a + nh)
f ( x) = f (a + nh) + ( x − a + nh )
h
∇ 2 f (a + nh)
+ ( x − a + nh ) ( x − a + nh − h ) + …
2 ! h2
∇ n f (a + nh)
+ ( x − a + nh ) ( x − a + nh − h ) … ( x − a − h).
n ! hn
This is Newton-Gregory formula for backward interpolation.
x − (a + nh)
Putting u=
h
or x = a + nh + uh, we get
 N-56

f (a + nh + uh) = f (a + nh) + u ∇f (a + nh)

u (u + 1) 2 u (u + 1) (u + 2) 3
+ ∇ f (a + nh) + ∇ f (a + nh)
2! 3!
u (u + 1) … (u + n − 1)
+…+ ∇ n f (a + nh). …(2)
n!
This is the form in which Newton-Gregory formula for backward interpolation is
often written.
Note: It is called the formula for “backward” interpolation because it contains
values of the tabulated function from f (a + nh) backward to the left and none to
the right of f (a + nh). This formula is used mainly for interpolating values of y
near the end of a set of tabulated values, and also for extrapolating values of y a
short distance ahead (to the right) of f (a + nh).
Alternative Proof of Newton-Gregory backward difference interpolation
formula.
We have
f (a + nh + uh) = E u f (a + nh) = (1 − ∇) − u f (a + nh)
[∵ E −1 = 1 − ∇ ⇒ E u = (1 − ∇) − u ]
⎡ u (u + 1) 2 u (u + 1) (u + 2) … (u + n − 1) n ⎤
= ⎢1 + u ∇ + ∇ +…+ ∇ ⎥ f (a + nh)
⎣ .
1 2 1 .2 . 3 . … . n ⎦
[ ∵ f ( x) has been assumed to be a polynomial of degree n,
so ∇ n +1 f (a + nh) etc., will be equal to zero]
u (u + 1)
= f (a + nh) + u ∇f (a + nh) + ∇ 2 f (a + nh)
2!
u (u + 1) (u + 2) . … . (u + n − 1)
+…+ ∇ n f (a + nh).
n!

Example 1: From the following table of yearly premiums for policies maturing at
quinquennial ages, estimate the premiums for policies maturing at the age of 46 years.
Age x : 45 50 55 60 65
Premium f ( x): 2⋅871 2⋅404 2⋅083 1⋅862 1⋅712

Solution: The difference table of the given data is as follows :

 N-57

Age x Premium Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x) Δ4 f ( x)
f ( x)

45 2 ⋅ 8710
− 0 ⋅ 467

50 2⋅4040 0 ⋅ 146
− 0 ⋅ 321 − 0 ⋅ 046

55 2⋅0830 0⋅100 0 ⋅ 017

− 0 ⋅ 221 − 0⋅029

60 1⋅8620 0⋅071
− 0 ⋅ 150

65 1⋅7120

We want f (46) = f (a + uh), (say), where a = 45 and h = 5.

1
∴ a + uh = 46 ⇒ 45 + u × 5 = 46 ⇒ u = = 0 ⋅ 2 .
5
1
Substituting u = in Newton’s formula for forward interpolation, we get
5

f (46) = f (45) + Δf (45) + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟

1 1 4 1 2
Δ f (45)
5 5 ⎝ 5⎠ 2 !
1 ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 9⎞ 1 3
Δ f (45) + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
1 4 9 14 1 4
+ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ Δ f (45)
5 ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ 3 ! 5 ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ 4 !
1 2 6 21
= 2 ⋅ 871 + (− 0 ⋅ 467) − (0 ⋅ 146) + (− 0 ⋅ 046) − (0 ⋅ 017)
5 25 125 625
= 2 ⋅ 871 − 0 ⋅ 0934 − ⋅ 01168 − ⋅ 002208 − ⋅ 0005712
= 2 ⋅ 763 (approx).

Example 2: From the following table, estimate the number of students who obtained marks
between 40 and 45.

Marks No. of students

30 – 40 31

40 – 50 42

50 – 60 51

60 – 70 35

70 – 80 31

Solution: First we prepare the cumulative frequency table, as given below :

 N-58

Marks above 30 but less than No. of students

x f ( x)
40 31
50 73
60 124
70 159
80 190
Now we prepare the difference table for this data.

x f ( x) Δ f ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x) Δ4 f ( x)

40 31
42
50 73 9
51 −25
60 124 −16 37
35 12
70 159 −4
31
80 190

We shall find :
f (45) = number of students with marks less than 45.
Taking a + uh = 45, we get
1
40 + u × 10 = 45 ⇒ u = ⋅
2
Using Newton’s formula for forward interpolation, we get
2
1 Δ f (40)
Δf (40) + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
1 1
f (45) = f (40) +
2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2!
3 4
1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ Δ f (40) 1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ Δ f (40)
+ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3! 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 4!

× 42 + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ × 9 + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
= 31 + (− 25)
2 2 ⎝ ⎠
2 2! 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3 !
1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ 1
+ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ × 37
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 4 !
= 47 ⋅ 868 (on simplification).
Hence the number of students with marks less than 45 is 47 ⋅ 868 i. e., 48.
But the number of students with marks less than 40 is 31.
 N-59

Hence the required number of students getting marks between 40 and 45 is

= 48 − 31 = 17.
Example 3: The following table gives the population of a town during the last six censuses.
Estimate using any suitable interpolation formula, the increase in the population during the
period from 1946 to 1948 :
Year : 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961

Population : 12 15 20 27 39 52
(in thousands)

Solution: The difference table for the given data is as follows :

Year Population Δy Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y Δ5 y
x y
1911 12
3
1921 15 2
5 0
1931 20 2 3
7 3 −10
1941 27 5 −7
12 −4
1951 39 1
13
1961 52

We have to find f (1946) and f (1948).

1946 − 1911
To find f (1946), u = = 3 ⋅ 5.
10
Applying Newton’s formula for forward interpolation, we get
(3 ⋅ 5) (2 ⋅ 5) (3 ⋅ 5) (2 ⋅ 5) (1⋅ 5) (⋅5)
f (1946) = 12 + 3 ⋅ 5 × 3 + ×2+0 + ×3
2! 4!
(3 ⋅ 5) (2 ⋅ 5) (1⋅ 5) (⋅5) (− ⋅ 5)
+ (− 10)
5!
= 12 + 10 ⋅ 5 + 8 ⋅ 75 + 0 ⋅ 8203 + ⋅ 2734 = 32 ⋅ 3437.
1948 − 1911
To find f (1948), u = = 3 ⋅ 7.
10
(3 ⋅ 7) (2 ⋅ 7) (3 ⋅ 7) (2 ⋅ 7) (1⋅ 7) (⋅7)
∴ f (1948) = 12 + 3 ⋅ 7 × 3 + ×2+0 + ×3
2! 4!
(3 ⋅ 7) (2 ⋅ 7) (1⋅ 7) (⋅7) (− ⋅ 3)
+ (− 10)
5!
 N-60

= 12 + 11⋅ 1 + 9 ⋅ 99 + 1⋅ 4860 + 0 ⋅ 2972 = 34 ⋅ 8732 .

Therefore increase in the population during the period from 1946 to 1948
= f (1948) − f (1946) = 34 ⋅ 8732 − 32 ⋅ 3437 = 2 ⋅ 5295 thousand
= 2 ⋅ 53 thousand approximately.
Example 4: Given
sin 45° = 0 ⋅ 7071, sin 50 ° = 0 ⋅ 7660
sin 55° = 0 ⋅ 8192 , sin 60 ° = 0 ⋅ 8660.
Find sin 52° by using any method of interpolation. (Purvanchal 2009; Kanpur 11)
Solution: Here, we have
x: 45° 50 ° 55° 60 °

f ( x) : 0⋅7071 0⋅7660 0⋅8192 0⋅8660

The difference table for the given data is as follows :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)

45° 0 ⋅ 7071
0 ⋅ 0589
50 ° 0⋅7660 −0 ⋅ 0057
0⋅0532 −0 ⋅ 0007
55° 0⋅8192 −0 ⋅ 0064
0⋅0468
60 ° 0⋅8660
We want f (52° ) = f (a + uh), say.
7
∴ 52° = a + uh ⇒ 52° = 45° + u × 5° ⇒ u = = 1⋅ 4.
5
By Newton’s forward interpolation formula, we get
u (u − 1) 2
f (a + uh) = f (a) + u Δ f (a) + Δ f (a)
2!
u (u − 1) (u − 2)
+ Δ3 f (a).
3!
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4)
∴ f (52° ) = f (45° ) + 1⋅ 4 Δ f (45° ) + Δ2 f (45° )
2!
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4) (− 0 ⋅ 6)
+ Δ3 f (45° )
3!
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4)
= 0 ⋅ 7071 + 1⋅ 4 × 0 ⋅ 0589 + (− 0 ⋅ 0057)
2!
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4) (− 0 ⋅ 6)
+ × (− 0 ⋅ 0007)
3!
= 0 ⋅ 7071 + 0 ⋅ 08246 − 0 ⋅ 001596 + 0 ⋅ 0000392 = 0 ⋅ 7880032 .
Thus sin 52° = 0 ⋅ 7880032 = 0 ⋅ 7880 approx.
 N-61

Example 5: Using Newton’s formula for interpolation, estimate the population for the year
1905 :
Year Population

1891 98, 752

1901 132, 285

1911 168, 076

1921 195, 690

1931 246, 050

Solution: The difference table is as given below :

Year Population Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x) Δ4 f ( x)
x f ( x)

1891 98752
33533
1901 132285 2258
35791 − 10435
1911 168076 − 8177 41358
27614 30923
1921 195690 22746
50360
1931 246050
x−a 1905 − 1891
Here a = 1891, u = = = 1⋅ 4.
h 10
By Newton’s interpolation formula, we have
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4)
f (1905) = 98725 + (1⋅ 4) (33533) + (2258)
2!
(1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4) (− 0 ⋅ 6) (1⋅ 4) (0 ⋅ 4) (− 0 ⋅ 6) (− 1⋅ 6)
+ (− 10435) + (41358)
3! 4!
= 98752 + 46946 ⋅ 2 + 632 ⋅ 24 + 584 ⋅ 36 + 926 ⋅ 42
= 147841 approximately.
Example 6: The area A of a circle of diameter d is given for the following values :
d: 80 85 90 95 100
A: 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854

Find approximate values for the areas of circles of diameters 82 and 91 respectively.
Solution: First we shall find the value of A corresponding to d = 82 . Let
A = f (d ).
 N-62

The difference table is given below :

d f (d ) Δf (d ) Δ2 f (d ) Δ3 f (d ) Δ4 f (d )
80 5026
648
85 5674 40
688 −2
90 6362 38 4
726 2
95 7088 40
766
100 7854
Now f (82) = area of circle of diameter 82 = f (a + uh).
2
∴ 82 = a + uh ⇒ 82 = 80 + u × 5 ⇒ u = ⋅
5
By Newton’s forward interpolation formula, we get
Δ2 f (80)
Δf (80) + ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟
2 2 2
f (82) = f (80) +
5 5 ⎝5 ⎠ 2!
3
+
2 ⎛⎜ 2 − 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 2 − 2⎞⎟ Δ f (80)
5 ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ 3!
2 ⎛2 Δ4 f (80)
⎜ − 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − 2⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − 3⎞⎟
2 2
+
5 ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠ 4!
40 2 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞ (−2)
× 648 + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ×
2 2 3
= 5026 + + ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
5 5 ⎝ 5⎠ 2 5 ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ 6
2 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 13⎞ 4
+ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⋅
5 ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠ 24
= 5026 + 259 ⋅ 2 − 4 ⋅ 8 − 0 ⋅ 128 − 0 ⋅ 1664
= 5280 ⋅ 1056 = 5280 approx.
Similarly we can find f (91) i. e., the area of circle of diameter 91.
We find that f (91) = 6504.
Example 7: The population of a country in the decennial census were as under. Estimate the
population for the year 1925.
Year x : 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Population y : 46 66 81 93 101
(in thousands)
x − 1891
Solution: Let us introduce a new variable u given by u = ⋅
10
∴ u takes the values 0, 1, 2 , 3, 4.
 N-63

The difference table is as follows :

u y Δy Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y

0 46
20
1 66 −5
15 2
2 81 −3 −3
12 −1
3 93 −4
8
4 101
Since five values are given, we must assume that fourth differences are constant.
1925 − 1891
We want the entry for x = 1925, i. e., for u = = 3 ⋅ 4.
10
We have
y3⋅4 = E3⋅4 y0 = (1 + Δ)3⋅4 y0
3⋅4 × 2⋅4 2 3 ⋅ 4 × 2 ⋅ 4 × 1⋅ 4 3
= y0 + 3 ⋅ 4 Δ y0 + Δ y0 + Δ y0
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
3 ⋅ 4 × 2 ⋅ 4 × 1⋅ 4 × ⋅ 4
+ Δ4 y0
1× 2 × 3 × 4
3⋅4 × 2⋅4 3 ⋅ 4 × 2 ⋅ 4 × 1⋅ 4
= 46 + 3 ⋅ 4 × 20 + (−5) + ×2
2 6
3 ⋅ 4 × 2 ⋅ 4 × 1⋅ 4 × ⋅ 4
+ (−3)
24
= 46 + 68 − 20 ⋅ 4 + 3 ⋅ 808 − 0 ⋅ 5712 = 96 ⋅ 8368 thousand.
Hence the population for 1925 is estimated to be 96 ⋅ 84 thousand.
Example 8: If l x represents the numbers living at age x in a life table, find accurately as data
will permit, l x for values of x = 35, 42 , 47 ; given l20 = 512 , l30 = 439, l40 = 346 and
l50 = 243.
Solution: For the given values the difference table is as follows :
x l x = f ( x) Δ lx Δ2 l x Δ3 l x

20 512
− 73
30 439 − 20
− 93 10
40 346 − 10
− 103
50 243
 N-64

By Newton-Gregory interpolation formula, we have

u (u − 1) 2
f (a + uh) = f (a) + u Δf (a) + Δ f (a)
2!
u (u − 1) (u − 2)
+ Δ3 f (a) + … …(1)
3!
(a) To interpolate l35 . Here a = 20, h = 10 ;
x−a 35 − 20
∴ for x = 35, we have u= = = 1⋅ 5.
h 10
∴ from (1),
1⋅ 5 × ⋅ 5 1⋅ 5 × ⋅ 5 × (− ⋅ 5)
l35 = 512 + 1⋅ 5 × (−73) + × (− 20) + × 10
2 6
= 512 − 109 ⋅ 5 − 7 ⋅ 5 − ⋅ 625 = 394 ⋅ 375
= 394 (rounded up value).
42 − 20
(b) To interpolate l42 . Here a = 20, h = 10 and u = = 2⋅2 .
10
∴ from (1),
1 1
l42 = 512 + 2 ⋅ 2 × (− 73) + ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 × 1⋅ 2 × (− 20) + × 2 ⋅ 2 × 1⋅ 2 × ⋅ 2 × 10
2 6
= 512 − 160 ⋅ 6 − 26 ⋅ 4 + ⋅ 88 = 325 ⋅ 88 = 325 approx.
47 − 20
(c) To interpolate l47 . Here u = = 2 ⋅ 7.
10
∴ from (1),
1 1
l47 = 512 + 2 ⋅ 7 × (− 73) + ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7 × 1⋅ 7 × (− 20) + ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7 × 1⋅ 7 × ⋅ 7 × 10
2 6
or l47 = 512 − 197 ⋅ 1 − 45 ⋅ 9 + 5 ⋅ 355
= 274 ⋅ 355 = 274 approx.
Example 9: Find the number of men getting wages between ` 10 and ` 15 from the following
table :

Wages in ` Frequency

0 – 10 9

10 – 20 30

20 – 30 35

30 – 40 42

Solution: First we prepare the cumulative frequency table, as given below :

 N-65

Wages less than rupees No. of men

x f ( x)

10 9

20 39

30 74

40 116

The difference table is as given below :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)

10 9
30
20 39 5
35 2
30 74 7
42
40 116

Now f (15) = no. of men getting wages less than ` 15

= f (a + uh), (say).
1
∴ 15 = a + uh ⇒ 15 = 10 + u × 10 ⇒ u = ⋅
2
∴ By Newton’s forward interpolation formula,
1 ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ − 1⎟
1 2 ⎝2 ⎠ 2
f (15) = f (10) + Δ f (10) + Δ f (10)
2 2!
1 ⎛⎜ 1 − 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ 1 − 2⎞⎟
2 ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ 3
+ Δ f (10)
3!

× 30 + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ × 5 + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
=9+ ×2
2 2 ⎝ ⎠
2 2! 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3 !
= 9 + 15 − 0 ⋅ 625 + 0 ⋅ 125
= 23 ⋅ 5
= 24 nearly.
Therefore no. of persons getting wages between ` 10 and ` 15
= 24 − 9 = 15.
 N-66

Example 10: Use Newton formula for interpolation to find the net premium at the age 25
from the table given below :

Age Annual net premium

20 0⋅01427

24 0⋅01581

28 0⋅01772

32 0⋅01996

Solution: The difference table for the given data is as follows :

Age x Premium f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)

20 0 ⋅ 01427
0 ⋅ 00154
24 0⋅01581 0 ⋅ 00037
0⋅00191 −0 ⋅ 00004
28 0⋅01772 0⋅00033
0⋅00224
32 0⋅01996
We have to find f (25) = f (a + uh), (say).
5
∴ 25 = a + uh ⇒ 25 = 20 + u × 4 ⇒ u = ⋅
4
∴ u = 1⋅ 25.
By Newton’s formula, we get
u (u − 1)
f (a + uh) = f (a) + u Δf (a) + Δ2 f (a)
2!
u (u − 1) (u − 2)
+ Δ3 f (a)
3!
[Leaving higher order differences]
(1⋅ 25) (1⋅ 25 − 1) 2
∴ f (25) = f (20) + (1⋅ 25) × Δf (20) + Δ f (20)
2!
(1⋅ 25) (1⋅ 25 − 1) (1⋅ 25 − 2)
+ Δ3 f (20)
3!
(1⋅ 25) (⋅25)
= 0 ⋅ 01427 + (1⋅ 25) (0 ⋅ 00154) + (0 ⋅ 00037)
2
(1⋅ 25) (⋅25) (− 0 ⋅ 75)
+ (− 0 ⋅ 00004)
6
= 0 ⋅ 01427 + 0 ⋅ 001925 + 0 ⋅ 0000578 + 0 ⋅ 0000016
= 0 ⋅ 0162544 = 0 ⋅ 01625 approx.
 N-67

Example 11: The following are the numbers of deaths in four successive ten year age groups.
Find the number of deaths at 45 – 50 and 50 – 55.
Age group : 25 – 35 35 – 45 45 – 55 55 – 65
Deaths : 13229 18139 24225 31496
(Bundelkhand 2012)
Solution: First we shall form the cumulative frequency table.
Age above 25 and below No. of deaths
x f ( x)
35 13229
45 31368
55 55593
65 87089
The difference table is as under :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)

35 13229
18139

45 31368 6086
24225 1185

55 55593 7271
31496

65 87089

First we shall find f (50) i. e., the no. of deaths above the age 25 and below 50.
x − a 50 − 35
Here u = = = 1⋅ 5.
h 10
By Newton’s formula, we get
(1⋅ 5) (1⋅ 5 − 1)
f (50) = f (35) + (1⋅ 5) Δf (35) + Δ2 f (35)
2!
(1⋅ 5) (1⋅ 5 − 1) (1⋅ 5 − 2)
+ Δ3 f (35)
3!
(1⋅ 5) (⋅5) (1⋅ 5) (⋅5) (− ⋅ 5)
= 13229 + (1⋅ 5) (18139) + × 6086 + × (1185)
2 6
= 13229 + 27208 ⋅ 5 + 2282 ⋅ 25 − 74 ⋅ 0625 = 2646 .
Hence the required number of deaths between 45 and 50
= 42646 − 31368 = 11278.
Therefore the number of deaths between 50 and 55
= 24225 − 11278 = 12947.
 N-68

Example 12: Given

x: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f ( x) : 1 8 27 64 125 216 343 512
Find f (7 ⋅ 5). (Kanpur 2012)
Solution: The value to be interpolated lies at the end of the given observations i. e.,
near x = 8. So in this case Newton’s backward formula will be more suitable.
x − (a + nh) 7⋅5 − 8
Here u= = = − 0 ⋅ 5.
h 1

To calculate backward differences ∇ f (a + nh), ∇ 2 f (a + nh), … , we prepare the

following difference table.

x f ( x) ∇f ( x) ∇2 f ( x) ∇3 f ( x)

1 1
7
2 8 12
19 6
3 27 18
37 6
4 64 24
61 6
5 125 30
91 6
6 216 36
127 6
7 343 42
169
8 512
Since ∇ 3 f ( x) is constant, so we can leave higher order differences.
By Newton’s backward interpolation formula,
u (u + 1)
f (a + nh + uh) = f (a + nh) + u ∇f (a + nh) + ∇ 2 f (a + nh)
2!
u (u + 1) (u + 2)
+ ∇ 3 f (a + nh).
3!
(− 0 ⋅ 5) (− 0 ⋅ 5 + 1)
∴ f (7 ⋅ 5) = f (8) + (− 0 ⋅ 5) ∇f (8) + ∇ 2 f (8)
2
(− 0 ⋅ 5) (− 0 ⋅ 5 + 1) (− 0 ⋅ 5 + 2)
+ ∇ 3 f (8)
6
 N-69

(− 0 ⋅ 5) (0 ⋅ 5) (− 0 ⋅ 5) (0 ⋅ 5) (1⋅ 5)
= 512 + (− 0 ⋅ 5) × 169 + × 42 + ×6
2 6
= 512 − 84 ⋅ 5 − 5 ⋅ 25 − ⋅ 375 = 421⋅ 875.
Example 13: A second degree polynomial passes through (0, 1), (1, 3), (2 , 7) and (3, 13).
Find the polynomial.
Solution: The difference table is as follows :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)

0 1
2
1 3 2
4 0
2 7 2
6
3 13
u (u − 1)
We know that f (a + uh) = f (a) + u Δf (a) + Δ2 f (a),
2!
expanding upto second order differences only.
Put a = 0, h = 1, u = x, so that
x ( x − 1) x ( x − 1)
f ( x) = f (0) + x Δf (0) + Δ2 f (0) = 1 + x × 2 + ×2
2! 2!
= 1 + 2 x + x 2 − x = x 2 + x + 1.
Example 14: The following table is given :
x : 0 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 3 6 11 18 27
What is the form of the function f ( x) ? (Rohilkhand 2002; Bundelkhand 11)
Solution: The difference table for the given data is as follows :

x f ( x) Δf ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x)
0 3
3
1 6 2
5 0
2 11 2
7 0
3 18 2
9
4 27
Here, the interval of differencing h is 1. We have
 N-70

f ( x) = E x f (0) = (1 + Δ) x f (0)

⎡ x ( x − 1) 2 ⎤
= ⎢1 + xΔ + Δ ⎥ f (0)
⎣ 2! ⎦
[ ∵ Third and higher differences of f ( x) are all zero]
x ( x − 1)
= f (0) + x Δf (0) + Δ2 f (0)
2!
x ( x − 1)
=3+ x×3+ ×2
2!
= x 2 + 2 x + 3.
Example 15: Show that Newton-Gregory interpolation formula can be put in the form
u x = u0 + x Δu0 − ax Δ2 u0 + abx Δ3 u0 − abc x Δ4 u0 + …
1 1 1
where a =1− ( x + 1), b = 1 − ( x + 1), c = 1 − ( x + 1) etc.
2 3 4
1
Solution: Here, a = 1 − ( x + 1).
2
1 1
∴ − a = ( x + 1) − 1 = ( x − 1).
2 2
1 1 1
Also b = 1 − ( x + 1). ∴ − b = ( x + 1) − 1 = ( x − 2).
3 3 3
1 1
Similarly − c = ( x − 3), − d = ( x − 4), etc.
4 5
Newton-Gregory interpolation formula gives

x x ( x − 1) 2 x ( x − 1)( x − 2) 3
u x = u0 + Δu0 + Δ u0 + Δ u0
1! 2! 3!

x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3)
+ Δ4 u0 + …
4!

⎛ x − 1⎞ 2 ⎛ x − 1⎞ ⎛ x − 2⎞ 3
= u0 + x Δu0 + x ⎜ ⎟ Δ u0 + x ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Δ u0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ x − 1⎞ ⎛ x − 2⎞ ⎛ x − 3⎞ 4
+ x⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Δ u0 + …
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

= u0 + x Δu0 + x (− a) Δ2 u0 + x (− a) (− b) Δ3 u0
+ x (− a) (− b) (− c ) Δ4 u0 + …

= u0 + x Δu0 − ax Δ2 u0 + abx Δ3 u0 − abc x Δ4 u0 + …

 N-71

Example 16: Given

10 10
Σ u x = 500426 , Σ u x = 329240
1 4
10
Σ u x = 175212 and u10 = 40365.
7

Find u1 .
Solution: Here we are given the cumulative function, say F ( x). We are given
10 10
F (1) = Σ u x = 500426 , F (4) = Σ u x = 329240,
1 4
10
F (7) = Σ u x = 175212 , F (10) = u10 = 40365.
7

The difference table for F ( x) is as follows :

x F ( x) ΔF ( x) Δ2 F ( x) Δ3 F ( x)

1 500426
−171186
4 329240 17158
−154028 2023
7 175212 19181
−134847
10 40365
10
Now we shall find F (2) = Σ u x .
2
1
Taking a + xh = 2 , we get 1 + 3 . x = 2 ⇒ x = ⋅
3
By Newton’s formula, we get

F (2) = F (1) + x ΔF (1) + x

C2 Δ2 F (1) + x
C3 Δ3 F (1) + …

= 500426 +
1
(− 171186) + ⎛⎜ 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − 2⎞⎟ 1 × 17158
3 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 2 !

+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⋅
1 2 5 1
× 2023
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 3 !

= 500426 − 57062 − 1906 ⋅ 4444 + 124 ⋅ 8765

= 441582 ⋅ 432 .
10 10
Hence u1 = Σ u x − Σ u x = F (1) − F ( 2 )
1 2

= 500426 − 441582 ⋅ 432

= 58843 ⋅ 568.
 N-72

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. What do you mean by Interpolation ? What are the underlying

assumptions for the validity of the various methods used for interpolation ?
2. Derive an interpolation formula for equal intervals.
3. By constructing a difference table, find the 7th term as well as the general
term of the sequence 0, 0, 2, 6, 12, 20, …
4. In an examination the number of candidates who secured marks between
certain limits were as follows :

Marks : 0 – 19 20 – 39 40 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 99

No. of candidates : 41 62 65 50 17

Estimate the number of candidates getting marks less than 70.

5. If u0 = 0, u10 = 15, u20 = 50, estimate u15 . If you were given in addition
u5 = 35, how would your estimate be revised ?
6. Find the polynomial which fits the data in the following table :

x : 3 5 7 9 11

y = f ( x) : 6 24 58 108 174

7. Prove the following formula due to Newton

x ( x + 1) 2
f ( x) = f (0) + xΔf (−1) + Δ f (−2)
2!
given values of f ( x) for x = 0, − 1, − 2 , … .
8. The population of a town in the decennial census was as given below.
Estimate the population for the year 1895.

Years : 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

Population : 46 66 81 93 101
(in thousand)

9. The gamma function, Γ ( x) is tabulated for various values of x in the

following table :

x : 1 ⋅ 15 1 ⋅ 16 1 ⋅ 17 1 ⋅ 18 1 ⋅ 19

Γ ( x) : 0 ⋅ 93304 0 ⋅ 92980 0 ⋅ 92670 0 ⋅ 92373 0 ⋅ 92088

Find Γ (1⋅ 1673).

 N-73

10. Find y when x = 8 for

x : 0 5 10 15 20 25

y : 7 11 14 18 24 32

11. The following are the marks obtained by 492 candidates in a certain
examination.
Marks : No. of candidates

0 – 40 210

40 – 45 43

45 – 50 54

50 – 55 74

55 – 60 32

60 – 65 79

Find out the number of candidates :

(a) who secured more than 48 but not more than 50 marks,
(b) less than 48 but not less than 45 marks.
12. From the following table of yearly premiums for policies maturing at
quinquennial ages, interpolate the premium for policies maturing at the age
of 12 years.

Age (years) x : 10 15 20 25 30 35

Premium f ( x) : 3 ⋅ 54 3 ⋅ 22 2 ⋅ 91 2 ⋅ 60 2 ⋅ 31 2 ⋅ 04

13. Estimate the sale for 1966 using the following table :

Year : 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981

Sale in thousands : 12 15 20 27 39 52

14. Given the following table

x : 0 ⋅1 0 ⋅2 0 ⋅3 0 ⋅4 0 ⋅5
x
e : 1 ⋅ 10517 1 ⋅ 2140 1 ⋅ 34986 1 ⋅ 49182 1 ⋅ 64872

Find (a) e 0⋅243 , (b) e 0⋅411 .

15. Given log x for x = 310, 320, 330, 340, 350 and 360 according to the
logarithmic table. Find the value of log 3375.
 N-74

A nswers 1

3. 30 ; r (r − 1) 4. 196
5. u15 = 19 ⋅ 75 6. 2 x 2 − 7 x + 9
8. 54 ⋅ 85 thousands 9. 0 ⋅ 92831
10. 13 approx 11. (a) 31, (b) 27
12. 3 ⋅ 41 13. 32 ⋅ 3436
14. (a) 1⋅ 2701 (b) 1⋅ 5083 15. 3 ⋅ 52829 approx

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. For the values f (0) = 3, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 11, f (3) = 18, f (4) = 27, the form
of the function f ( x) is

(a) x 2 + 2 x + 3 (b) x 2 + 2 x + 1
(c) x 2 + 2 x + 5 (d) x 2 + 2 x + 4. (Meerut 2013B)

2. Let the arguments x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n be equally spaced i.e.,

x1 − x0 = x2 − x1 = … = x n − x n − 1 = h.
The f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ) =

1 1 n
(a) n
Δ n f ( x0 ) (b) Δ f ( x0 )
n! h n!

(c) h n Δn f ( x0 ) (d) Δn f ( x0 ) (Meerut 2013B)

3. In Newton-Gregory formula for backward interpolation,

Pn ( x) = A0 + A1 ( x − a − nh) + … , the value of A0 is
(a) f ( a + nh) (b) f (a + h)
(c) f (a) (d) none of these
 N-75

4. The nth term of the Newton’s-Gregory formula is :

Δn + 1 f (a)
(a) ( x − a) ( x − (a + h)) … ( x − (a + nh))
(n + 1)! h n + 1
Δn + 1 f (a)
(b) ( x − a) ( x − (a + h)) … ( x − (a + (n − 1) h))
(n + 1) ! h n
Δn f (a)
(c) ( x − a) ( x − (a + h)) … ( x − (a + nh))
n ! h(n)
Δn f (a)
(d) ( x − a) ( x − (a + h)) … ( x − (a + (n − 1) h))
n!h n
5. Newton-Gregory formula forward interpolation is used for :
(a) equal intervals
(b) unequal intervals
(c) both equal and unequal intervals
(d) none of these
6. The technique of obtaining the most likely estimate of a certain quantity
under certain assumptions is called :
(a) extrapolation
(b) interpolation
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these
7. The technique of obtaining the value of f ( x) for any value of the argument
outside the given range of the argument is known as :
(a) extrapolation
(b) interpolation
(c) estimation
(d) none of these
8. The quadratic polynomial for the following data
x : 0 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 3 6 11 18 27
is given by :
(a) x 2 − 2 x + 3
(b) x 2 + 2 x + 3
(c) x 2 − 2 x − 3 x
(d) x 2 − 2 x + 4
 N-76

9. The cubic polynomial which takes the following values

x : 0 1 2 3
f ( x) : 1 2 1 10
is given by :
(a) 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 x + 1
(b) 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 6 x + 1
(c) 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 6 x + 1
(d) 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 − 6 x + 1
10. The polynomial interpolating the data
x : 0 1 2
f ( x) : 0 5 2
is given by :
(a) 4 x 2 + 9 x (b) −4 x 2 + 9 x
(c) 4 x 2 − 9 x (d) −4 x 2 − 9 x

11. The cubic polynomial which takes the following values y(0)=1, y(1)=0,
y(2)=1 and y(3)=10 is given by :
(a) x 3 − 2 x 2 + 1 (b) x 3 − 2 x 2 − 1
(c) x 3 + 2 x 2 + 1 (d) x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1

12. If f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 3, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 5, then f (0.4) is given by :

(a) 3.87 (b) 2.80
(c) 1.88 (d) 0.86

13. The number of men getting wages between ` 10 and ` 15 from the
following table are :
Wages in ` : 0 − 10 10 − 20 20 − 30 30 − 40
Frequency : 9 30 35 42
(a) 15 (b) 24
(c) 20 (d) 18

14. If l(20)=512, l(30)=439, l(40)=346, and l(50)=243, then l(35) is :

(a) 394.37 (b) 368.37
(c) 350.37 (d) 340.37
 N-77

15. The following are the numbers of deaths in four successive ten year age
groups
Age group : 25 – 35 35 – 45 45 – 55 55 – 65
Deaths : 13229 18139 24225 31496
The number of deaths at 45 – 50 is :
(a) 12270 (b) 11278
(c) 11272 (d) 13275

16. If f (3) = 3, f (4) = 6 .6, f (5) = 15, f (6) = 2, f (7) = 37, then f (3 .5) is :

(a) 3.28 (b) 3.20

(c) 3.18 (d) 3.25

17. If θ: 45° 50° 55° 60°

sin θ : 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
then sin52° is :
(a) 0.7800 (b) 0.7880
(c) 0.7850 (d) 0.7860

18. If x : 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 1 8 27 64

then f(2.25) is :
(a) 13.630 (b) 14.620
(c) 15.625 (d) 16.600

19. For finding a tabulated value near the beginning of the data for equal
intervals, we prefer to use :
(a) Newton's backward interpolation formula
(b) Newton's forward interpolation formula
(c) Divided difference formula
(d) Lagrange's interpolation formula (Meerut 2013B)

20. For finding a tabulated value near the end of the data for equal intervals, we
prefer to use :
(a) Newton's backward interpolation formula
(b) Newton's forward interpolation formula
(c) Divided difference formula
(d) Lagrange's interpolation formula
 N-78

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)

¨
 3
I nterpolation with U nequal
I ntervals of the A rgument

3.1 Introduction
he interpolation formulae derived in the preceding chapter are applicable
T only when the values of the function are given at equidistant intervals of the
independent variable or argument. It is sometimes inconvenient, or even
impossible, to obtain values of a function at equidistant values of its argument,
and in such cases it is desirable to have interpolation formulae which are
applicable when the functional values are given at unequal intervals of the
argument. Two such formulae are Newton’s formula for unequal intervals of the
argument and Lagrange’s formula. The former employs differences, but the latter
does not. The differences used in the Newton formula are called divided differences
which are differences obtained in the usual manner and then divided by certain
differences of the values of the argument. Hence the name.

3.2 Divided Differences

Let f ( x0 ), f ( x1 ), … , f ( x n ) be the entries corresponding to the arguments
x0 , x1 , … , x n where the intervals x1 − x0 , x2 − x1 , … , x n − x n −1 may not be
 N-80

equal, i. e., not necessarily equally spaced. Then the first divided difference of f ( x) for
the arguments x0 , x1 is defined as
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) − f ( x1 )
or
x1 − x0 x0 − x1
and is denoted by f ( x0 , x1 ) or by Δ| f ( x0 ).
x1
Similarly the other first divided differences of f ( x) for the arguments
x1 , x2 ; x2 , x3 ; … , x n −1 , x n are
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
f ( x1 , x2 ) = = Δ| f ( x1 )
x2 − x1 x2

f ( x3 ) − f ( x2 )
f ( x2 , x3 ) = = Δ| f ( x2 )
x3 − x2 x3

… … … …
f ( x n ) − f ( x n −1 )
f ( x n −1 , x n) = = Δ| f ( x n−1 ).
x n − x n −1 xn

The second divided difference of f ( x) for the three arguments x0 , x1 and x2 is

defined as
f ( x1 , x2 ) − f ( x0 , x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) − f ( x1 , x2 )
f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) = =
x2 − x0 x0 − x2
= Δ| 2 f ( x0 ).
x1 , x2

The nth divided difference is given by

f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n ) − f ( x0 , x1 , , … , x n −1 )
f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n ) =
x n − x0
f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n −1 ) − f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n )
=
x0 − x n
= Δ| n f ( x0 ).
x1 , x2 , …, x n
Note: If two of the arguments coincide, the divided difference can be given a
meaning assigned by taking the limit. Thus
lim
f ( x0 , x0 ) = f ( x0 , x0 + ε)
ε→0
lim f ( x0 + ε) − f ( x0 )
= = f ′ ( x0 ),
ε→0 ε
if f ( x) is differentiable.
1 1
Similarly, f ( x0 , x0 , x0 ) = f ′ ′ ( x0 ), … , f ( x0 , x0 , … , x0 ) = f (r) ( x0 ).
2! (r + 1) arguments r !
Divided Difference table:
A useful table called the divided difference table showing the values of the
argument x , the entries and the divided differences is given below.
 N-81

Divided difference table

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)
x0 f ( x0 ) f ( x0 , x1)

f ( x1) − f ( x0 )
=
x1 − x0 f ( x0 , x1, x2 )

f ( x1 , x2 ) − f ( x0 , x1)
=
x2 − x0
x1 f ( x1) f ( x1, x2 ) f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 )

f ( x2 ) − f ( x1) f ( x1, x2 , x3 ) − f ( x0 , x1, x2 )

= =
x2 − x1 f ( x1, x2 , x3 ) x3 − x0
f ( x2 , x3 ) − f ( x1 , x2 )
=
x3 − x1
x2 f ( x2 ) f ( x2 , x3 ) f ( x1, x2 , x3 , x4 )

f ( x3 ) − f ( x2 ) f ( x2 , x3 , x4 ) − f ( x1, x2 , x3 )
= =
x3 − x2 f ( x2 , x3 , x4 ) x4 − x1
f ( x3 , x4 ) − f ( x2 , x3 )
=
x4 − x2
x3 f ( x3 ) f ( x3 , x4 )

f ( x4 ) − f ( x3 )
=
x4 − x3
    

3.3 Properties of Divided Differences

Theorem 1: The divided differences are symmetric functions of their arguments, that is,
the value of any divided difference is independent of the order of the arguments.
(Kanpur 2010, 12)
Proof: We have
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) − f ( x1 )
f ( x0 , x1 ) = = = f ( x1 , x0 )
x1 − x0 x0 − x1
f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x0 )
= + =Σ ,
x0 − x1 x1 − x0 x0 − x1
showing that f ( x0 , x1 ) is symmetrical in x0 , x1 .
f ( x1 , x2 ) − f ( x0 , x1 )
Again f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) =
x2 − x0
1 ⎡⎧ f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) ⎫ ⎧ f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) ⎫ ⎤
= ⎢⎨ + ⎬ −⎨ + ⎬⎥
( x2 − x0 ) ⎣⎩ x1 − x2 x2 − x1 ⎭ ⎩ x0 − x1 x1 − x0 ⎭ ⎦
 N-82

f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) [( x1 − x0 ) − ( x1 − x2 )] f ( x2 )
= + +
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x2 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 )
f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
= + +
( x0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 ) ( x1 − x0 )( x1 − x2 ) ( x2 − x0 )( x2 − x1 )
f ( x0 )
or f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) = Σ ,
( x0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 )
showing that f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) is symmetrical in x0 , x1 , x2 .
Let us assume similar symmetrical expressions for the (n − 1th ) divided differences
i. e., let us assume that
f ( x0 )
f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n−1 ) =
( x0 − x1 ) … ( x0 − x n −1 )
f ( x1 )
+
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n−1 )
f ( x n −1 )
+…+
( x n −1 − x0 ) ( x n −1 − x1 ) … ( x n −1 − x n − 2 )
f ( x0 )
=Σ ,
( x0 − x1 ) … ( x0 − x n −1 )

and similar expressions for the other (n − 1th ) divided differences.

f ( x0 , … , x n −1 ) − f ( x1 , … , x n )
Then f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ) =
x0 − x n

1 ⎡⎧⎪ f ( x0 ) f ( x1 )
= ⎢⎨ + +…
( x0 − x n ) ⎢⎣⎪⎩ 0
( x − x1 ) … ( x 0 − x n −1 ) ( x1 − x 0 … ( x1 − x n−1 )
)

f ( x n−1 ) ⎪⎫
+ ⎬
( x n −1 − x0 ) … ( x n −1 − x n − 2 )⎪
⎭
⎧ f ( x1 ) f ( x2 )
−⎨ + +…
⎩ ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n ) ( x2 − x1 ) … ( x2 − x n )
f (x n) ⎫⎪ ⎤
+ ⎬⎥
( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n −1 )⎪ ⎥
⎭⎦
f ( x0 ) f ( x1 )
= + +…
( x0 − x1 ) … ( x0 − x n ) ( x1 − x0 ) … ( x1 − x n )
f (x n) f ( x0 )
+ =Σ ,
( x n − x0 ) … ( x n − x n −1 ) ( x0 − x1 ) … ( x0 − x n )

showing that the nth divided difference f ( x0 , x1 … , x n ) is also symmetrical in

x0 , x1 , … , x n and thus completing the proof of the theorem by mathematical
induction.
 N-83

Thus we see that a divided difference is a symmetrical function of all the arguments
involved and it follows that for any function f ( x) the value of a divided difference
remains unaltered when any of the arguments involved are interchanged, i. e., the
value of a divided difference depends only on the values of the arguments involved
and not on the order in which they are taken. Thus
f ( x0 , x1 ) = f ( x1 , x0 ), f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) = f ( x1 , x0 , x2 )
= f ( x2 , x1 , x0 ) = … , and so on.
Theorem 2: The nth divided differences of a polynomial of the nth degree are constant.
(Garhwal 2010; Bundelkhand 11)
Proof: First consider the function f ( x) = x n . The first divided differences of this
function are given by
n
f ( x r +1 ) − f ( x r ) x r +1 − x r n
f ( x r , x r +1 ) = =
x r +1 − x r x r +1 − x r
n −1 n−2
= x r +1 + x r x r +1 + … + x r n − 2 x r +1 + x r n −1 ,

which is a homogeneous expression of degree (n − 1) in x r , x r +1 .

n −1 n−2 n−3 n−2 n −1
[Note that a n
−b n
= (a − b) (a +a b+a b 2 + … + ab +b )]
The second divided differences are given by
f ( x r , x r +1 ) − f ( x r +1 , x r + 2 )
f ( x r , x r +1 , x r + 2 ) =
x r − x r +2
f ( x r +1 , x r + 2 ) − f ( x r , x r +1 )
=
x r +2 − x r
1 n −1 n −2 n−2 n−1
= [( x r + 2 + x r +1 x r + 2 + … + x r +1 x r +2 + x r +1 )
( x r +2 − x r )
n−1 n−2
− x r +1 + x r x r +1 + … + x r n−2 x r +1 + x r n−1 )]
n−1 n−2
xr +2
− x r n−1 xr +2
− x r n−2 n−2
( x r +2 − x r )
= + xr +1 + … + x r +1
xr +2 − xr xr +2 − xr x r +2 − x r

n−2 n−3 n−2

= ( x r + 2 + … + x r n−2 ) + x r +1 ( x r +1 + … + x r n − 3 ) + … + x r + 1 ,

which is a homogeneous expression of degree n − 2 in x r , x r +1 and x r + 2 .

By induction it can be shown that f ( x r , x r +1 , … , x r + m ) is a homogeneous
expression of degree n − m. In particular, the nth divided difference of f ( x) = x n is
an expression of degree zero, i. e., is a constant, and is therefore independent of the
values of x r , x r +1 , x r + 2 , … , x r + n .
Since the nth divided differences of x n are constant, therefore the divided
differences of x n of order greater than n will all be zero.
If f ( x) = ax n , where a is a constant, then the nth divided difference of f ( x)
= a. (the nth divided difference of x n ), which is a constant.
 N-84

Hence if f ( x) = a0 x n
+ a1 x n −1 + … + a n −1 x + a n be a polynomial of degree n, then
the nth divided differences of all the terms except a0 x n will be zero and so the nth
divided difference of the whole polynomial will be constant.
Theorem 3: The nth divided difference can be expressed as the quotient of two
determinants each of order n + 1.
Proof : Let us consider the third divided difference.
f ( x0 )
We have f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = Σ
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 )
Σ [ f ( x0 ) ⋅ (difference - product of x1 , x2 , x3 )
=
difference - product of x0 , x1 , x2 , x3
By the theorem of determinants due to Vander-Monde,

⏐ x12 x2 2 x3 2 ⏐
the difference product of x1 , x2 , x3 = ⏐ x1 x2 x3 ⏐⋅
⏐ ⏐
⏐ 1 1 1 ⏐

Therefore,

⎡ x03 x13 x23 x33

⏐ x12 x2 2 x3 2 ⏐ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ x2 x12 x22 x32
f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = Σ ⎢ f ( x0 )⏐ x1 x2 x3 ⏐ ⎥ ÷ 0
⏐ ⏐ x0 x1 x2 x3
⎢ 1 ⏐⎥
⎣ ⏐ 1 1
⎦ 1 1 1 1

⏐ f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) f ( x3 )⏐
⏐ x 2 x1 2
x2 2 x3 2 ⏐
or f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ⏐ 0 ⏐
⏐ x x1 x2 x3 ⏐
⏐ 0 ⏐
⏐ 1 1 1 1 ⏐
x03 x13 x23 x33
x 2 x12 x22 x32
÷ 0
x0 x1 x2 x3
1 1 1 1
Thus the third divided difference has been expressed as the quotient of two
determinants each of order 4.
Proceeding the same way, we can express the higher order differences as the
quotient of two determinants each of order one more than the order of the
difference.
Theorem 4: The divided differences can be expressed as the product of multiple integrals
i. e.,
1 t1 t2 tn − 2 n −1
f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n ) = ∫0 dt1 ∫0 dt2 ∫0 dt3 … ∫
0
f (un ) dt n−1
 N-85

where un = (1 − t1 ) x1 + (t1 − t2 ) x2 + … + (t n−2 − t n−1 ) x n−1 + t n−1 x n , t1 , t2 , t3 ,

… , t n are independent variables and f n−1 means the (n − 1th
) derivative of f .
Proof: First, we shall prove the result for n = 2 , and n = 3.
For n = 2 ,
1 1
the R.H.S. = ∫0 f ′ (u2 ) dt1 = ∫0 f ′ {(1 − t1 ) x1 + t1 x2 } dt1

1
⎡ f {(1 − t1 ) x1 + t1 x2 } ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ x2 − x1 ⎦0
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
= = f ( x1 , x2 )
x2 − x1
= the L.H.S.
Again for n = 3,
1 t1
the R.H.S. = ∫0 dt1 ∫0 f ′ ′ (u3 ) dt2

1 1
= ∫0 dt1 ∫0 f ′ ′ {(1 − t1 ) x1 + (t1 − t2 ) x2 + t2 x3 } dt2

1 t
= ∫0 dt1 [ f ′ {(1 − t1 ) x1 + (t1 − t2 ) x2 + t2 x3 }]01 / ( x3 − x2 )

1 ⎡ f ′ {(1 − t1 ) x1 + t1 x2 } dt1 ⎤
1 1
=
x3 − x2 ⎢⎣ ∫0 f ′ {(1 − t1 ) x1 + t1 x3 } dt1 − ∫0 ⎥⎦
1 1
= [ f ( x3 ) − f ( x1 )] −
( x3 − x2 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 ) ( x2 − x1 )
[ f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )]
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) f ( x3 )
= + +
( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 )
= f ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
= the L.H.S.
Thus the result is true for n = 2 and n = 3.
Now let the result be true for n arguments. We shall show that it is also true for
(n + 1) arguments.
tn − 1
∫0
n
We have f (un +1 ) dt n

tn − 1
∫0
n
= f {(1 − t1 ) x1 + (t1 − t2 ) x2 + … + (t n −1 − t n ) x n + t n x n+1 } dt n

1 n −1
= [f { (1 − t1 ) x1 + (t1 − t2 ) x2 + … + (t n −1 − t n ) x n
x n +1 − x n
t
+ t n x n +1 }]0n − 1
 N-86

1 n −1
= [f { (1 − t1 ) x1 + … + (t n − 2 − t n −1 ) x n −1 + t n −1 x n }
x n − x n +1
n −1
− f { (1 − t1 ) x1 + … + (t n − 2 − t n −1 ) x n −1 + t n −1 x n +1 }] ⋅
1 t1 tn − 1
∫0 ∫0 dt2 … ∫ n
∴ dt1 f (un +1 ) dt n
0

f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n ) − f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n−1 , x n+1 )
=
x n − x n +1
f ( x n , x2 , … , x1 ) − f ( x n , x2 , … , x n−1 , x n+1 )
=
x1 − x n +1

[interchanging x1 and x n ]
f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n ) − f ( x2 , x3 , … , x n , x n +1 )
= = f ( x1 , x2 , … , x n +1 ).
x1 − x n +1

Thus the result is true for (n + 1) arguments. We have already shown that the result
is true for 2 and 3 arguments. Hence by mathematical induction the result is true
for n arguments where n is any +ive integer.

3.4 Newton’s Formula for Unequal Intervals

Let f ( x0 ), f ( x1 ), … , f ( x n ) be the values of f ( x) corresponding to the arguments

x0 , x1 , … , x n , not necessarily equally spaced. From the definition of divided
differences,
f ( x) − f ( x0 )
f ( x, x0 ) =
x − x0
or f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x, x0 ). …(1)
f ( x, x0 ) − f ( x0 , x1 )
Also f ( x, x0 , x1 ) =
x − x1
or f ( x, x0 ) = f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x1 ) f ( x, x0 , x1 ). …(2)
Similarly f ( x, x0 , x1 ) = f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) + ( x − x2 ) f ( x, x0 , x1 , x2 ) …(3)
… … … … …
… … … … …

f ( x, x0 , x1 , … , x n−1 ) = f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ) + ( x − x n ) f ( x, x0 , x1 , … , x n ) …(4)
Multiplying the equation (2) by ( x − x0 ), (3) by ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) and so on and
finally the equation (4) by ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n −1 ) and adding to the
equation (1), we have
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )
+ …+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n−1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ) + Rn ,
 N-87

where the remainder Rn is given by

Rn = ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n ) f ( x, x0 , x1 , … , x n ).
Assuming that f ( x) is a polynomial of degree n, f ( x, x0 , x1 , … , x n ) vanishes so
that
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )
+ …+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n −1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ). …(5)
This formula is called Newton’s divided difference interpolation formula.

3.5 Relation between Divided Differences and

Ordinary Differences
Let the arguments x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n be equally spaced, (Kanpur 2010, 12)
i. e., h = x1 − x0 = x2 − x1 = … = x n − x n −1
and let x = x0 + uh. Then
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) 1
f ( x0 , x1 ) = = Δ f ( x0 ),
x1 − x0 h
f ( x0 , x1 ) − f ( x1 , x2 )
f ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) =
x0 − x2
1 1
Δ f ( x0 ) − Δ f ( x1 )
1
= h h = Δ2 f ( x0 ).
−2 h 2!h 2

1
Similarly f ( x0 , x1 , … , x n ) = Δn f ( x0 ).
n ! hn
Substituting these values of the divided differences in Newton’s formula i. e., the
equation (5) of article 3.4, we get
uh uh (uh − h) 2
f ( x0 + uh) = f ( x0 ) + Δ f ( x0 ) + Δ f ( x0 ) + …
1! h 2 ! h2

uh (uh − h) (uh − 2 h) … (uh − n − 1 h)

+ n
Δ n f ( x0 )
n!h
u (u − 1)
= f ( x0 ) + u Δ f ( x0 ) + Δ2 f ( x0 ) + …
2!
u (u − 1) (u − 2) … (u − n − 1)
+ Δ n f ( x0 )
n!
= f ( x0 ) + u C1 Δ f ( x0 ) + u C2 Δ2 f ( x0 ) + … + u Cn Δn f ( x0 ),
which is Newton’s formula for advancing differences.
 N-88

3.6 Sheppard’s Rule

In Newton’s divided difference formula the function f ( x) is expressed in terms of
leading term and leading differences of a divided difference table. But now we shall
give a rule known as Sheppard’s rule which can be used to write a divided difference
formula with any value of f ( x) as the initial term.
Newton’s divided difference formula for interpolation is
f ( x) = P ( x)
= f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) Δ| f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) Δ| 2 f ( x0 ) + …
x1 x1 , x2

+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n−1 ) Δ| n f ( x0 ) …(1)
x1 , …, x n
In (1), put
x − x0 = X 0 , x − x1 = X1 , … , x − x n −1 = X n −1 .
Then, we have
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + X 0 Δ| f ( x0 ) + X 0 X1 Δ| 2 f ( x0 )
x1 x1 , x2

+ … + X 0 … X n−1 Δ| n f ( x0 ) …(2)
x1 , …, x n
In the R.H.S. of (2) we observe that the coefficients of various terms are written in
capital letters X 0 , X1 , … , etc. and the suffixes of the operator and the operand are
given in small letters x0 , x1 etc. In the first term of R.H.S. of (2), the coefficient of
f ( x0 ) is one and the suffix of the operand is x0 . In the second term, the coefficient
is X 0 and there are two suffixes x0 and x1 in the operator and the operand. In the
third term the coefficient consists of two letters X 0 , X1 and there are three suffixes
x0 , x1 and x2 in the operator and operand and so on. We conclude from this that
small letters in each term of R.H.S. of (2) are one more in number than the number
of capital letters. Now we give the small and capital letters term by term.
Small letters : x0 x0 x1 x0 x1 x2 … x0 x1 … xn−1 xn
Capital letters : 1 X0 X0 X1 … X0 X1 … X n−1.
This characteristic of Newton’s divided difference formula has given rise to a rule
which is called Sheppard’s rule or Zigzag rule, and is as follows :
(i) Start with any initial term.
(ii) In order to get the second term take any first order difference, either moving
upwards or downwards in the divided difference table, which contains the
suffix of the initial term and multiply this first order difference by the term
obtained by subtracting from x the value of the suffix of the initial term.
(iii) In the same way find the third term, keeping in mind the suffixes of second
term. In this way complete the formula.
The rule will be clear from the following example.
 N-89

Illustration: The following observations are given for the function y = f ( x) :

x: x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
f ( x) : f ( x0 ) f ( x1) f ( x2 ) f ( x3 ) f ( x4 ) f ( x5 )

Then find a divided difference formula with f ( x2 ) as the initial term.

Solution: For the given data we construct the following difference table.Δ|
x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x) Δ| 4 f ( x) Δ| 5 f ( x)

x0 f ( x0 )
Δ| f ( x0 )
x1
x1 f ( x1) Δ| 2 f ( x0 )
x1 x2
Δ| f ( x1) Δ| 3 f ( x0 )
x2 x1 x2 x3

x2 f ( x2 ) Δ| 2 f ( x1) Δ| 4 f ( x0 )
x2 x3 x1 x2 x3 x4
Δ| f ( x2 ) Δ| 3 f ( x1)
x3 x2 x3 x4 Δ| 5 f ( x0 )
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

x3 f ( x3 ) Δ| 2 f ( x2 ) Δ| 4 f ( x1)
x3 x4 x2 x3 x4 x5
3
Δ| f ( x3 ) Δ| f ( x2 )
x4 x3 x4 x5

x4 f ( x4 ) Δ| 2 f ( x3 )
x4 x5
Δ| f ( x4 )
x5
x5 f ( x5 )

Beginning with f ( x2 ) as the initial term and moving one step upwards and one
step downwards alternately in the difference table, applying Sheppard’s Rule, we
get
f ( x) = f ( x2 ) + X 2 Δ| f ( x1 ) + X 2 X1 Δ| 2 f ( x1 )
x2 x2 x3

+ X 3 X 2 X1 Δ| 3 f ( x0 ) + X 3 X 2 X1 X 0 Δ| 4 f ( x0 )
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3 x4

+ X 4 X 3 X 2 X1 X 0 Δ| 5 f ( x0 ) + …
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

= f ( x2 ) + ( x − x2 ) Δ| f ( x1 ) + ( x − x2 ) ( x − x1 ) Δ| 2 f ( x1 )
x2 x2 x3

+ ( x − x3 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x1 ) Δ| 3 f ( x0 ) + …
x1 x2 x3

This is the required interpolation formula with f ( x2 ) as the initial term.

 N-90

If we take our first step in downward direction of the difference table, the formula
will be
f ( x) = f ( x2 ) + X 2 Δ| f ( x2 ) + X 2 X 3 Δ| 2 f ( x1 )
x3 x2 x3

+ X1 X 2 X 3 Δ| 3 f ( x1 ) + X1 X 2 X 3 X 4 Δ| 4 f ( x0 ) + …
x2 x3 x4 x1 x2 x3 x4

= f ( x2 ) + ( x − x2 ) Δ| f ( x2 ) + ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) Δ| 2 f ( x1 )
x3 x2 x3

+ ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) Δ| 3 f ( x1 ) + …
x2 x3 x4

3.7 Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula for Unequal Intervals

(Purvanchal 2007, 08, 10; Rohilkhand 11; Agra 12)
Let f ( x) denote a polynomial of the nth degree which takes the values
y0 , y1 , y2 , … , y n when x has the values x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n respectively. Then
the (n + 1th
) divided differences of this polynomial are zero. Hence
f ( x, x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n ) = 0. …(1)
But we have
y
f ( x, x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n ) =
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
y0
+
( x0 − x) ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )
y1
+ +…
( x1 − x) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
yn
+ ⋅
( x n − x) ( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
∴ using (1), we get
y
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
y0
+
( x0 − x) ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )
y1
+ +…
( x1 − x) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
yn
+ = 0.
( x n − x) ( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
Transposing all the terms except the first to the right hand side, we get
y
=
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
y0
( x − x0 ) ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )
 N-91
y1
+ +…
( x − x1 ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
yn
+ ⋅
( x − x n ) ( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
Solving for y and then removing the common factors ( x − x0 ), ( x − x1 ),
( x − x2 ), … , ( x − x n ) in the respective terms, we get
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x 2 ) … ( x − x n )
y= y0 + y1
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 ) … ( x − x n )
+ y2 + …
( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) … ( x2 − x n )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n−1 )
+ yn . …(2)
( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) ( x n − x2 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
This is Lagrange’s formula and is seen to give y = y0 , y1 , … , y n when
x = x0 , x1 , … , x n respectively. The values of the independent variable may or may
not be equidistant.
Since Lagrange’s formula is merely a relation between two variables, either of
which may be taken as the independent variable, it is evident that by considering y
as the independent variable we can write a formula giving x as a function of y.
Hence on interchanging x and y in (2), we get
( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) … ( y − y n )
x= x0
( y0 − y1 ) ( y0 − y2 ) … ( y0 − y n )
( y − y0 ) ( y − y2 ) … ( y − y n )
+ x1
( y1 − y0 ) ( y1 − y2 ) … ( y1 − y n )
( y − y0 ) ( y − y1 ) … ( y − y n )
+ x2 + …
( y2 − y0 ) ( y2 − y1 ) … ( y2 − y n )
( y − y0 ) ( y − y1 ) … ( y − y n−1 )
+ xn . …(3)
( y n − y0 ) ( y n − y1 ) … ( y n − y n−1 )
The main uses of Lagrange’s formula are : (1) to find any value of a function when
the given values of the independent variable are not equidistant, and (2) to find the
value of the independent variable corresponding to a given value of the function.
The reader will notice that Lagrange’s formula is tedious to apply and involves a
great deal of computation. It must also be used with care and caution, for if the
values of the independent variable are not taken close together the results are liable
to be very inaccurate.
Alternative proof of Lagrange’s interpolation formula without using the
divided differences.
Let the given function be y = f ( x). Let corresponding to the values
x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n−1 , x n of the argument x, the values of the function f ( x) be
f ( x0 ), f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ), … , f ( x n−1 ), f ( x n ) respectively, where the intervals
 N-92

x1 − x0 , x2 − x1 , … , x n − x n−1 are not necessarily equally spaced. As we have

taken n + 1values of f ( x), therefore f ( x) can be assumed as a polynomial of degree
n.
Let f ( x) = A0 ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n−1 ) ( x − x n ) + A1 ( x − x0 )
( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n ) + …… + An ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n−1 ), …(1)
where A’s are constants.
To find A0 , A1 , A2 , … , An , we put x = x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n respectively in (1).
Thus putting x = x0 in (1), we get
f ( x0 ) = A0 ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n ) + 0 + 0 + …

f ( x0 )
or A0 = ⋅
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )

Similarly by putting x = x1 , we get

f ( x1 )
A1 = and so on.
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
f (x n)
Thus An = ⋅
( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
Substituting these values of A0 , A1 , A2 , … , An in (1), we get
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
f ( x) = f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 )…( x − x n )
+ f ( x1 ) +…
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 )…( x1 − x n )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n−1 )
…+ f ( x n ).
( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
This is Lagrange’s interpolation formula and can be used for both equal and
unequal intervals.

3.8 Hermite’s Interpolation Formula

So far we have considered the interpolation formulae which make use only of a
certain number of function values. We now derive an interpolation formula in
which both the function and its first derivative are to be assigned at each point of
interpolation.
The problem of interpolation is then : Given the set of data points
( x i , y i , y i ′ ), i = 0, 1, … , n, it is required to find a polynomial of the least degree,
say φ2 n+1 ( x), such that
φ2 n +1 ( x i ) = y i , ⎪⎫
⎬ …(1)
and φ′ 2 n +1 ( x i ) = y i ′ , i = 0, 1, … , n ⎪
⎭
 N-93

Here, we have (2n + 2) conditions and we note that a polynomial of degree (2n + 1)
has (2n + 2) coefficients to be determined.
n n
We write φ2 n+1 ( x) = Σ ui ( x) y i + Σ vi ( x) y i ′ , …(2)
i =0 i =0

where ui ( x) and vi ( x) are polynomials in x of degree (2n + 1). Using the conditions
(1), we get

ui ( x j ) = 1 if i = j, vi ( x j ) = 0 ; ⎫
⎪⎪
= 0 if i ≠ j ; vi ′ ( x j ) = 1 if i = j ⎬ …(3)
⎪
ui ′ ( x j ) = 0 = 0 if i ≠ j ⎪
⎭

We therefore choose
ui ( x) = a i ( x) [li ( x)]2 ⎫⎪
⎬ …(4)
and vi ( x) = b i ( x) [li ( x)]2 , ⎭⎪

where li ( x) is defined as
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x i−1 ) ( x − x i +1 ) … ( x − x n )
li ( x) = ⋅
( x i − x0 ) ( x i − x1 ) … ( x i − x i−1 ) ( x i − x i +1 ) … ( x i − x n )

Since li ( x) is a polynomial of degree n, it follows that a i ( x) and b i ( x) are both linear

functions.
By using the conditions (3), we get

ai ( x i ) = 1 ; bi (x i ) = 0 ; ⎫
⎬ …(5)
a i ′ ( x i ) = − 2l i ′ ( x i ) ; bi ′ (x i ) = 1 ⎭

from which it follows that

a i ( x) = 1 − 2li ′ ( x i ) ( x − x i )
and b i ( x) = x − x i .

Hence (2) becomes

n
φ2 n +1 ( x) = Σ [{1 − 2li ′ ( x i ) ( x − x i )} {li ( x)}2 y i ]
i =0

n
+ Σ [( x − x i ) {li ( x)}2 y i ′ ], …(6)
i =0

which is Hermite’s interpolation formula.

 N-94

Example 1: Construct a divided difference table for the following :

x : 1 2 4 7 12
f ( x) : 22 30 82 106 216
Solution: The divided difference table for the given data is as follows :
x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x) Δ| 4 f ( x)
1 22
30 − 22
=8
2 −1
2 30 26 − 8
=6
4 −1
82 − 30 (−3 ⋅ 6) − 6
= 26
4−2 7 −1
= − 1⋅ 6
4 82 8 − 26 0 ⋅ 535 − (−1 ⋅ 6)
= − 3 ⋅6
7−2 12 − 1
106 − 82 1 ⋅ 75 − (−3 ⋅ 6)
=8 = 0 ⋅ 194
7−4 12 − 2
= 0 ⋅ 535
7 106 22 − 8
= 1 ⋅ 75
12 − 4
216 − 106
= 22
12 − 7
12 216
Example 2: Find the third divided difference with arguments 2 , 4, 9, 10 of the function
3
f ( x) = x − 2 x. (Garhwal 2010)
Solution: The divided difference table is :
x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)
2 4
56 − 4
= 26
4−2
4 56 131 − 26
= 15
9−2
711 − 56 23 − 15
= 131 =1
9−4 10 − 2
9 711 269 − 131
= 23
10 − 4
980 − 711
= 269
10 − 9
10 980

Hence the third divided difference is 1.

 N-95

Example 3: By means of Newton’s divided difference formula, find the values of f (8) and
f (15) from the following table :
x : 4 5 7 10 11 13
f ( x) : 48 100 294 900 1210 2028

(Kanpur 2008)
Solution: The divided difference table is :

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x) Δ| 4 f ( x)

4 48
100 − 48
= 52
5−4

5 100 97 − 52
= 15
7−4
294 − 100 21 − 15
= 97 =1
7−5 10 − 4

7 294 202 − 97 0
= 21
10 − 5
900 − 294 27 − 21
= 202 =1
10 − 7 11 − 5

10 900 310 − 202 0

= 27
11 − 7
1210 − 900 33 − 27
= 310 =1
11 − 10 13 − 7

11 1210 409 − 310

= 33
13 − 10
2028 − 1210
= 409
13 − 11

13 2028

Using Newton’s interpolation formula for unequal intervals i. e., Newton’s divided
difference formula, we get
f (8) = 48 + (8 − 4) × 52 + (8 − 4) (8 − 5) × 15 + (8 − 4) (8 − 5) (8 − 7) × 1
= 448,

and f (15) = 48 + (15 − 4) × 52 + (15 − 4) (15 − 5) × 15

+ (15 − 4) (15 − 5) (15 − 7) × 1

= 3150.
 N-96

1
Example 4: If f ( x) = , find the divided differences f (a, b), f (a, b, c ) and
x2
f (a, b, c , d ).
1 1
−
f (b) − f (a) 2
a2
Solution: We have f (a, b) = = b
b−a b−a
(b 2 − a2 ) b+a
=− 2 2
=− ⋅ …(1)
(b − a) b a a2 b 2
f (b, c ) − f (a, b)
Again f (a, b, c ) =
c −a
1 ⎡ b+c a + b⎤
= ⎢⎣− b 2 c 2 + a2 b 2 ⎥⎦, using (1)
c −a

1 ⎡b + c a + b⎤
=− − 2 2⎥
(c − a) ⎢⎣ b 2 c 2 a b ⎦

1 ⎡ a2 (b + c ) − c 2 (a + b)⎤
=− ⎢ ⎥
(c − a) ⎢⎣ a2 b 2 c 2 ⎥⎦

⎡ b (a2 − c 2 ) + ac (a − c )⎤ (a − c ) {b (a + c ) + ac }
=−⎢ 2 2 2 ⎥ =−
⎢⎣ (c − a) a b c ⎥⎦ (c − a) a2 b 2 c 2

ab + bc + ca
= ⋅ …(2)
a2 b 2 c 2

f (b, c , d ) − f (a, b, c )
Now f (a, b, c , d ) =
d−a
1 ⎡ bc + cd + db ab + bc + ca⎤
= − [Using (2)]
(d − a) ⎢⎣ b 2 c 2 d2 a2 b 2 c 2 ⎥⎦

1 ⎡ a2 (bc + cd + db) − d2 (ab + bc + ca)⎤

= ⎢ ⎥
(d − a) ⎢⎣ a2 b 2 c 2 d2 ⎥⎦

1 ⎡ bc (a2 − d 2 ) + acd (a − d ) + abd (a − d )⎤

= ⎢ ⎥
(d − a) ⎣⎢ a2 b 2 c 2 d 2 ⎥⎦

(a − d ) ⎡ bc (a + d ) + acd + abd ⎤ abc + bcd + acd + abd

= ⎢ ⎥ =− ⋅
(d − a) ⎣ 2 2 2
a b c d 2
⎦ a2 b 2 c 2 d2
 N-97

Example 5: Show that Δ| 3 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =

1 1
⋅
bcd ⎝ a⎠ abcd
(Rohilkhand 2002; Kanpur 09, 12; Bundelkhand 11)
Solution: The divided difference table is as follows :

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)
1
a a
1 1
−
b a =− 1
b−a ab
1 1 1
b −
b (−1) bc ab
c−a
1 1 1
= (−1)2 −
1 1 2 bcd abc
− abc (−1)
c b =− 1 d−a
c−b bc 3 1
= (−1)
abcd
1 1 1
c −
c (−1) dc bc
d−b
1
1 1 = (−1)2
− bcd
d c =− 1
d−c dc
1
d d
1 1 1
Hence, Δ| 3 = (−1)3 =− ⋅
bcd a abcd abcd
Example 6: Show that Δ| 2 x 3 = x + y + z .
yz (Purvanchal 2008)
Solution: We construct the following divided difference table :
Argument Entry First divided differences Second divided differences

x x3

y3 − x3
= y2 + x2 + xy
y−x
(z 2 + y2 + zy) − ( y2 + x2 + yx)
y y3
z−x
(z 2 − x2 ) + y (z − x)
=
z 3 − y3 z−x
= z 2 + y2 + zy
z− y =x+ y+z

z z3
 N-98

From the table, we observe that Δ| 2 x 3 = x + y + z .

yz

Example 7: Find the polynomial of the lowest possible degree which assumes the values
3, 12 , 15, − 21 when x has the values 3, 2 , 1, − 1 respectively. (Kanpur 2008)

Solution: For the given data the divided difference table is as given below :

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)

−1 −21

15 + 21
= 18
1+ 1

1 15 − 3 − 18
= −7
2 +1
−3+7
12 − 15 =1
= −3 3 +1
2 −1

2 12 −9+3
= −3
3 −1
3 − 12
= −9
3−2

3 3

By Newton’s divided difference formula, we get

f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) Δ| f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) Δ| 2 f ( x0 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) Δ| 3 f ( x0 )
or f ( x) = − 21 + { x − (−1)} (18) + { x − (−1)} ( x − 1) (−7)
+ { x − (−1)} ( x − 1) ( x − 2) (1)
= − 21 + ( x + 1) 18 + ( x + 1) ( x − 1) (−7) + ( x + 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 2)
= x 3 − 9 x 2 + 17 x + 6.
Example 8: The observed values of a function are respectively 168, 120, 72 and 63 at the
four positions 3, 7, 9 and 10 of the independent variable. What is the best estimate you can
give for the value of the function at the position 6 of the independent variable ?
(Purvanchal 2011; Bundelkhand 12)
 N-99

Solution: The divided difference table is as given below :

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)
3 168
120 − 168
= − 12
7−3
7 120 − 24 + 12
= −2
9−3
72 − 120 5+2
= − 24 =1
9−7 10 − 3
9 72 − 9 + 24
=5
10 − 7
63 − 72
= −9
10 − 9
10 63

Hence f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) Δ| f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) Δ| 2 f ( x0 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) Δ| 3 f ( x0 )
= 168 + ( x − 3) (− 12) + ( x − 3) ( x − 7) (−2) + ( x − 3) ( x − 7) ( x − 9) (1)
= x 3 − 21 x 2 + 119 x − 27.
When x = 6, the estimate of the function is given by
f (6) = 63 − 21 . 62 + 119 . 6 − 27
= 147.
Example 9: Given the values :
x: 4 5 7 10 11 13
ux : 48 100 294 900 1210 2028
Form the table of divided differences and extend it to include the values x = 2 and x = 15.
Solution: The divided difference table is as follows :
x ux Δ| u x Δ| 2 u x Δ| 3 u x Δ| 4 u x Δ| 5 u x
2 4
22
4 48 10
52 1
5 100 15 0
97 1 0
7 294 21 0
202 1 0
10 900 27 0
310 1 0
11 1210 33 0
409 1
13 2028 38
561
15 3150
 N-100

∴ u x = 48 + 52 ( x − 4) + 15 ( x − 4) ( x − 5) + 1 . ( x − 4) ( x − 5) ( x − 7)
= 48 + 52 ( x − 4) + 15 ( x 2 − 9 x + 20) + ( x 3 − 16 x 2 + 83 x − 140)
= x 3 − x 2 = x 2 ( x − 1).
∴ u2 = 23 − 22 = 4
and u15 = 153 − 152 = 3150.
The original divided difference table is for the argument values 4 to 13, leaving 2
and 15 and the figures in antique.
The complete table, with arguments 2 and 15 and the figures in antique, gives the
original divided difference table extended to include the values x = 2 and x = 15.

Example 10: Find a polynomial satisfied by (−4, 1245), (−1, 33), (0, 5), (2 , 9) and
(5, 1335), by the use of Newton’s interpolation formula with divided differences.
Or
Find the polynomial of the lowest possible degree which assumes the values1245, 33, 5, 9 and
1335 at x = − 4, − 1, 0, 2 and 5 respectively. Also find the value of the polynomial at the
abscissa 1.
Solution: For the given values the divided difference table is as follows :

x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x) Δ| 4 f ( x)

−4 1245

33 − 1245
= − 404
−1 + 4

−1 33 − 28 + 404
= 94
0 +4
5 − 33 10 − 94
= − 28 = − 14
0 +1 2+4

0 5 2 + 28 14 + 13
= 10 =3
2 +1 5+4
9−5 88 − 10
=2 = 13
2−0 5 +1

2 9 442 − 2
= 88
5−0
335 − 9
= 442
5−2

5 1335

Using the values from above table in Newton’s divided difference formula, we have
f ( x) = 1245 + ( x + 4) . (− 404) + ( x + 4) ( x + 1) . (94)
+ ( x + 4) ( x + 1) ( x) . (− 14) + ( x + 4) ( x + 1) ( x) ( x − 2) . 3
 N-101

= 3 x 4 − 5 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 14 x + 5.
For abscissa x = 1, we have
f (1) = 3 − 5 + 6 − 14 + 5 = − 5.
Example 11: Given log10 654 = 2 ⋅ 8156, log10 658 = 2 ⋅ 8182 ,
log10 659 = 2 ⋅ 8189, log10 661 = 2 ⋅ 8202 ; find log10 656.
Solution: For the values x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , Lagrange’s formula is
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 )
f ( x) = f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x 3 ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 )
+ f ( x1 ) + f ( x2 )
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 ) ( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 )
+ f ( x3 ).
( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 )
Here x0 = 654, x1 = 658, x2 = 659, x3 = 661, x = 656.
Substituting these values in Lagrange’s formula, we get
(656 − 658) (656 − 659) (656 − 661)
log 10 656 = × 2 ⋅ 8156
(654 − 658) (654 − 659) (654 − 661)
(656 − 654) (656 − 659) (656 − 661)
+ × 2 ⋅ 8182
(658 − 654) (658 − 659) (658 − 661)
(656 − 654) (656 − 658) (656 − 661)
+ × 2 ⋅ 8189
(659 − 654) (659 − 658) (659 − 661)
(656 − 654) (656 − 658) (656 − 659)
+ × 2 ⋅ 8202 .
(661 − 654) (661 − 658) (661 − 659)
(−2) (−3) (−5) (2) (−3) (−5)
∴ log 10 656 = × 2 ⋅ 8156 + × 2 ⋅ 8182
(−4) (−5) (−7) (4) (−1) (−3)
(2) (−2) (−5) (2) (−2) (−3)
+ × 2 ⋅ 8189 + × 2 ⋅ 8202
(5) (1)(−2) (7) (3) (2)
3 × 2 ⋅ 8156 5 × 2 ⋅ 8182 2 × 2 ⋅ 8189 2 × 2 ⋅ 8202
= + − +
14 2 1 7
= 0 ⋅ 6033 + 7 ⋅ 0455 − 5 ⋅ 6378 + 0 ⋅ 8058 = 2 ⋅ 8168.
Hence the estimated value of log 10 656 = 2 ⋅ 8168.

Example 12: The values of y and x are given as below :

x: 5 6 9 11
y: 12 13 14 16

Find the value of y when x = 10. (Kanpur 2012)

 N-102

Solution: Applying Lagrange’s formula for x0 = 5, x1 = 6, x2 = 9, x3 = 11 and

x = 10, we get
(10 − 6) (10 − 9) (10 − 11) (10 − 5) (10 − 9) (10 − 11)
y10 = × 12 + × 13
(5 − 6) (5 − 9) (5 − 11) (6 − 5) (6 − 9) (6 − 11)
(10 − 5) (10 − 6) (10 − 11) (10 − 5) (10 − 6) (10 − 9)
+ × 14 + × 16
(9 − 5) (9 − 6) (9 − 11) (11 − 5) (11 − 6) (11 − 9)
(4) (1) (−1) (5) (1) (−1)
= × 12 + × 13
(−1) (−4) (−6) (1) (−3) (−5)
(5) (4) (−1) (5) (4) (1)
+ × 14 + × 16
(4) (3) (−2) (6) (5) (2)
= 2 − 4 ⋅ 33 + 11⋅ 66 + 5 ⋅ 33 = 14 ⋅ 66.
Example 13: For the following table find the form of the function f ( x).
x: 0 1 2 5
f ( x) : 2 3 12 147
(Avadh 2009)
Solution: Here x0 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 2 , x3 = 5.
By Lagrange’s formula, we have
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 )
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x1 )
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) ( x0 − x3 ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) ( x1 − x3 )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x3 ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 )
+ f ( x2 ) + f ( x3 ).
( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 ) ( x2 − x3 ) ( x3 − x0 ) ( x3 − x1 ) ( x3 − x2 )
Substituting the values of x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 in this, we get

( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 5) ( x − 0) ( x − 2) ( x − 5)
f ( x) = ×2+ ×3
(0 − 1) (0 − 2) (0 − 5) (1 − 0) (1 − 2) (1 − 5)

( x − 0) ( x − 1) ( x − 5) ( x − 0) ( x − 1) ( x − 2)
+ × 12 + × 147
(2 − 0) (2 − 1) (2 − 5) (5 − 0) (5 − 1) (5 − 2)
f ( x) 1 3 2 49
or =− + − +
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 5) 5 x 4 ( x − 1) x − 2 20 ( x − 5)
20 x 3 + 20 x 2 − 20 x + 40
=
20 x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 5)
3 2
⇒ f ( x) = x + x − x +2.
Example 14: The following table is given :
x: 0 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 3 6 11 18 27
What is the form of the function f ( x) ?
 N-103

Solution: Proceeding as in the example 13, we get

f ( x)
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) ( x − 4)
3 1 6 1
= ⋅ + ⋅
(−1) (−2) (−3) (−4) x 1 (−1) (−2) (−3) ( x − 1)
11 1 18 1 27 1
+ ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
2 . 1 . (−1) (−2) ( x − 2) 3 . 2 . 1 . (−1) ( x − 3) 4 . 3 . 2 .1 x − 4
1 1 11 3 9
= − + − +
8 x ( x − 1) 4( x − 2) ( x − 3) 8 ( x − 4)
x2 + 2 x + 3
= ⋅
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) ( x − 4)
∴ f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 3.
Example 15: The mode of a certain frequency curve y = f ( x) is very near x = 9 and the
values of the frequency density f ( x) for x = 8 ⋅ 9, 9 ⋅ 0 and 9 ⋅ 3 are respectively equal to
0 ⋅ 30, 0 ⋅ 35 and 0 ⋅ 25. Calculate the approximate value of the mode.
Solution: We have
x: 8 ⋅9 9 ⋅0 9 ⋅3
f ( x) : 0 ⋅ 30 0 ⋅ 35 0 ⋅ 25
First we shall find the form of the frequency density f ( x).
By Lagrange’s formula, we get
( x − 9) ( x − 9 ⋅ 3) ( x − 8 ⋅ 9) ( x − 9 ⋅ 3)
f ( x) = × 0 ⋅ 30 + × 0 ⋅ 35
(8 ⋅ 9 − 9) (8 ⋅ 9 − 9 ⋅ 3) (9 − 8 ⋅ 9) (9 − 9 ⋅ 3)

( x − 8 ⋅ 9) ( x − 9)
+ × 0 ⋅ 25
(9 ⋅ 3 − 8 ⋅ 9) (9 ⋅ 3 − 9)
25 2 453 ⋅ 5 2052 ⋅ 3
=− x + x− ⋅
12 12 12
This is the form of the frequency density.
Now f ( x) will be maximum for that value of x for which f ′ ( x) = 0 and f ′ ′ ( x) is
negative.
50 453 ⋅ 5
We have f ′ ( x) = 0 ⇒ − x+ =0
12 12
5
⇒ − (10 x − 90 ⋅ 7) = 0 ⇒ x = 9 ⋅ 07.
12
50 25
Also f ′ ′ ( x) = − =− which is negative.
12 6
Hence the mode of the frequency curve
y = f ( x) is 9 ⋅ 07.
 N-104

Example 16: Four equidistant values u−1 , u0 , u1 and u2 being given, a value is
interpolated by Lagrange’s formula. Show that it may be written in the form
( y 2 − 1) x ( x 2 − 1)
u x = yu0 + xu1 + y Δ2 u−1 + Δ2 u0 ,
3! 3!
where x + y = 1. (Rohilkhand 2011)
2 2 2
Solution: We have Δ u−1 = ( E − 1) u−1 = ( E − 2 E + 1) u−1
= u1 − 2u0 + u−1 .
2 2
Similarly, Δ u0 = ( E − 2 E + 1) u0 = u2 − 2u1 + u0 .
Now the R.H.S.
y ( y 2 − 1) x ( x 2 − 1)
= yu0 + xu1 + Δ2 u−1 + Δ2 u0
3! 3!
(1 − x) x ( x − 2)
= (1 − x) u0 + xu1 + (u1 − 2u0 + u−1 )
3!

x ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
+ (u2 − 2u1 + u0 )
3!

x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ⎡ x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 1) x ( x + 1)⎤
=− u−1 + ⎢− ( x − 1) + + ⎥⎦ u0
6 ⎣ 3 6

⎡ x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 1) x ( x + 1)⎤ ( x − 1) x ( x + 1)
+ ⎢x − − ⎥ u1 + u2
⎣ 6 3 ⎦ 6

x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 2) ( x − 1) ( x + 1)
=− u −1 + u0
6 2
( x − 2) x ( x + 1) ( x − 1) x ( x + 1)
− u1 + u2 . …(1)
2 6
For u−1 , u0 , u1 , u2 as known values, by Lagrange’s formula, we have
( x − 0) ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x + 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 2)
ux = u −1 + u0
(−1 − 0) (−1 − 1) (−1 − 2) (0 + 1) (0 − 1) (0 − 2)
( x + 1) ( x − 0) ( x − 2) ( x + 1) ( x − 0) ( x − 1)
+ u1 + u2
(1 + 1) (1 − 0) (1 − 2) (2 + 1) (2 − 0) (2 − 1)
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x − 2)
=− u −1 + u0
6 2
( x + 1) x ( x − 2) ( x + 1) x ( x − 1)
− u1 + u2 . …(2)
2 6
From (1) and (2), we have
y ( y 2 − 1) x ( x 2 − 1)
u x = y u0 + xu1 + Δ2 u−1 + Δ2 u0 .
3! 3!
 N-105

Example 17: By means of Lagrange’s formula, prove that

y1 = y3 − ⋅ 3 ( y5 − y −3 ) + ⋅ 2 ( y −3 − y −5 ),
approximately. (Purvanchal 2010)
Solution: For given y −5 , y −3 , y3 , y5 we have to obtain y1 .
By Lagrange’s formula, we have

(1 + 3) (1 − 3) (1 − 5) (1 + 5) (1 − 3) (1 − 5)
y1 = y −5 + y −3
(−5 + 3) (−5 − 3) (−5 − 5) (−3 + 5) (−3 − 3) (−3 − 5)

(1 + 5) (1 + 3) (1 − 5) (1 + 5) (1 + 3)(1 − 3)
+ y3 + y5
(3 + 5) (3 + 3) (3 − 5) (5 + 5) (5 + 3) (5 − 3)

(4) (−2) (−4) (6) (−2) (−4) (6) (4) (−4)

= y −5 + y −3 + y3
(−2) (−8) (−10) (2) (−6) (−8) (8) (6) (−2)
(6) (4) (−2)
+ y5
(10) (8) (2)
1 1 3
=− y −5 + y − 3 + y3 − y5
5 2 10
= − ⋅ 2 y − 5 + ⋅ 5 y − 3 + y3 − ⋅ 3 y5
= y3 − ⋅ 3 ( y5 − y −3 ) + ⋅ 2 ( y −3 − y −5 ).
Example 18: The following values of the function f ( x) for values of x are given
f (1) = 4, f (2) = 5, f (7) = 5, f (8) = 4.
Find the value of f (6) and also the value of x for which f ( x) is maximum or minimum.
(Kanpur 2009, 11)
Solution: Using Lagrange’s formula for the arguments 1, 2 , 7 and 8, we get
( x − 2) ( x − 7) ( x − 8) ( x − 1) ( x − 7) ( x − 8)
f ( x) = f (1) + f (2)
(1 − 2) (1 − 7) (1 − 8) (2 − 1) (2 − 7) (2 − 8)
( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 8) ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 7)
+ f (7) + f (8)
(7 − 1) (7 − 2) (7 − 8) (8 − 1) (8 − 2) (8 − 7)
4 5
=− ( x − 2) ( x − 7) ( x − 8) + ( x − 1) ( x − 7) ( x − 8)
42 30
5 4
− ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 8) + ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 7)
30 42
4 5
= ( x − 2) ( x − 7) {( x − 1) − ( x − 8)} + ( x − 1) ( x − 8)
42 30
{( x − 7) − ( x − 2)}
2 5
= ( x − 2) ( x − 7) − ( x − 1) ( x − 8)
3 6
1 1
= [4 ( x − 9 x + 14) − 5 ( x 2 − 9 x + 8)] = [− x 2 + 9 x + 16].
2
6 6
 N-106

1 1
∴ f (6) = [−62 + 9 . 6 + 16] = [−36 + 54 + 16]
6 6
1
= × 34 = 5 ⋅ 66.
6
Again for maximum or minimum of f ( x), we have
f ′ ( x) = 0 i. e., − 2 x + 9 = 0 or x = 4 ⋅ 5.
1
Since f ′ ′ ( x) = × (−2) which is < 0, therefore f ( x) is maximum at the point
6
x = 4 ⋅ 5.
Example 19: Prove that the Lagrange’s formula can be put in the form
n φ ( x) f ( x r )
Pn ( x) = Σ
r = 0 ( x − x r ) φ′ ( x r )
n
where φ ( x) = Π ( x − x r ).
r =0 (Rohilkhand 2011)
Solution: We can write Lagrange’s formula as
n ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n )
Pn ( x) = Σ f (x r )
r =0 ( x r − x0 ) ( x r − x1 ) … ( x r − x n )

n ⎡ φ ( x) f ( x r )⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
= Σ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⋅
r =0
⎣ (x − x r ) ⎦ (
⎣ rx − x 0 ) ( x r − x1 ) … ( x r − x )
n ⎦
n
Now φ ( x) = Π ( x − x r ).
r =0

∴ φ′ ( x r ) = [φ′ ( x)] x = xr
= ( x r − x0 ) ( x r − x1 ) … ( x r − x r −1 )
( x r − x r +1 ) … ( x r − x n ).
n φ ( x) f ( x r )
∴ Pn ( x) = Σ ⋅
r =0 ( x − x r ) φ′ ( x r )
Example 20: If y0 , y1 , y2 , … , y6 are the consecutive terms of a series, then using
Lagrange’s formula prove that
y3 = 0 ⋅ 05 ( y0 + y6 ) − 0 ⋅ 3 ( y1 + y5 ) + 0 ⋅ 75 ( y2 + y4 ).

(Rohilkhand 2008, 11)

Solution: Lagrange’s interpolation formula is
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
f ( x) = f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) …( x0 − x n )

( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) … ( x − x n )
+ f ( x1 )
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n−1 )
+…+ f (x n)
( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )
 N-107

f ( x)
or
( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x n )
1
= f ( x0 )
( x − x0 ) ( x0 − x1 ) ( x0 − x2 ) … ( x0 − x n )
1
+ f ( x1 ) + …
( x − x1 ) ( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) … ( x1 − x n )
1
+ f ( x n ).
( x − x n ) ( x n − x0 ) ( x n − x1 ) … ( x n − x n−1 )

Putting x = 3, f ( x) = y3 ; x0 = 0, f ( x0 ) = y0 ; x1 = 1, f ( x1 ) = y1 ; x2 = 2,
f ( x2 ) = y2 ; x3 = 4, f ( x3 ) = y4 ; x4 = 5, f ( x4 ) = y5 ; and x5 = 6, f ( x5 ) = y6 ,
we get
y3
(3 − 0) (3 − 1) (3 − 2) (3 − 4) (3 − 5) (3 − 6)
y0 y1
= +
(3 − 0) (−1) (−2) (−4) (−5) (−6) (3 − 1) (1) (−1) (−3) (−4) (−5)
y2 y4
+ +
(3 − 2) (2) (1) (−2) (−3) (−4) (3 − 4) (4) (3) (2) (−1) (−2)
y5 y6
+ +
(3 − 5) (5) (4) (3) (1) (−1) (3 − 6) (6) (5) (4) (2) (1)
y3 y0 y1 y2
or − =− + −
3 . 2 .1.1. 2 . 3 1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 1. 2 .1. 2 . 3 . 4
y4 y5 y6
− + −
2 .1. 2 . 3 . 4 1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6

y0 + y6 y1 + y5 y2 + y4
=− + −
1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 1. 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 2 .1. 2 . 3 . 4

6 ( y0 + y6 ) 6 ( y1 + y5 ) 6 ( y2 + y4 )
or y3 = − +
4 .5 .6 4 .5 2 .4
= 0 ⋅ 05 ( y0 + y6 ) − 0 ⋅ 3 ( y1 + y5 ) + 0 ⋅ 75 ( y2 + y4 ).

3.9 Confluent Divided Difference

When two or more arguments of a function f ( x) coincide, the limiting value of the
divided difference is called a confluent divided difference.
lim lim f ( x0 + ε) − f ( x0 )
We have f ( x0 , x0 ) = f ( x0 + ε , x0 ) =
ε→0 ε→0 ε

= f ′ ( x0 ), if f ( x) is differentiable. …(1)
 N-108

1
Similarly f ( x0 , x0 , x0 ) = f ′ ′ ( x0 ). …(2)
2!
… … … …
1 n
In general f ( x0 , x0(n + 1) arguments , … , x0 ) = f ( x0 ). …(3)
n!

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. (a) Given that f (0) = 8, f (1) = 68, f (5) = 123, construct a divided
difference table, using the table determine the value of f (2).
(b) If f (0) = 2 , f (1) = 3, f (2) = 12 , f (5) = 147, prepare Newton’s
divided difference table to find f (4).
2. If log 2 = 0 ⋅ 30103, log 3 = 0 ⋅ 47712 , log 5 = 0 ⋅ 62897, log 7 = 0 ⋅ 84510,
find the value of log 4 ⋅ 7 to four places of decimal.
3. Show that nth order divided difference f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , … , x n ) for the function
1 (− 1) n
ux = is equal to .
x x0 x1 x2 … x n
4. From the following table find f ( x) in powers of ( x − 3):

x : 5 11 27 34 42
f ( x) : 23 899 17315 35606 68510

5. The following table gives the normal weights of babies during the first
twelve months of life :
Age in months ( x) : 0 2 5 8 10 12
Weight in lbs f ( x) : 1 1
7 10 15 16 18 21
2 4
Estimate the weight of the baby at the age of 7 months.
6. Determine by Lagrange’s formula the percentage number of criminals
under 35 years :
Age % numbers of criminals
Under 25 years 52
Under 30 years 67⋅3

Under 40 years 84⋅1

Under 50 years 94⋅4

7. Find the form of the function y = U x given that

U0 = 8, U1 = 11, U4 = 68, U5 = 123.
 N-109

8. Using Lagrange’s formula find the form of the function given by f ( x) :

x : 3 2 1 −1
f ( x) : 3 12 15 −21
(Kanpur 2008)
9. By means of Lagrange’s formula, prove that approximately
y0 = ( y1 − y −1 ) − ⎡ ( y3 − y1 ) − ( y −1 − y −3 )⎤ ⋅
1 1 1 1
2 8 ⎣⎢2 2 ⎦⎥
(Rohilkhand 2002, 09)
10. Find approximately the real root of the equation
y3 − 2 y − 5 = 0
11. If y35⋅0 = 1175, y35⋅5 = 1280, y39⋅5 = 2180, y40⋅5 = 2420, find y40 by
divided differences.
12. Apply Lagrange’s formula to find f (1⋅ 50), using the following values of the
function f ( x) :

x : 1 ⋅ 00 1 ⋅ 20 1 ⋅ 40 1 ⋅ 60 1 ⋅ 80 2 ⋅ 00
f ( x) : 0 ⋅ 2420 0 ⋅ 1942 0 ⋅ 1497 0 ⋅ 1109 0 ⋅ 0790 0 ⋅ 0540
13. Apply Lagrange’s formula to find the cubic polynomial which includes the
following values of x and y x :

x : 0 1 4 6
yx : 1 −1 1 −1

14. Given the following data, find f ( x) as a polynomial in powers of ( x − 5), by

extending the table to include argument x = 5 repeated as many times as
may be necessary :
f (0) = 4, f (2) = 26, f (3) = 58, f (4) = 112 , f (7) = 466, f (9) = 922 .
Also find f ′ (5), f ′ ′ (5) and f ′ ′ ′ (5).
15. From the following table find f ( x) in powers of ( x − 3) :
x : 5 11 27 34 42
f ( x) : 23 899 17315 35606 68510
16. In the following table h is the height above the sea level and p the barometric
pressure ; calculate p when h = 5280.
h : 0 4763 6942 10594
p : 27 25 23 20

17. Apply Lagrange’s formula to find f (5) given that

f (1) = 2 , f (2) = 4, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 16, f (7) = 128
and explain why the result differs from 25 ?
 N-110

A nswers 1
1. (a) 109 ⋅ 50 (b) 78 2. 0 ⋅ 611812 approx
4. − 13 + 2 ( x − 3) + 6 ( x − 3) + ( x − 3)3
2

5. 15 ⋅ 67 Ibs 6. 77%
3 2
7. x − x + 3x + 8 8. x 3 − 9 x 2 + 17 x + 6
10. 2 ⋅ 09455 11. 2299.25
12. 0 ⋅ 12693
−17 x 2 29 x 2 207 x 5
13. + + +
120 24 120 4
14. f ( x) = 194 + 98 ( x − 5) + 17 ( x − 5)2 + ( x − 5)3
Also, f ′ (5) = 98, f ′ ′ (5) = 34, f ′ ′ ′ (5) = 6
15. ( x − 3)3 + 6 ( x − 3)2 + 2 ( x − 3) − 13
16. 24 ⋅ 80 17. 32 ⋅ 93

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The third divided difference can be expressed as the quotient of two
determinants each of order
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) none of these.
2. An interpolation formula in which both the function and its first derivative
are to be assigned at each point of interpolation is
(a) Newton’s divided difference formula
(b) Lagrange’s interpolation formula
(c) Hermite’s interpolation formula
(d) none of these.
3. If f ( x) = x n , then f ( x r , x r +1 ) is a homogeneous expression in x r , x r +1 of
degree
(a) n (b) n − 1
(c) n − 2 (d) n − 3
 N-111

4. The first divided difference with arguments 2 , 4 of the function

f ( x) = x 3 − 2 x is
(a) 24 (b) 26
(c) 22 (d) 20 (Meerut 2013B)
5. The divided difference f ( x0 , x1 ) is equal to :
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) + f ( x0 )
(a) (b)
x1 + x0 x1 + x0
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) + f ( x0 )
(c) (d)
x1 − x0 x1 − x0
6. The relation between the nth order divided difference and nth order forward
difference is :
(a) f ( x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , …, x n ) = Δn f ( x 0 )
1
(b) f ( x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , …, x n ) = n Δn f ( x 0 )
h
1 n
(c) f ( x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , …, x n ) = Δ f (x 0 )
n!
1
(d) f ( x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , …, x n ) = n
Δn f ( x 0 )
n!h
7. Which one of the following formula is used for unequal intervals?
(a) Newton’s forward formula
(b) Newton’s backward formula
(c) Newton’s divided difference formula
(d) none of these (Meerut 2013B)
1
8. If f ( x) = 2 , then divided difference of f (a, b, c ) is :
x
1 a+b+c
(a) 2 2 2 (b)
a b c abc
a2 + b 2 + c 2 ab + bc + ca
(c) 2 2 2
(d)
a b c a2 b 2 c 2 (Meerut 2013B)
9. The first divided difference of f ( x) for the arguments x0 , x1 is defined as :
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) + f ( x0 )
(a) (b)
x1 − x0 x1 − x0
f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) f ( x1 ) + f ( x0 )
(c) (d)
x1 + x0 x1 + x0
10. The n th divided difference can be expressed as the quotient of two
determinants each of order :
(a) n (b) n + 1
(c) n − 1 (d) 0
 N-112

11. The first term in Lagrange's interpolation formula is :

( x − x1 )( x − x2 )...( x − x n )
(a) f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 )...( x0 − x n )
( x + x1 )( x0 + x2 )...( x0 + x n )
(b) 0 f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 )...( x0 − x n )
( x − x0 )( x1 − x2 )...( x1 − x n )
(c) 1 f ( x0 )
( x0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 )...( x0 − x n )
( x − x1 )( x − x2 )...( x − x n )
(d) f ( x0 )
( x1 − x0 )( x1 − x2 )...( x1 − x n )
n φ ( x) f ( x r )
12. In Lagrange's formula Pn ( x) = Σ , φ( x) is equal to :
r = 0 ( x − x r ) φ ′ ( x)
n −1 n
(a) Π ( x − x r ) (b) Π ( x − x r )
r =0 r =0
n +1
(c) Π ( x − x r ) (d) none of these (Meerut 2013B)
r =0
13. Lagrange's interpolation formula can be used for :
(a) equal intervals
(b) unequal intervals
(c) both equal and unequal intervals
(d) none of these
14. The divided differences are …... functions of their arguments.
(a) symmetric (b) not symmetric
(c) may or may not be symmetric (d) none of these
15. The divided differences can be expressed as the ...... of multiple integrals :
(a) sum (b) product
(c) division (d) none of these
1 ⎛ 1⎞
16. If f ( x) = , then Δ| ⎜ ⎟ = :
x ⎝ a⎠
1 1
(a) (b)
b a
1 a
(c) (d)
ba b
1
17. If f ( x) = 2 , then Δ| f (a, b) =
x
b+a a2 b 2
(a) − 2 2 (b) −
a b a+b
b+a b−a
(c) 2 2 (d) 2 2
a b a b
3
18. If f ( x) = x , then Δ f ( x, y) =
|

(a) x 2 + y 2 + xy (b) x 2 − y 2 + xy
(c) x 2 − y 2 − xy (d) x 2 + y 2 − xy
 N-113

19. The third divided difference with arguments 2, 4, 9, 10 of the function

f ( x) = x 3 − 2 x is :
(a) 1 (b) −1
(c) 0 (d) 2
20. If f (0) = 8, f (1) = 68, f (5) = 123, then f (2) =
(a) 109.50 (b) 120.50
(c) 115.50 (d) 150.50
21. The quadratic polynomial for the following data P(1)=1, P(3)=27, P(4)=64
is :
(a) x 2 − 19 x + 12 (b) 8 x 2 − 19 x + 12
2
(c) x + 19 x + 12 (d) 8 x 2 + 19 x + 12
22. The relation between the first order divided difference and forward difference
is :
(a) f ( x0 , x1 ) = hΔf ( x0 ) (b) f ( x0 , x1 ) = Δf ( x0 )
1 1
(c) f ( x0 , x1 ) = Δf ( x0 ) (d) f ( x0 , x1 ) = 2 Δf ( x0 )
h h
23. The last term in Newton's divided difference formula for f(x), a polynomial
of degree n, given on the partition { x0 , x1 , x2 ,..., x n } is :
(a) ( x − x0 )( x − x1 )...( x − x n ) f ( x, x0 , x1 ,..., x n )
(b) ( x − x0 )( x − x1 )...( x − x n−1 ) f ( x, x0, x1 ,..., x n )
(c) ( x − x0 )( x − x1 )...( x − x n−1 ) f ( x, x0 , x1 ,..., x n−1 )
(d) ( x − x0 )( x − x1 )...( x − x n ) f ( x, x0 , x1 ,..., x n−1 )

24. If x : 5 6 9 11
f ( x) : 12 13 14 16

then f (10) =
(a) 13.80 (b) 14.66
(c) 15.75 (d) 16.70
25. For the following table the form of the function f ( x) is :
x : 0 1 2 5
f ( x) : 2 3 12 147
(a) x 3 + x 2 − x + 2 (b) x 3 − x 2 − x + 2
3 2
(c) x + x + x + 2 (d) x 3 + x 2 − x − 2
26. For the following data the form of the function f ( x) is :
x : 0 1 4 5
f ( x) : 8 11 68 123
(a) x 3 + x 2 + 3 x + 8 (b) x 3 − x 2 + 3 x + 8
(c) x 3 − x 2 − 3 x − 8 (d) x 3 − x 2 − 3 x + 8
 N-114

27. If f (1) = 4, f (2) = 5, f (7) = 5, f (8) = 4, then form of the function is given by :
1 1
(a) [− x 2 + 9 x + 16] (b) [ x 2 + 9 x + 16]
6 6
1 2 1
(c) [ x − 9 x + 16] (d) [ x 2 − 9 x − 16]
6 6
28. The cubic polynomial for the following data :
x : 3 2 1 –1
f ( x) : 3 12 15 –21
is given by
(a) x 3 + 9 x 2 + 17 x + 6 (b) x 3 − 9 x 2 + 17 x + 6
(c) x 3 − 9 x 2 − 17 x + 6 (d) x 3 + 9 x 2 − 17 x + 6
29. If f (0) = 2 , f (1) = 3 and f (3) = 6 then the value of f (0 , 1) is :
(a) 3 / 2 (b) 1
(c) 3 (d) 1/ 2 (Meerut 2013B)
30. By interchanging the suffixes of the operator and the operand, the value of
the divided difference :
(a) changes its sign (b) remains unchanged
(c) becomes zero (d) none of these
(Meerut 2013B)

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (b) 25. (a)
26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (b)

¨
 4
C entral D ifference I nterpolation
F ormulae

4.1 Introduction
arlier we have obtained Newton’s and Lagrange’s interpolation formulae.
E Lagrange’s formula is not easy to apply. There is a great deal of computational
work in its application and it does not give accurate results if the values of the
independent variable are quite apart. Newton’s formulae are fundamental and are
applicable to almost all cases of interpolation, but in general they do not converge
as rapidly as central difference formulae.
In particular the central difference formulae are used for interpolating values of the
function near the middle of a tabulated set. Before we derive various central
difference formulae, we introduce some operators besides Δ, E and ∇.
The operator δ, called the central difference operator, is defined by the operator
equation
δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 .
The first central difference δf ( x) of f ( x) is given by
 N-116

δf ( x) = f ⎛⎜ x + h⎞⎟ − f ⎛⎜ x − h⎞⎟
1 1
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= E 1 /2 f ( x) − E −1 /2 f ( x), where E ≡1+ Δ
= ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) f ( x).
Thus δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 = E −1 /2 ( E − 1) = E −1 /2 Δ. …(1)
−1
The relation connecting E and ∇ is ∇ ≡ 1 − E .
∴ δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ⇒ δ = E 1 /2 (1 − E −1 ) = E 1 /2 ∇. …(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
δ = E −1 /2 Δ = E 1 /2 ∇. …(3)
The nth power of the operator δ applied to y x gives
δ n y x = Δn E − n / 2 y x = ∇ n E n / 2 y x
or δ n y x = Δn y x −(n /2) = ∇ n y x +(n /2) .
The operator μ, called the mean or average operator, is defined by the operator
equation
1 1 /2
μ= (E + E −1 /2 ).
2
1
∴ μ f ( x) = ( E 1 /2 + E −1 /2 ) f ( x).
2
1 1 /2 1
Also 2
μ f ( x) = ( E + E −1 /2 )2 f ( x) = [( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 )2 + 4] f ( x)
4 4
1 2 ⎛ δ2 ⎞
= (δ + 4) f ( x) = ⎜1 + ⎟ f ( x).
4 ⎝ 4⎠
δ2
∴ μ2 ≡ 1 + ⋅ …(4)
4
Let y x be a function of x. Then
δy x = ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) y x = y x +(1 /2) − y x −(1 /2)
1 1 /2 1
and μy x = (E + E −1 /2 ) y x = ( y x +(1 /2) + y x −(1 /2) ).
2 2
∴ 2μy x + δy x = 2 y x +(1 /2)
⇒ (2μ + δ) y x = 2 E 1 /2 y x
1
⇒ 2μ + δ ≡ 2 E 1 /2 ⇒ μ+ δ ≡ E 1 /2 . …(5)
2
hD
We have E≡e = e U , where U = hD.

∴ δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 = e U /2 − e −U /2 = 2 sinh
U ⎤
2 ⎥
⎥ …(6)
1 e U /2 + e −U /2 U ⎥
and μ = ( E 1 /2 + E −1 /2 ) = = cosh
2 2 2 ⎥⎦
 N-117

The operator σ, called the central sum operator is defined by

σ f ( x) = σ f ( x − h) + f ⎛⎜ x − h⎞⎟
1
⎝ 2 ⎠
or (σ − σE −1 ) f ( x) = E −1 /2 f ( x)
or σ − σE −1 ≡ E −1 /2 or σ (1 − E −1 ) ≡ E −1 /2
E −1 / 2 E 1 /2
or σ≡ −1
≡ ⋅ …(7)
1− E E −1
1 E −1 1
We have = 1 /2 = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 = δ. ∴ σ= ⋅
σ E δ
Thus the operator σ is inverse to the operator δ.

4.2 Gauss’s Central Difference Formulae

(a) Gauss’s forward formula: The general Newton formula is
y = f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) ( x − x4 )
f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) … ( x − x5 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 ) + …
…(1)
Putting x0 = x0 , x1 = x0 + h, x2 = x0 − h, x3 = x0 + 2h, x4 = x0 − 2h,
x5 = x0 + 3h, x6 = x0 − 3h etc., we get
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x0 + h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 − h) f ( x0 , x0 + h, x0 − h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 − h) ( x − x0 + h) f ( x0 , x0 + h, x0 − h, x0 + 2h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 − h) ( x − x0 + h) ( x − x0 − 2h)
f ( x0 , x0 + h, x0 − h, x0 + 2h, x0 − 2h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 − h) ( x − x0 + h) ( x − x0 − 2h) ( x − x0 + 2h)
× f ( x0 , x0 + h, x0 − h, x0 + 2h, x0 − 2h, x0 + 3h) + …
x − x0
Now put u = i. e., x − x0 = hu. Then, we have
h
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + hu f ( x0 , x0 + h) + hu (hu − h) f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h)
+ hu (hu − h) (hu + h) f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h)
+ hu (hu − h) (hu + h) (hu − 2h) f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h,
x0 + 2h)
+ hu (hu − h) (hu + h) (hu − 2h) (hu + 2h)
f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h, x0 + 3h) + … …(2)
 N-118

But, we have
Δ y0 Δ2 y −1
f ( x0 , x0 + h) = , f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h) = ,
h 2 ! h2
Δ3 y −1
f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h) = ,
3 ! h3
Δ4 y −2
f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h) = ,
4 ! h4
Δ5 y −2
f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h, x0 + 3h) = , etc.
5 ! h5
Substituting these values in (2), we get
Δ y0 Δ2 y −1 Δ3 y −1
y = y0 + hu + h2 u (u − 1) + h3 u (u − 1) (u + 1)
h 2 ! h2 3 ! h3
Δ4 y −2
+ h4 u (u − 1) (u + 1) (u − 2)
4 ! h4
Δ5 y −2
+ h5 u (u − 1)(u + 1) (u − 2) (u + 2) +…
5 ! h5
Δ2 y −1 Δ3 y −1
or y = y0 + u Δ y0 + u (u − 1) + u (u2 − 1)
2! 3!
Δ4 y −2 Δ5 y −2
+ u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) + u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 22 ) +… …(3)
4! 5!
This result is known as Gauss’s forward formula for equal intervals.
The formula (3) may also be written as
u+1 u+1
y = y0 + u C1 Δy0 + u C2 Δ2 y −1 + C3 Δ3 y −1 + C4 Δ4 y −2
u+2
+ C5 Δ5 y −2 + … .
(b) Gauss’s backward formula. Substituting
x0 = x0 , x1 = x0 − h, x2 = x0 + h, x3 = x0 − 2h,
x4 = x0 + 2h, x5 = x0 − 3h, x6 = x0 + 3h etc.
in the general Newton formula (1), we get
y = y0 + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x0 − h) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 + h)
f ( x0 , x0 − h, x0 + h) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 + h) ( x − x0 − h)
f ( x0 , x0 − h, x0 + h, x0 − 2h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 + h) ( x − x0 − h) ( x − x0 + 2h)
f ( x0 , x0 − h, x0 + h, x0 − 2h, x0 + 2h)
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x0 + h) ( x − x0 − h) ( x − x0 + 2h) ( x − x0 − 2h)
× f ( x0 , x0 − h, x0 + h, x0 − 2h, x0 + 2h, x0 − 3h) + …
 N-119

x − x0
Now put u = i. e., x − x0 = uh.
h
Then we get
y = y0 + hu f ( x0 − h, x0 ) + hu (hu + h) f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h)
+ hu (hu + h) (hu − h) f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h)
+ hu (hu + h) (hu − h) (hu + 2h) f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h)
+ hu (hu + h) (hu − h) (hu + 2h) (hu − 2h)
× f ( x0 − 3h, x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h) + … …(4)
But, we know that
Δ y −1 Δ2 y −1
f ( x0 − h, x0 ) = , f ( x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h) = ,
h 2 ! h2
Δ3 y −2
f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h) = ,
3 ! h3
Δ4 y −2
f ( x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h) = ,
4 ! h4
Δ5 y −3
f ( x0 − 3h, x0 − 2h, x0 − h, x0 , x0 + h, x0 + 2h) = , etc.
5 ! h5
Substituting these in (4), we get
Δ2 y −1 Δ3 y −2
y = y0 + u Δ y −1 + u (u + 1) + u (u2 − 1)
2! 3!
4 5
Δ y −2 Δ y −3
+ u (u2 − 1) (u + 2) + u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 22 ) +… …(5)
4! 5!
This result is known as Gauss’s backward formula.
The formula (5) may also be written as
u +1 u +1
y = y0 + u C1 Δy −1 + C2 Δ2 y −1 + C3 Δ3 y −2
u +2 u +2
+ C4 Δ4 y −2 + C5 Δ5 y −3 + … .
(c) Third formula due to Gauss. It is a formula which starts with y1 and runs
parallel to the backward formula (5).
x − x0 x − xk x − ( x0 + kh)
We have u = ⋅ ∴ = = u − k.
h h h
To derive this third formula we increase the subscripts of x and y in (5) by one unit
and change the u’s by putting k = 1 in the formula
x − xk
u−k = ⋅
h
We get x − x1 = hu − h i. e., we have to replace u by u − 1.
These changes reduce (5) to
 N-120

Δ2 y0 Δ3 y −1
y = y1 + (u − 1) Δy0 + u (u − 1) + u (u − 1) (u − 2)
2! 3!
Δ4 y −1 Δ5
y −2
+ u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) + u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) (u − 3) + … …(6)
4! 5!
This result is known as third formula due to Gauss.
In the following difference table the paths of the three Gauss formulae have been
shown. The designations A, B, C are corresponding to the formulae (5), (3) and (6)
respectively.
x y Δ y Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y Δ5 y Δ6 y
x−6 y−6
Δ y−6
x−5 y−5 Δ2 y−6
Δ y−5 Δ3 y−6
x−4 y−4 Δ2 y−5 Δ4 y−6
Δ y−4 Δ3 y−5 Δ5 y−6
x−3 y−3 Δ2 y−4 Δ4 y−5 Δ6 y−6
Δ y−3 Δ3 y−4 Δ5 y−5
x−2 y−2 Δ2 y−3 Δ4 y−4 Δ6 y−5
Δ y−2 Δ3 y−3 Δ5 y−4
x−1 y−1 Δ2 y−2 Δ4 y−3 Δ6 y−4
Δ y−1 Δ3 y−2 Δ5 y−3
A
x0 y0 Δ2 y−1 Δ4 y−2 Δ6 y−3
Δ y0 Δ3 y−1 Δ5 y−2 B
2 4 6
x1 y1 Δ y0 Δ y −1 Δ y −2
3 5 C
Δ y1 Δ y0 Δ y −1
x2 y2 Δ2 y1 Δ4 y0 Δ6 y−1
Δ y2 Δ3 y1 Δ5 y0
x3 y3 Δ2 y2 Δ4 y1 Δ6 y0
Δ y3 Δ3 y2 Δ5 y1
x4 y4 Δ2 y3 Δ4 y2
Δ y4 Δ3 y3
x5 y5 Δ2 y4
Δ y5
x6 y6
 N-121

4.3 Stirling’s Interpolation Formula

Taking the mean of Gauss’s forward formula and Gauss’s backward formula, we
get
(Δ y −1 + Δ y0 ) u2 2 u (u2 − 1) (Δ3 y −2 + Δ3 y −1 )
y = y0 + u + Δ y −1 +
2 2 3! 2
2 2
u (u − 1) u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 22 ) (Δ5 y −3 + Δ5 y −2 )
+ Δ4 y −2 + +… …(7)
4! 5! 2
This is Stirling’s formula. The more general form of this formula is
(Δ y −1 + Δ y0 ) u2 2
y = y0 + u + Δ y −1
2 2!
u (u2 − 12 ) (Δ3 y −2 + Δ3 y −1 ) u2 (u2 − 12 ) 4
+ ⋅ + Δ y −2 + …
3! 2 4!
u (u2 − 12 ) (u2 − 22 ) … [u2 − (k − 1)2 ] Δ2 k −1 y − k +1 + Δ2 k −1 y − k
+
(2 k − 1) ! 2
u2 (u2 − 12 ) (u2 − 22 ) … [u2 − (k − 1)2 ]
+ Δ2 k y − k .
(2 k) !
The quantities that occur in Stirling’s formula are shown in the difference table
given below :
Δ y−1 Δ3 y−2 Δ5 y−3 Δ7 y−4
y0 Δ2 y−1 Δ4 y−2 Δ6 y−3 Δ8 y−4
Δ y0 Δ3 y−1 Δ5 y−2 Δ7 y−3

4.4 Bessel’s Interpolation Formula

Taking the mean of Gauss’s forward formula and the third formula due to Gauss,
we get
y0 + y1 u (u − 1) (Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 )
+ ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ Δ y0 +
1
y= ⋅
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 2

u ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ (u − 1)
1
⎝ 2⎠ u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) (Δ4 y −2 + Δ4 y −1 )
+ Δ3 y −1 + ⋅
3! 4! 2
⎛ 1⎞ 2
u ⎜ u − ⎟ (u − 1) (u − 2)
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ5 y −2 + … …(8)
5!
This is Bessel’s formula. It can be written in a slightly different form by
transforming the first two terms to y0 + u Δ y0 because Δ y0 = y1 − y0 . Then
(8) becomes
 N-122

u ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ (u − 1)
1
u (u − 1) (Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 ) ⎝ 2⎠
y = y0 + u Δ y0 + ⋅ + Δ3 y −1
2 2 3!
u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) (Δ4 y −2 + Δ4 y −1 )
+ ⋅ +… …(9)
4! 2
The more general form of Bessel’s formula is
⎛⎜ u − 1⎞
⎟ u (u − 1)
u (u − 1) (Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 ) ⎝ 2⎠
y = y0 + u Δ y0 + ⋅ + Δ3 y −1
2 2 3!

u ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ (u2 − 1) (u − 2)
1
(u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) (Δ4 y −1 + Δ4 y −2 ) ⎝ 2⎠
+ ⋅ + Δ5 y −2
4! 2 5!
u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) (u − 3) (Δ6 y −5 + Δ6 y −2 )
+ ⋅ +…
6! 2
u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) … (u − n) (u + n − 1) (Δ2 n y − n + Δ2 n y − n+1 )
+ ⋅
(2n) ! 2

u ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) … (u − n) (u + n − 1)
1
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ2 n + 1 y − n …(10)
(2n + 1) !
1
Putting u = in (10), we get
2
2 2 4 4
y0 + y1 1 Δ y − 1 + Δ y0 3 Δ y −2 + Δ y −1
y= − +
2 8 2 128 2
6 6
5 Δ y −3 + Δ y −2 [1 . 3 . 5 … (2 n − 1)]2
− + …+ (−1) n ⋅
1024 2 22 n (2 n) !
Δ2 n y − n + Δ2 n y − n +1
…(11)
2
This is the special case of Bessel’s formula. It is called the formula for interpolating
to halves. It is used for computing values of the function mid-way between any two
given values.
1 1
Putting u − = v or u = v + in (10), we get a more symmetrical and convenient
2 2
form of Bessel’s formula :
⎛⎜ v2 − 1⎞⎟ v ⎛⎜ v2 − ⎟⎞
1
2 2
y0 + y1 ⎝ 4 ⎠ Δ y − 1 + Δ y0 ⎝ 4⎠ 3
y= + v Δ y0 + ⋅ + Δ y −1
2 2 2 3!
⎛⎜ v2 − 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ v2 − 9⎞⎟ v ⎛⎜ v2 − ⎟⎞ ⎛⎜ v2 − ⎞⎟
1 9
4 4
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ Δ y −2 + Δ y −1 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ 5
+ ⋅ + Δ y −2
4! 2 5!
 N-123

⎛⎜ v2 − 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ v2 − 9⎞⎟ … ⎧⎪ v2 − (2n − 1) ⎫⎪

2

⎝ ⎨ ⎬
4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎪⎩ 4 ⎪⎭ Δ2 n y − n + Δ2 n y − n+1
+…+ ⋅
(2n) ! 2
⎧⎪ (2n − 1)2 ⎫⎪
v ⎛⎜ v2 − ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ v2 − ⎞⎟ … ⎨ v2 −
1 9
⎝ ⎬
4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎩⎪ 4 ⎭⎪
+ Δ2 n + 1 y − n .
(2n + 1)!
The following table shows the quantities which occur in this formula.
y0 Δ2 y−1 Δ4 y−2 Δ6 y−3 Δ8 y−4
Δ y0 Δ3 y−1 Δ5 y−2 Δ7 y−3
y1 Δ2 y0 Δ4 y−1 Δ6 y−2 Δ8 y−3

4.5 Laplace-Everett Formula

The Gauss forward formula is
Δ2 y −1 Δ3 y −1
y u = y0 + u Δy0 + u (u − 1) + u (u2 − 1)
2! 3!
4
Δ y −2 Δ5 y −2
+ u (u2 − 1) (u − 2) + u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 22 ) + … …(12)
4! 5!
We have Δ2 k +1 y − k = Δ2 k (Δ y − k ) = Δ2 k ( y − k +1 − y − k ) = Δ2 k y1− k − Δ2 k y − k
…(13)
Putting the values of odd differences in (12) in terms of even differences by (13),
we get the following expansion in factorial notation :
u(2) 2 (u + 1)(3) 2
y u = y0 + u ( y1 − y0 ) + Δ y −1 + (Δ y0 − Δ2 y −1 )
2! 3!
(u + 1)(4) (u + k − 1)(2 k)
+ Δ4 y −2 + … + Δ2 k y − k
4! (2k) !
(u + k)(2 k +1)
+ (Δ2 k y1− k − Δ2 k y − k ) + …
(2k + 1) !
⎪⎧ u(2) (u + 1) ⎪⎫ 2
(3)
(u + 1)(3) 2
= (1 − u) y0 + uy1 + ⎨ − ⎬ Δ y −1 + Δ y0
⎪⎩ 2 ! 3 ! ⎪⎭ 3!
⎧⎪ (u + 1)(4) (u + 2)(5) ⎫⎪ 4 (u + 2)(5) 4
+⎨ − ⎬ Δ y −2 + Δ y −1 + …
⎩⎪ 4 ! 5 ! ⎭⎪ 5!

⎪⎧ (u + k − 1)
(2 k)
(u + k)(2 k +1) ⎪⎫ 2 k
+⎨ − ⎬ Δ y −k
⎪⎩ (2k) ! (2k + 1) ! ⎪⎭

(u + k)(2 k +1)
+ Δ2 k y1− k + … …(14)
(2k + 1) !
 N-124

(u + k − 1)(2 k) (u + k)(2 k +1) (u + k − 1)(2 k)

Now − = {(2k + 1) − (u + k)}
(2k) ! (2k + 1) ! (2k + 1) !
(k + 1 − u) (u + k − 1)(2 k) (u − k − 1) (u + k − 1)(2 k)
= =−
(2k + 1) ! (2k + 1) !
(u + k − 1)(2 k +1) (k − v)(2 k +1)
=− =− [ Put v = 1 − u]
(2k + 1) ! (2k + 1) !
(v + k)(2 k +1) v (v2 − 1) (v2 − 4) … (v2 − k 2 )
= = ⋅
(2k + 1) ! (2k + 1) !
Introducing this variable v, the equation (14) takes the form
v (v2 − 1) 2 v (v2 − 1) (v2 − 4) 4
y u = vy0 + Δ y −1 + Δ y −2 + …
3! 5!
v (v2 − 1) (v2 − 4) … (v2 − k 2 )
+ Δ2 k y − k + …
(2 k + 1) !
u (u2 − 1) u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4)
+ uy1 + Δ2 y0 + Δ4 y −1 + …
3! 5!
u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) … (u2 − k 2 ) 2 k
+ Δ y1− k + … …(15)
(2k + 1) !
This is the most common form of Laplace-Everett’s formula. This is convenient
especially while using tables in which only differences of even order are tabulated.

Example 1: Prove that

1 2 ⎛ δ2 ⎞
(i) Δ≡ δ +δ ⎜1 + ⎟,
2 ⎝ 4⎠
(ii) δ 3 y1 /2 = y2 − 3 y1 + 3 y0 − y −1 ,
(Rohilkhand 2008, 11; Bundelkhand 11)
(iii) Δ∇ ≡ ∇Δ ≡ Δ − ∇ ≡ δ 2 , (Kanpur 2008, 11)
(iv) δ n y x = Δn y x −(n /2) .
1 2 ⎛ δ2 ⎞
Solution: (i) We have R.H.S. = δ +δ ⎜1 + ⎟
2 ⎝ 4⎠

( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 )2 ⎧⎪ ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 )2 ⎪⎫
= + ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) ⎨1 + ⎬
2 ⎪⎩ 4 ⎪⎭

[ ∵ δ ≡ E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ]

( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 )2 ⎧⎪ 4 + ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 )2 ⎪⎫
= + ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) ⎨ ⎬
2 ⎩⎪ 4 ⎭⎪
 N-125

( E + E −1 − 2) ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) ( E 1 /2 + E −1 /2 )
= +
2 2
E + E −1 ( E − E −1 )
= −1+ = E − 1 = Δ = L.H. S.
2 2
(ii) We have L.H.S. = δ 3 y1 /2 = (Δ E −1 /2 )3 y1 /2 [ ∵ δ ≡ ΔE −1 /2 ]
= Δ3 E −3 /2 E 1 /2 y0 = Δ3 E −1 y0 = ( E − 1)3 E −1 y0 [ ∵ Δ ≡ E − 1]
3 2 −1 2 −1
= ( E − 3 E + 3 E − 1) E y0 = ( E − 3 E + 3 − E ) y0
= y2 − 3 y1 + 3 y0 − y −1 = R.H. S.
(iii) We have Δ∇ = (δE 1 /2 ) (δE −1 /2 ) = δ 2 , ∇ Δ = (δE −1 /2 ) (δE 1 /2 ) = δ 2 ,
and Δ − ∇ = δE 1 / 2 − δE − 1 / 2 = δ ( E 1 / 2 − E − 1 / 2 ) = δ δ = δ 2 .
Thus Δ ∇ ≡ ∇Δ ≡ Δ − ∇ ≡ δ 2 .
(iv) We have
δ n y x = (Δ E −1 /2 ) n y x = (Δn E − n /2 ) y x = Δn ( E − n /2 y x ) = Δn y x −(n /2) .

Example 2: Use Gauss’s forward formula to find the value of y when x = 3 ⋅ 75, given the
following table :
x : 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
yx : 24.145 22.043 20.225 18.644 17.262 16.047

Solution: Let us take 3.5 as the origin and .5 as the unit.

x − x0
We know u = . Here x = 3 ⋅ 75, x0 = 3 ⋅ 5, h = 0 ⋅ 5.
h
3 .75 − 3 .5
∴ u= = 0.5 We require the value of y for u = .5
0. 5
The different table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu Δ5 yu

2 ⋅5 −2 24 ⋅ 145
−2 ⋅ 102

3 ⋅0 −1 22 ⋅ 043 ⋅284
−1 ⋅ 818 − ⋅ 047

3 ⋅5 0 20 ⋅ 225 ⋅237 ⋅009

−1 ⋅ 581 − ⋅ 038 − ⋅ 003

4 ⋅0 1 18 ⋅ 644 ⋅199 ⋅006

−1 ⋅ 382 − ⋅ 032

4 ⋅5 2 17 ⋅ 262 ⋅167
−1 ⋅ 215

5 ⋅0 3 16 ⋅ 047
 N-126

Gauss’s forward formula is

u (u − 1) (u + 1) u (u − 1)
y u = y0 + u Δ y0 + Δ2 y −1 + Δ3 y −1
2 6
(u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) 4 (u + 2) (u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) 5
+ Δ y −2 + Δ y −2 + …
24 120
(⋅5) (⋅5 − 1)
∴ y⋅5 = 20 ⋅ 225 + ⋅ 5 (−1⋅ 581) + × ⋅ 237
2
(⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1) (⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1) (⋅5 − 2)
+ (− ⋅ 038) + × (⋅009)
6 24
(⋅5 + 2) (⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1) (⋅5 − 2)
+ × (− ⋅ 003)
120
= 20 ⋅ 225 − 0 ⋅ 7905 − 0 ⋅ 029625 + ⋅ 002375 + ⋅ 00210938 − ⋅ 0000352
= 19 ⋅ 40 approx.
Hence the value of y for x = 3 ⋅ 75 is 19 ⋅ 40 approximately.
Example 3: Use Gauss’s forward formula to find y30 , given that

y21 = 18 ⋅ 4708 ; y25 = 17 ⋅ 8144 ; y29 = 17 ⋅ 1070 ; y33 = 16 ⋅ 3432 ;

y37 = 15 ⋅ 5154. (Kanpur 2012)
Solution: Take x0 = 29, h = 4.
We require the value of y for x = 30 i. e., for
x − x0 30 − 29
u= = = 0 ⋅ 25.
h 4
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu
21 −2 18 ⋅ 4708
−0 ⋅ 6564
25 −1 17 ⋅ 8144 −0 ⋅ 0510
−0 ⋅ 7074 −0 ⋅ 0054
29 0 17 ⋅ 1070 −0 ⋅ 0564 −0 ⋅ 0022
−0 ⋅ 7638 −0 ⋅ 0076
33 1 16 ⋅ 3432 −0 ⋅ 0640
−0 ⋅ 8278
37 2 15 ⋅ 5154
Gauss’s forward formula gives
(− 0 ⋅ 0564)
y0⋅25 = 17 ⋅ 1070 + (0 ⋅ 25) (− 0 ⋅ 7638) + (0 ⋅ 25) (⋅25 − 1)
2
(⋅25 + 1) (⋅25) (⋅25 − 1)
+ (− 0 ⋅ 0076)
6
(⋅25 + 1) (⋅25) (⋅25 − 1) (⋅25 − 2)
+ (− 0 ⋅ 0022)
24
 N-127

= 17 ⋅ 1070 − ⋅ 19095 + ⋅ 0052875 + ⋅ 0002968 − ⋅ 0000375

= 16 ⋅ 9216 approx.
Thus the value of y30 is 16 ⋅ 9216 approximately.
Example 4: Use Gauss’s forward formula to find a polynomial of degree four or less which
takes the following values of the formula f ( x)
x : 1 2 3 4 5
f ( x) : 1 −1 1 −1 1
x − x0
Solution: Take x0 = 3, h = 1, ∴ u= = x − 3.
h
The difference table is given below :
x u f ( x) Δ f ( x) Δ2 f ( x) Δ3 f ( x) Δ4 f ( x)

1 −2 1
−2
2 −1 −1 4
2 −8
3 0 1 −4 16
−2 8
4 1 −1 4
2
5 2 1

Gauss’s forward formula gives

u (u − 1) 2 (u + 1) u (u − 1) 3
f ( x) = f (0) + uΔf (0) + Δ f (−1) + Δ f ( − 1)
2 6
(u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) 4
+ Δ f (−2)
24
u (u − 1) (u + 1) u (u − 1)
= 1 + u (−2) + (−4) + (8)
2 6
(u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2)
+ (16)
24
4 2
= 1 − 2u − (2u2 − 2u) + (u3 − u) + (u4 − 2u3 − u2 + 2u)
3 3
4 4 2 4 2 4
= 1 − 2u − 2u2 + 2u + u3 − u + u4 − u3 − u2 + u
3 3 3 3 3 3
2 4 ⎛ 4 4⎞ 3 ⎛ 2⎞ 2 4 4
= u + ⎜ − ⎟ u + ⎜ − 2 − ⎟ u + (− 2 + 2 − + ) u + 1
3 ⎝ 3 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 3 3
2 4 8 2 1 4 2
= u − u + 1 = [2u − 8u + 3] .
3 3 3
 N-128

1
= [2 ( x − 3)4 − 8 ( x − 3)2 + 3]
3
1
∴ f ( x) = [2 ( x − 3)4 − 8 ( x − 3)2 + 3]
3
Example 5: Interpolate by means of Gauss’s backward formula the population for the year
1936, given the following table :
Year : 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951
Population : 12 15 20 27 39 52
(in thousands)

Solution: Take 1931 as the origin and 10 years as the unit, then the population is
to be estimated for
1936 − 1931
u= = 0 ⋅ 5.
10
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu Δ5 yu
1901 −3 12
3
1911 −2 15 2
5 0
1921 −1 20 2 3
7 3 −10
1931 0 27 5 −7
12 −4
1941 1 39 1
13
1951 2 52
Now Gauss’s backward formula is
(u + 1) u 2 (u + 1) u (u − 1) 3
y u = y0 + u Δ y − 1 + Δ y −1 + Δ y −2
2 6
(u + 2) (u + 1) u (u − 1) 4 (u + 2) (u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) 5
+ Δ y −2 + Δ y −3 + …
24 120
(⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1)
∴ y⋅5 = 27 + (⋅5) × 7 + ×5+ ×3
2 6
(⋅5 + 2) (⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1)
+ × (−7)
24
(⋅5 + 2) (⋅5 + 1) (⋅5) (⋅5 − 1) (⋅5 − 2)
+ × (−10)
120
= 27 + 3 ⋅ 5 + 1⋅ 875 − 0 ⋅ 1875 + 0 ⋅ 2734 − 0 ⋅ 1172
= 32 ⋅ 3437 thousand.
Thus the estimated population for 1936 is 32 ⋅ 3437 thousand.
 N-129

Example 6: Use Stirling’s formula to find y35 , given

y20 = 512 , y30 = 439, y40 = 346, y50 = 243.
Solution:Take x0 = 30, h = 10. Then we require the value of y for
35 − 30
u= = 0 ⋅ 5. The difference table is given below :
12

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu
20 −1 512
−73
30 0 439 −20
−93 10
40 1 346 −10
−103
50 2 243
Stirling’s formula is
Δ y0 + Δ y − 1 u2 2 u (u2 − 12 ) (Δ3 y −2 + Δ3 y −1 )
y u = y0 + u + Δ y −1 + +…
2 2! 3! 2
(−93 − 73) (⋅5)2
∴ y⋅5 = 439 + (⋅5) + (− 20)
2 2
= 439 − 41⋅ 5 − 2 ⋅ 5 = 395.
Hence the estimated value of y35 is 395.
Example 7: Use Stirling’s formula to find y28 , given
y20 = 49225, y25 = 48316, y30 = 47236, y35 = 45926 , y40 = 44306.
(Kanpur 2011; Garhwal 10)
Solution: Take x = 30 as the origin and h = 5 as the unit, the value of y required
will be for
28 − 30
u= = − 0 ⋅ 4.
5
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu

20 −2 49225
−909
25 −1 48316 −171
−1080 −59
30 0 47236 −230 −21
−1310 −80
35 1 45926 −310
−1620
40 2 44306
 N-130

Putting the values in Stirling’s formula, we get

(− 1310 − 1080) (− 0 ⋅ 4)2
y −0⋅4 = 47236 + (− 0 ⋅ 4) + (− 230)
2 2
(− 0 ⋅ 4) (⋅16 − 1) (− 59 − 80) (0 ⋅ 16) (0 ⋅ 16 − 1)
+ ⋅ + (− 21)
6 2 24
= 47236 + 478 − 18 ⋅ 4 − 3 ⋅ 8920 + ⋅ 1176 = 47692 approx.
Thus the estimated value of y28 is 47692 approximately.
Example 8: Apply Bessel’s formula to obtain y25 , given
y20 = 2854, y24 = 3162 , y28 = 3544, y32 = 3992 . (Kanpur 2008)
Solution: Take x = 24 as origin and 4 as unit. We are to find the value of y for
25 − 24
u= = 0 ⋅ 25.
4
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu

20 −1 2854
308

24 0 3162 74
382 −8

28 1 3544 66
448

32 2 3992

Bessel’s formula is

u (u − 1) (Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 )
( y0 + y1 ) + ⎛⎜ u − ⎞⎟ Δy0 +
1 1
yu = ⋅
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2! 2
⎛⎜ u − 1⎞⎟ u (u − 1)
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ3 y − 1 + …
6
∴ y0⋅25 =
1
(3162 + 3544) + ⎛⎜ 1 − 1⎞⎟ × 382 + 1 ⎛⎜ 1 − 1⎞⎟ ⋅ (74 + 66)
2 ⎝ 4 2⎠ 4 ⎝4 ⎠ 4
(−8)
+ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⋅ ⋅ ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟ ⋅
1 1 1 1
⎝ 4 2⎠ 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 6

= 3353 − 95 ⋅ 5 − 6 ⋅ 5625 − 0 ⋅ 0625 = 3250 ⋅ 875.

Thus the estimated value of y25 is 3250 ⋅ 875.
Example 9: Apply Bessel’s formula to find y25 , given
y20 = 24, y24 = 32 , y28 = 35, y32 = 40.
Solution: Take x = 24 as the origin and 4 as the unit.
 N-131

The value of y required will be for

25 − 24
u= = 0 ⋅ 25.
4
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu

20 −1 24
8

24 0 32 −5
3 7

28 1 35 2
5

32 2 40

Bessel’s formula is
u (u − 1) (Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 )
( y0 + y1 ) + ⎛⎜ u −
1 1⎞
yu = ⎟ Δ y0 + ⋅
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2! 2
⎛⎜ u − 1⎞⎟ u(u − 1)
⎝ 2⎠
+ ⋅ Δ3 y −1 + …
6
(−5 + 2)
(35 + 32) + ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ × 3 + ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟
1 1 1 1 1
∴ y0⋅25 = ⋅
2 ⎝ 4 2⎠ 4 ⎝4 ⎠ 4

+ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ ⋅ ⋅ ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟ ⋅
1 1 1 1 7
⎝ 4 2⎠ 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 6
= 33 ⋅ 5 − ⋅ 75 + 0 ⋅ 140625 + 0 ⋅ 0546875 = 32 ⋅ 945313.
Thus the estimated value of y25 is 32 ⋅ 945313.
Example 10: Given the table :

x log x

310 2 ⋅ 4913617

320 2 ⋅ 5051500

330 2 ⋅ 5185139

340 2 ⋅ 5314789

350 2 ⋅ 5440680

360 2 ⋅ 5563025

Find the value of log 337 ⋅ 5 by Laplace-Everett formula.

Solution: Take x = 330 as the origin and 10 as the unit.
 N-132

The value of log x is required for

337 ⋅ 5 − 330
u= = ⋅ 75.
10
∴ v = 1 − u = 1 − ⋅ 75 = ⋅ 25.
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δ yu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu Δ5 yu

310 −2 2 ⋅ 4913617
⋅0137883

320 −1 2 ⋅ 5051500 − ⋅ 0004244

⋅0133639 ⋅0000255

330 0 2 ⋅ 5185139 − ⋅ 0003989 −2 ⋅ 5. 10 −6

⋅0129650 ⋅0000230 8. 10 −7

340 1 2 ⋅ 5314789 − ⋅ 0003759 −1 ⋅ 7. 10 −6

⋅0125891 ⋅0000213

350 2 2 ⋅ 5440680 − ⋅ 0003546

⋅0122345

360 3 2 ⋅ 5563025
1
Laplace-Everett’s formula where v = 1 − u = is
4
v (v2 − 1) (v2 − 1) (v2 − 4)
y u = vy0 + Δ2 y −1 + Δ4 y −2 + …
3! 5!
u (u2 − 1) u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4)
+ uy1 + Δ2 y0 + Δ4 y −1 + …
3! 5!

(2 ⋅ 5185139 ) + ⎛⎜ −
1 5 ⎞
∴ y⋅75 = ⎟ (− ⋅ 0003989)
4 ⎝ 128⎠
63 3
+ (− ⋅ 0000025) + (2 ⋅ 5314789)
8192 4
+ ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ (− ⋅ 0003759) + 77 (− ⋅ 0000017)
7
⎝ 128⎠ 8192
= ⋅ 6296284 + ⋅ 0000156 + 1⋅ 8986092 + ⋅ 0000206
= 2 ⋅ 5282738 approx.
∴ log 337 ⋅ 5 = 2 ⋅ 5282738.
Example 11: Apply Everett’s formula to find y25 , given
y20 = 2854, y24 = 3162 , y28 = 3544, y32 = 3992 .
Solution: Take x = 24 as the origin and h = 4 as the unit.
25 − 24 1
We are to find the value of y for u = = ⋅
4 4
 N-133

1 3
Now v = 1 − u = 1 − = ⋅
4 4
Using the difference table of Ex. 8, and putting the values in Everett’s formula, we
get

(3162) + ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟ × + (3544) + ⎛⎜ − 1⎞⎟ ×

3 3 9 74 1 1 1 66
y⋅25 =
4 4 ⎝16 ⎠ 6 4 4 ⎝16 ⎠ 6
= 2371⋅ 5 − 4 ⋅ 046875 + 886 − 2 ⋅ 578125 = 3250 ⋅ 875.
Thus the estimated value of y25 is 3250 ⋅ 875.
Example 12: Given
θ : 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°

tan θ : 0 ⋅ 0000 0 ⋅ 0875 0 ⋅ 1763 0 ⋅ 2679 0 ⋅ 3640 0 ⋅ 4663 0 ⋅ 5774

Using Stirling formula show that tan 16° = 0 ⋅ 28676.

Solution: Take θ = 15° as the origin and h = 5° as the unit.
16° − 15°
We are to find the value of tan θ for u = = 0 ⋅2 .
5°
The difference table is given below :

θ u yu Δyu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu Δ5 yu Δ6 yu

0° −3 0 ⋅ 0000
⋅0875
5° −2 0 ⋅ 0875 ⋅0013
⋅0888 ⋅0015
10° −1 0 ⋅ 1763 ⋅0028 ⋅0002
⋅0916 ⋅0017 − ⋅ 0002
15° 0 0 ⋅ 2679 ⋅0045 ⋅0000 ⋅0011
⋅0961 ⋅0017 ⋅0009
20° 1 0 ⋅ 3640 ⋅0062 ⋅0009
⋅1023 ⋅0026
25° 2 0 ⋅ 4663 ⋅0088
⋅1111
30° 3 0 ⋅ 5774
Stirling’s formula is
1 u2 2
y u = y0 + u . [Δy0 + Δy −1 ] + Δ y −1
2 2
u (u2 − 1) 1 3 u2 (u2 − 1) 4
+ [Δ y −1 + Δ3 y −2 ] + Δ y −2
3! 2 4!
u (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) 1 5 u2 (u2 − 1) (u2 − 4) 6
+ [Δ y −2 + Δ5 y −3 ] + Δ y −3 .
5! 2 6!
 N-134

⋅2 (⋅2)2
∴ y⋅2 = 0 ⋅ 2679 + [⋅0961 + ⋅ 0916] + (⋅0045)
2 2
(⋅2) (⋅04 − 1) [⋅0017 + ⋅ 0017] (⋅04) (⋅04 − 1)
+ + (⋅0000)
6 2 24
(⋅2) (⋅04 − 1) (⋅04 − 4) (− ⋅ 0002 + ⋅ 0009)
+ ⋅
120 2
(⋅04) (⋅04 − 1) (⋅04 − 4)
+ (⋅0011)
720
= 0 ⋅ 2679 + ⋅ 01877 + ⋅ 00009 + negligible quantities
= 0 ⋅ 28676.
Thus the estimated value of tan 16° = 0 ⋅ 28676.
Example 13: If third differences are constant, prove that
1 1 2
y x + (1 /2) = ( y x + y x +1 ) − (Δ y x −1 + Δ2 y x ).
2 16
(Bundelkhand 2011, 12)
Solution: Bessel’s formula is
y0 + y1 x ( x − 1) Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0
+ ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ Δy0 +
1
yx = ⋅
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2! 2
⎛⎜ x − 1⎞⎟ x ( x − 1)
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ3 y −1 . …(1)
3!
Here we have taken terms upto third differences since third differences are given to
be constant.
1
Putting x = in (1), we get
2
2 2
y0 + y1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ Δ y − 1 + Δ y0
y1 /2 = + ⎜ − 1⎟ …(2)
2 2 ⎝2 ⎠ 4
Changing the origin to − x, the equation (2) becomes
y x + y x +1 1 2
y x + (1 /2) = − (Δ y x −1 + Δ2 y x ).
2 16

4.6 Uses of Various Interpolation Formulae

Lagrange’s formula for interpolation is applicable for any type of observations. But
when the observations are given at equal spaced values of the argument, the
formulae using various order differences are found to be more convenient and easy
to use than Lagrange’s formula.
Newton’s forward formula is appropriate to use when the unknown value lies near
the beginning of the table and Newton’s backward formula is mainly used when
the unknown value to be interpolated lies near the end of the table.
 N-135

The central differences formulae are more appropriate when the value of the
argument for unknown entry lies somewhere in the middle of the difference table.
The basic reason is that the central difference formulae are likely to converge more
rapidly.
Among these Gauss’s forward or backward formulae are suitable when the
interpolated value lies near to the right or left of the central value in the table.
Stirling’s formula is appropriate in the situation when the value of u in the
expression x = a + uh is very near to zero. Bessel’s formula will give a more accurate
result when interpolating near the middle of an interval.

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Prove that
(i) δ = Δ E −1 /2 = ∇ E1 /2
1 2
(ii) μ 2 = 1 + δ
4 (Rohilkhand 2011; Bundelkhand 11; Purvanchal 12)
1
(iii) E 1 /2 = μ + δ
2
1
(iv) E −1 /2 = μ − δ
2 (Rohilkhand 2011)
1
(v) √ (1 + δ 2 μ 2 ) = 1 + δ 2 . (vi) δ 2 y0 = y1 − 2 y0 + y −1
2
n
n
k n!
(vii) δ y x = Σ (−1) y x +(n /2)− k .
k =0 k ! (n − k) !
2. Establish the following relations :
1 1 1
(i) μδ = (∇ + Δ) = Δ E −1 + Δ
2 2 2 (Rohilkhand 2011)
(ii) Δ + ∇ = Δ / ∇ − ∇ / Δ.
3. If D, E, δ and μ be the operators with usual meanings and if hD = U, where h
is the interval of differencing , prove that
(i) E = eU
(ii) e − U = 1 − ∇
(iii) δ = 2 sinh (U / 2)
(iv) μ = cosh(U / 2)
(v) ( E + 1) δ = 2 μ ( E − 1).
4. Given y2 = 10, y1 = 8, y0 = 5, y −1 = 10, find y1 /2 by Gauss for ward
formula.
 N-136

5. Given that :
√ (12500) = 111⋅ 803399 ; √ (12510) = 111⋅ 848111 ;
√ (12520) = 111⋅ 892806 ; √ (12530) = 111⋅ 937483.
Show by Gauss backward formula that
√ (12516) = 111⋅ 874930 . (Kanpur 2009)
6. Apply (a) Stirling’s formula, (b) Bessel’s formula (c) Gauss for ward
formula, (d) Laplace-Everett’s formula to find the value of f (1⋅ 22) from the
1 2
1 t − t
following table which gives the values of f (t) =
√ (2π) ∫0 e 2 dt at

intervals of t = 0 ⋅ 5 from t = 0 to t = 3 :

t f (t)
0 ⋅ 00 0 ⋅ 000
0 ⋅ 50 0 ⋅ 191
1 ⋅ 00 0 ⋅ 341
1 ⋅ 50 0 ⋅ 433
2 ⋅ 00 0 ⋅ 477
2 ⋅ 50 0 ⋅ 494
3 ⋅ 00 0 ⋅ 499
−x
7. The values of e for certain equidistant values of x are given in the
following table. Find the value of e − x when x = 1.7489 by Bessel’s as well as
Stirling formula.

x e− x
1.72 0.1790661479

1.73 0.1772844100

1.74 0.1755204006

1.75 0.1737739435
1.76 0.1720448638

1.77 0.1703329888
1.78 0.1686381473

8. Use Gauss interpolation formula to find y41 with the help of the following
data :
y30 = 3678 ⋅ 2, y35 = 2995 ⋅ 1, y40 = 2400 ⋅ 1,
y45 = 1876 ⋅ 2, y50 = 1416 ⋅ 3.
 N-137

9. Apply a central difference formula to obtain y32 , given that

y25 = 0 ⋅ 2707, y30 = 0 ⋅ 3027, y35 = 0 ⋅ 3386, y40 = 0 ⋅ 3794.
10. From the following table find the value of f (⋅5437) by Gauss formula :

x f ( x)

⋅51 ⋅529244

⋅52 ⋅537895

⋅53 ⋅546464

⋅54 ⋅554939

⋅55 ⋅563323

⋅56 ⋅571616

⋅57 ⋅579816
11. Define the operators δ and μ and prove that
δ [ f ( x) g ( x)] = μf ( x) δg ( x) + μg ( x) δf ( x).
12. Apply Bessel’s formula to find a polynomial of degree three or less which
takes the following values of the function u x :
x : 4 6 8 10
f ( x) : 1 3 8 20

A nswers 1
4. 6
6. (a) 0 ⋅ 3886, (b) 0 ⋅ 388, (c) 0 ⋅ 389, (d) 0 ⋅ 389
7. 0 ⋅ 1739652000, 0 ⋅ 1739652000 8. y41 = 2290 ⋅ 0
9. 0 ⋅ 3165 10. 0 ⋅ 558052

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions.

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The operator δ is defined by the operator equation
(a) δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 (b) δ = E 1 /2 + E −1 /2
(c) δ = E − E −1 (d) δ = E + E −1
(Rohilkhand 2012; Meerut 13B)
 N-138

2. The operator μ is defined by the operator equation

1 1
(a) μ = ( E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 ) (b) μ = ( E 1 /2 + E −1 /2 )
2 2
1 1
(c) μ = ( E − E −1 ) (d) μ = ( E + E −1 )
2 2
(Rohilkhand 2010)
3. The relation between the operators μ and δ is
δ2 δ2
(a) μ 2 = 1 + (b) μ 2 = 1 +
4 2
(c) μ 2 = 1 + δ2 (d) μ 2 = 1 − δ2
(Rohilkhand 2009, 11)
4. The central sum operator σ is inverse to the operator
(a) μ (b) δ
(c) E (d) Δ
5. The relation between the operators σ and E is
E 1 /2 E −1 /2
(a) σ = (b) σ =
E −1 E −1
E 1 /2 E −1 /2
(c) σ = (d) σ =
E +1 E +1
(Rohilkhand 2009; Meerut 13B)
6. If D and μ be the operators with usual meanings and if hD = U, where h is the
interval of differencing, then

(a) μ = cosh (U / 2) (b) μ = sinh (U / 2)

(c) μ = cosh U (d) μ = sinh U

7. The relation among δ, E and ∇ is :

(a) δ = E1 /2 ∇ (b) δ = E − 1 /2 ∇
(c) δ = E ∇ (d) δ = E −1∇
(Garhwal 2010; Meerut 13B)
8. A relation between D and δ is :

(a) δ = 2 sinh ⎛⎜ hD⎞⎟ (b) δ = sinh ⎛⎜ hD⎞⎟

1 1
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

(c) δ = 2 sinh (hD) (d) δ = sinh (hD)

(Rohilkhand 2012; Meerut 13B)
9. Stirling’s interpolation formula is the mean of
(a) Gauss’s forward formula and Gauss’s backward formula
(b) Gauss’s forward formula and the third formula due to Gauss
(c) Gauss’s backward formula and the third formula due to Gauss
(d) None of these
 N-139

10. The second term of Stirling’s formula is :

u u2
(a) [Δf (− 1) + Δf ( − 2)] (b) [Δf (− 1) + Δf (0)]
2 2
u
(c) u [Δ(0) + Δf ( − 1)] (d) [Δ f (0) + Δ f (− 1)]
2
(Garhwal 2008)
11. The first three terms in Stirling’s formula are :
u u2 2
(a) y0 + (Δy −1 + Δy0 ) + Δ y −1
2 2!
u u2 2
(b) y0 + (Δy −1 − Δy0 ) + Δ y −1
2! 2!
u u2 2
(c) y0 + (Δy −1 + Δy0 ) + Δ y −1
3! 2
(d) none of these (Meerut 2013B)
2
12. δ y0 is equal to
(a) y1 − 2 y0 + y −1 (b) y2 + y − 2 + y0
(c) y1 − 5 y − y0 − 1 (d) y2 − y1 − y0
13. The operator δ is called the ……… difference operator :
(a) forward (b) backward
(c) central (d) none of these
14. The operator μ is called the ……… operator :
(a) mean (b) forward
(c) backward (d) central
15. The mean of Gauss's forward formula and Gauss's backward formula gives :
(a) Bessel's interpolation formula
(b) Stirling's Interpolation formula
(c) Laplace-Everett's formula
(d) none of these
16. The mean of Gauss's forward formula and the third formula due to Gauss
gives :
(a) Bessel's interpolation formula
(b) Stirling's Interpolation formula
(c) Laplace-Everett's formula
(d) none of these
17. Laplace-Everett's interpolation formula contains differences only of ……
order :
(a) even (b) odd
(c) both even and odd (d) none of these
18. If Δ ,∇ and δ be the operators with usual meaning , then
(a) Δ + ∇ = δ2 (b) Δ − ∇ = δ 2
Δ ∇
(c) = δ2 (d) = δ2
∇ Δ
 N-140

19. The central difference formulae are more appropriate when the value of the
argument for unknown entry lies somewhere in the …… of the difference
table :
(a) beginning (b) end
(c) middle (d) none of these
20. Value of Δ − ∇ is equal to :
(a) Δ∇ (b) δ 2
(c) ∇Δ (d) All correct
Δ ∇
21. Value of − is equal to :
∇ Δ
(a) Δ + ∇ (b) Δ − ∇
Δ
(c) (d) none of these
∇
22. Value of δ is equal to :
(a) ΔE −1 /2 (b) ∇E 1 /2
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
23. Value of E −1 /2 is equal to :
1 1
(a) μ − δ (b) μ + δ
2 2
μ δ
(c) (d)
2δ 2μ
1
24. Value of 1 + δ 2 is equal to :
2
δ2 δ2
(a) 1+ (b) 1+
μ2 μ2
(c) 1+ μ 2 δ 2 (d) 1+ μ 2 δ 2
25. Value of E1 /2 is equal to :
1 1
(a) μ + δ (b) μ − δ
2 2
1 1
(c) δ + μ (d) δ − μ
2 2
26. The value of Δ∇ is equal to :
(a) Δ∇
(b) δ 2
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these
27. Value of δ n y x is equal to :
(a) Δ n y x − (n 2) (b) Δ n+1 y x − (n 2)
(c) Δ n − 1 y x − (n 2) (d) Δn y x + (n 2)
 N-141

28. If y20 = 512, y30 = 439, y40 = 346, y50 = 243, then y35 =
(a) 390 (b) 385
(c) 380 (d) 395
29. If y20 = 24, y24 = 32, y28 = 35, y32 = 40,then y25 =
(a) 32.950 (b) 32.940
(c) 32.945 (d) 32.955
30. If y2 = 10, y1 = 8, y0 = 5, y −1 = 10,then y1 2 =
(a) 8 (b) 6
(c) 5 (d) 4
x − x0
31. If u = , then Gauss forward interpolation formula is y =
h
u(u + 1) u(u2 − 1)
(a) y0 + uΔy0 + Δ 2 y −1 + Δ3 y −1 + …
2! 3!
u(u − 1) u(u2 − 1)
(b) y0 + uΔy0 + Δ 2 y −1 + Δ3 y −1 + …
2! 3!
u(u − 1) u(u − 1)(u − 2) 3
(c) y0 + uΔy0 + Δ 2 y −1 + Δ y −1 + …
2! 3!
(d) none of these (Meerut 2013B)
32. If the values of the argument are equally spaced and we require to find the
derivative of the function at a point near the beginning of a set of tabular
values, we use :
(a) Newton-Gregory forward formula
(b) Newton-Gregory backward formula
(c) Central difference formula
(d) Newton’s divided difference formula
33. If the values of the argument are equally spaced and we require to find the
derivative of the function at a point near the end of a set of tabular values,
we use :
(a) Newton-Gregory forward formula
(b) Newton-Gregory backward formula
(c) Central difference formula
(d) Newton’s divided difference formula
34. If the values of the argument are equally spaced then to find the derivative
at a point near the middle of the table, we should use :
(a) Newton-Gregory forward formula
(b) Newton-Gregory backward formula
(c) Central difference formula
(d) Newton’s divided difference formula
 N-142

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (a)
26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (c)

¨
 5
S olution of A lgebraic and
T ranscendental E quations

5.1 Introduction
n applied mathematics, the most frequently occurring problem is to find the
I roots of equations of the form
f ( x) = 0. …(1)
The equation f ( x) = 0 is called Algebraic or Transcendental according as f ( x) is
purely a polynomial in x or contains some other functions such as logarithmic,
exponential and trigonometric functions etc., e. g.,
1 + cos x − 5 x, x tan x − cosh x, e − x − sin x, etc.
A polynomial in x of degree n is an expression of the form
f ( x) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + … + a n −1 x + a n ,

where a’s are constants and n is a positive integer. The zeros or the roots of the
polynomial f ( x) are those values of x for which f ( x) is zero. Geometrically, if the
graph of f ( x) crosses the x-axis at the point x = a then x = a is a root of the equation
f ( x) = 0. We conclude that a is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0 if and only if
f (a) = 0.
 N-144

By finding the solution of an equation f ( x) = 0, we mean to find zeros of f ( x).

In this chapter, we shall discuss some numerical methods for the solution of
equations of the form (1). Here f ( x) may be algebraic or transcendental or a
combination of both. Before finding the solutions of algebraic and transcendental
equations we give some properties of algebraic equations which help for locating
the roots.
(i) An algebraic equation of degree n, where n is a positive integer, has n and
only n roots.
(ii) If a + ib is a root of f ( x) = 0, then a − ib is also a root of the equation i. e.,
complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
(iii) Descarte’s rule of signs. In an algebraic equation f ( x) = 0, with real
coefficients the number of positive roots cannot exceed the number of
changes of signs from positive to negative and from negative to positive in
f ( x). Also the number of negative roots in f ( x) = 0, cannot exceed the
number of variations in f (− x).
(iv) If the values f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs, when we substitute two
real quantities a and b for x in any polynomial f ( x) then at least one or an
odd number of real roots of the equation f ( x) = 0 lie between a and b. If
f (a) and f (b) are of the same sign, then either there is no real root or an
even number of real roots of f ( x) = 0 lie between a and b.
(v) Every equation of odd degree has at least one real root. Every equation of an
even degree with last term negative has at least two real roots, one positive
and the other negative. Here it is understood that the coefficient of the
leading term is positive.
(vi) The largest root of the polynomial equation
a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + … + a n −1 x + a n = 0, a0 ≠ 0
may be approximated by the root of the equation a0 x + a1 ≠ 0, or by that
root of the quadratic equation a0 x 2 + a1 x + a2 = 0 which is larger in
absolute value. Similarly the smallest root can be obtained approximately
by the root of the equation a n −1 x + a n = 0 or by that root of
a n −2 x 2 + a n −1 x + a n = 0, which is smaller in absolute value.
(vii) If x = a is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0, then f ( x) is exactly divisible by
( x − a) and conversely, if f ( x) is exactly divisible by ( x − a), a is a root of the
equation f ( x) = 0.
Synthetic Division: To find the quotient and the remainder when a polynomial is
divided by a binomial.
n n −1 n−2
Let f ( x) ≡ a0 x + a1 x + a2 x + … + a n −1 x + a n be the polynomial of nth
degree and let it be divided by the binomial x − a. If
n −1 n−2
Q = b0 x + b1 x + … + b n − 2 x + b n −1 be the quotient and R the remainder,
then the coefficients of Q and R can be exhibited in the following manner :
 N-145

a a0 a1 a2 a3 …… an−1 an
ab0 ab1 ab2 …… abn−2 abn−1

b0 b1 b2 b3 …… bn−1 R

Rule for synthetic division: First we make the polynomial f ( x) complete (if it
is not so) by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients.
In the first row we write the successive coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , … , a n of the
polynomial f ( x).
If we are to divide the polynomial by x − a, we write a in the corner as shown above.
In the third row write b0 below a0 (note that b0 = a0 ). The first term in the second
row is obtained by multiplying b0 (or a0 ) by a. The product ab0 is written under a1 .
Adding ab0 to a1 , we get b1 , which is the second term in the third row. Multiplying
b1 by a the product ab1 is written under a2 . Adding ab1 to a2 we get b2 , which is the
third term in the third row. We continue this process. The last term in the third row
is the value of the remainder R while the last but one term in the third row is the
value of b n−1 .
Note: In case R = 0, we can say that a is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0 and the
equation f ( x) = 0 can be depressed by one dimension.
In case R is not equal to zero, we get R = f (a) by remainder theorem.

5.2 Methods for finding the Initial Approximate

Value of the Root
To find the real roots of a numerical equation by any method except that of
Graeffe, it is necessary first to find an approximate value of the root by any method.
The general technique is that we begin with an initial approximate value say x0 and
then find the better approximations x1 , x2 , … , x n successively by repeating the
same method. If at each step of a method the successive approximations approach
the root more and more closely, then we say that the method converges.
(i) Graphical Method: Suppose we are to find the roots of the equation
f ( x) = 0. Taking a set of rectangular coordinate axes we plot the graph of y = f ( x).
Then the real roots of the given equation are the abscissae of the points where the
graph crosses the x-axis. Obviously, at these points y is zero and so the equation
f ( x) = 0 is satisfied. Hence from the graph of the given equation, approximate
values for the real roots of the equation can be found. Sometimes when f ( x)
involves difference of two functions, the approximate values of the real roots of
f ( x) = 0 can be found by writing the equation in the form f1 ( x) = f 2 ( x) where
f1 ( x) and f 2 ( x) are both functions of x. Then we plot the two equations y1 = f1 ( x)
and y2 = f 2 ( x) on the same axes. The real roots of the given equation are the
abscissae of the points of intersection of these two curves because at these points
y1 = y2 and so f1 ( x) = f 2 ( x).
 N-146

(ii) Bisection Method: We know that if a function f ( x) is continuous

between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs, then there exists at least
one root between a and b. Let f (a) be negative and f (b) be positive. Also let the
approximate value of the root be given by x0 = (a + b) / 2 . Now if f ( x0 ) = 0 then it
ensures that x0 is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0. If f ( x0 ) ≠ 0 then the root either
lies between x0 and b or between x0 and a. It depends on whether f ( x0 ) is negative
or positive. Then again we bisect the interval and repeat the process until the root is
obtained to the desired accuracy.
(iii) The Method of False Position (Regula-Falsi Method): It is the oldest
method for computing the real root of a numerical equation f ( x) = 0. It is closely
similar to the bisection method.
In this method we find a sufficiently small interval ( x1 , x2 ) in which the root lies.
Since the root lies between x1 and x2 , the graph of y = f ( x) must cross the x-axis
between x = x1 and x = x2 , and hence y1 and y2 must be of opposite signs.
This method is based upon the principle that any portion of a smooth curve is
practically straight for a short distance. Hence we assume that the graph of
y = f ( x) is a straight line between the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ). The points are
on opposite sides of the x-axis.
The x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the straight line joining ( x1 , y1 )
and ( x2 , y2 ) and the axis of x gives an approximate value of the desired root. The
Fig. 1 represents a magnified view of that part of the graph which lies between
( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ).
Now from the similar triangles PAR and PSQ, we have
AR SQ h x2 − x1 ( x2 − x1 )| y1|
= or = ⇒ h= ⋅
AP SP | y1| | y1| + | y2| | y1| + | y2|
Hence the approximate value of the desired root
( x2 − x1 )| y1|
= x1 + AR = x1 + h = x1 + ⋅
| y1| + | y2|
Let this value be denoted by x (1) . Then P(x1, y1)
to find the better approximation, we
find y (1) by y (1) = f ( x (1) ). Now either
y (1) and y1 or y (1) and y2 will be of
y1
opposite signs. If y (1) and y1 are of
opposite signs then one root lies in the
A h R B x-axis
interval ( x1 , x (1) ). We again apply the y2
S
method of false position to this x2 –x1 Q(x2, y2)
interval and get the second Fig. 1
approximation.
 N-147

If y (1) and y2 are of opposite signs, then second approximation can be obtained by
using the method of false position to the interval ( x (1) , x2 ). Continuing this process
we can obtain the root to the desired degree of accuracy.
(iv) The Secant Method: This method is similar to that of Regula-Falsi
method except the condition that f ( x1 ) . f ( x2 ) < 0. In this method the graph of
the function y = f ( x) in the neighbourhood of the root is approximated by a
secant line (chord). Here it is not necessary that the interval at each iteration
should contain the root. Let x1 and x2 be the limits of interval initially, then the
first approximation is given by
( x − x1 ) f ( x2 )
x3 = x2 + 2 ⋅
f ( x1 ) − f ( x2 )
The formula for successive approximations in general form is given by
( x − x n−1 ) . f ( x n )
x n +1 = x n + n ,n≥2.
{ f ( x n−1 ) − f ( x n )}
If at any iteration we have f ( x n ) = f ( x n−1 ), then the secant method fails. Hence
the method does not converge always while the Regula-Falsi method converges
surely. But if the secant method converges then it converges more rapidly than the
Regula-Falsi method.
(v) Successive Iteration Method: In this method for finding the roots of the
equation f ( x) = 0 it is expressed in the form x = φ ( x).
Let x0 be an initial approximation to the solution of x = φ ( x).Substituting it in φ ( x)
the next approximation x1 is given by x1 = φ ( x0 ).Again, substituting x = x1 in φ ( x),
we get the next approximation as x2 = φ ( x1 ).
Continuing in this way, we get
x n = φ ( x n−1 ) or x n+1 = φ ( x n ).
Thus we get a sequence of successive approximations which may converge to the
desired root.
For using this method, the equation f ( x) = 0 can be put as x = φ ( x) in many
different ways.
Let f ( x) = x 2 − x − 1 = 0. It can be written as
(i) x = x 2 − 1,
(ii) x 2 = x + 1 or x = √ ( x + 1),
2
(iii) x = x + 1 or x = 1 + (1 / x),
2
(iv) x = x − ( x − x − 1) or x = 2 x − x 2 + 1.
There can be other arrangements also of this equation.
In order to find the root of f ( x) = 0, i. e., x = φ ( x), we are to find the abscissa of
the point of intersection of the line y = x and the curve y = φ ( x). These two may or
may not intersect. If these two curves do not intersect, then the equation
 N-148

f ( x) = 0 has no real root.

Note: The iteration method is convergent conditionally and the condition is that
|φ′ ( x)| < 1 in the neighbourhood of the real root x = a.
(vi) Newton-Raphson Method: (Avadh 2007; Rohilkhand 09; Garhwal 10)
Let x0 denote an approximate value of the desired root of the equation f ( x) = 0
and let h be the correction which must be applied to x0 to get the exact value of the
root. Then x0 + h is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0, so that f ( x0 + h) = 0 …(1)
Expanding f ( x0 + h) by Taylor’s theorem, we get
h2
f ( x0 + h) = f ( x0 ) + hf ′ ( x0 ) + f ′ ′ ( x0 ) + … = 0 .
2!
Now if h is sufficiently small, we may neglect the terms containing second and
higher powers of h and get simple relation f ( x0 ) + hf ′ ( x0 ) = 0.
f ( x0 )
This gives h = − ,provided f ′ ( x0 ) ≠ 0.The improved value of the root is
f ′ ( x0 )
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 + h = x0 − …(2)
f ′ ( x0 )
Successive approximations are given by x2 , x3 , … , x n+1 , where
f (x n)
x n+1 = x n − ⋅ …(3)
f ′ (x n)
Formula (3) is known as Newton-Raphson formula.
In this method we have assumed that h is a small quantity which is so if the
derivative f ′ ( x) is large. In other words the correct value of the root can be
obtained more rapidly and with very little labour when the graph is nearly vertical
where it crosses the x-axis. If f ′ ( x) is small in the neighbourhood of the root then
the value of h is large and by this method the computation of the root will be a slow
process or might even fail altogether. Hence this method is not suitable in cases
when the graph of f ( x) is nearly horizontal where it crosses the x-axis. In such cases
the regula-falsi method should be used.
Geometric Significance of the
Y
Newton-Raphson Method:
A magnified view of the graph of y = f ( x), P

where it crosses the x-axis is represented in

Fig. 2.
P1
Let us draw a tangent at the point P whose
x-coordinate is x0 . It intersects the x-axis at f(x0)
some point T. Then we draw a tangent at the
point P1 whose abscissa is OT. Suppose it x0 h1 h2 S
meets the x-axis at some point T1 which lies O M T T1 X
x1
between T and S. Further we draw a tangent at
x2
the point P2 whose abscissa is OT1 . This
Fig. 2 f ( x) = 0
 N-149

tangent intersects the x-axis at a point T2 which lies between T1 and S. We continue
this process. Let the curvature of the graph do not change sign between P and S.
Then the points T , T1 , T2 , …will approach the point S as a limit or in other words
the intercepts OT , OT1 , OT2 , … will tend to the intercept OS as a limit. But OS
denotes the real root of the equation f ( x) = 0. So OT , OT1 , OT2 , … denote
successive approximations to the desired root.
From this figure we derive the fundamental formula. Let MT = h1 and TT1 = h2 ,
etc.
f ( x0 )
We have PM = f ( x0 ), slope at P = tan ∠ XTP = − ⋅
h1
Also the slope of the graph at P is f ′ ( x0 ).
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
Thus we get f ′ ( x0 ) = − ⇒ h1 = − ⋅
h1 f ′ ( x0 )
Similarly, we find from the Δ P1 TT1 that
f ( x1 )
h2 = − ⋅
f ′ ( x1 )
From this discussion we conclude that in this method we replace the graph of the
given function by a tangent at each successive step in the approximation process.
It can be used for solving both algebraic and transcendental equations and it can
also be used when the roots are complex.
Newton’s iterative formula for obtaining inverse, square root, cube root etc.
1. Inverse. The quantity a −1 can be considered as a root of the equation
(1 / x) − a = 0.
Here f ( x) = x −1 − a.
∴ f ′ ( x) = − 1 / x 2 .
Hence by Newton’s formula, we get the simple recursion formula
(1 / x n ) − a
x n +1 = x n +
1 / x n2
or x n +1 = x n (2 − ax n ).
2. Square root: The quantity √ a can be considered as a root of the equation
x 2 − a = 0. From this we get the recursion formula
1⎛ a⎞
x n +1 = ⎜ xn + ⎟⋅
2⎝ xn ⎠
3. Inverse Square root: The inverse square root of a is the root of the equation
1
− a = 0. From this we get the iterative formula
x2
1
x n +1 = x n (3 − ax n2 ).
2
4. Formula of p th root and reciprocal p th root: For computing p th root of
p
a we can solve the equation x − a = 0.
 N-150

p p −1
Here f ( x) = x − a. ∴ f ′ ( x) = px .
Hence by Newton’s formula, we obtain the recursion formula
( x p − a) ( p − 1) x n p + a
x n+1 = x n − n p −1 = ⋅
px n px n p −1
1
The reciprocal of pth root of a can be obtained by solving the equation p
−a=0
x
by Newton’s method. We get the iterative formula
( p + 1 − ax n p )
x n +1 = x n ⋅
p
(vii) Graeffe’s root squaring method: This is a method which does not
require any prior information of the roots such as approximate value of the root
etc. But this method is applicable to polynomial equations only. Sometimes it
gives all the roots of the polynomial equation.
We consider the equation x n + a1 x n−1 + … + a n = 0. …(1)
For the sake of simplicity we assume all roots to be real and different from each
other. Keeping all even terms on one side and all odd terms on the other, we have
( x n + a2 x n − 2 + a4 x n − 4 + …)2 = (a1 x n−1
+ a3 x n−3
+ a5 x n − 5 + …)2 .
Putting x 2 = y, we get the new equation
y n + b1 y n −1 + b2 y n−2
+ … + b n = 0, …(2)
b1 = − a1 + 2a2 2 ⎫
where ⎪
b2 = a2 2 − 2a1 a3 + 2a4 ⎪
⎪
b3 = − a3 2 + 2a2 a4 − 2a1 a5 + 2a6 ⎬
… … … … … …⎪
⎪
b n = (−1) n a n2 ⎪
⎭
or (−1) r b r = a r 2 − 2 a r −1 a r +1 + 2 a r −2 a r +2 − … …(3)
The roots of the equation (2) are the squares of the roots of the equation (1).
Suppose that, after m squarings, we have obtained the equation
z n + λ 1 z n−1 + … + λ n = 0, …(4)
with the roots q1 , q2 , … , q n , while the roots of the original equation are
p1 , p2 , … , pn .
m
Then q i = pi2 , i = 1, 2 , … , n. Also, we assume that
| p1| > | p2| > … > | pn||q1| >>|q2| >>… >>|q n|,
and
| q2 | q
where the symbol >> indicates “much greater than”. Hence = 2 etc. can be
|q1| q1
neglected in comparison with unity. Since q i is an even power of pi so it is always
positive.
 N-151

From the theory of equations the relations between the roots α1 , α 2 , … , α n and
the coefficients a1 , a2 , … , a n of the equation
x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + …+ a n −1 x + a n = 0 are

Σ α1 = − a1 = (−1) a1
Σ α1α 2 = (−1)2 a2 , Σα1α 2 α 3 = (−1)3 a3
… … … …
n
α1α 2 … α n = (−1) a n .
Hence from the equation (4), we get
Σ q1 = q1 + q2 + … + q n = (−1)1 λ 1 ⎫
⎪
Σ q1 q2 = q1 q2 + q2 q3 + … = (−1)2 λ 2 ⎪
⎪
Σ q1 q2 q3 = q1 q2 q3 + q1 q2 q4 + … = (−1)3 λ 3 ⎬
… … … … … … ⎪
⎪
n
q1 q2 q3 … q n = (−1) λ n ⎪
⎭
⎛ q ⎞
or λ 1 = − (q1 + q2 + … + q n ) = − q1 ⎜1 + 2 + …⎟
⎝ q1 ⎠
⎛ q ⎞
λ 2 = (q1 q2 + q2 q3 + …) = q1 q2 ⎜1 + 3 + …⎟
⎝ q1 ⎠
⎛ q ⎞
λ 3 = − (q1 q2 q3 + q1 q2 q4 + …) = − q1 q2 q3 ⎜1 + 4 + …⎟
⎝ q3 ⎠
… … … … …
n
λ n = (−1) q1 q2 … q n .
Since the quantities q2 / q1 etc. are negligible in comparison with unity, so we get
λ 1 • − q1 ⎫
⎪
λ 2 • q1 q2 ⎪
⎪
λ 3 • − q1 q2 q3 ⎬ …(5)
… … … ⎪
⎪
λ n • (−1) q1 q2 … q n ⎪⎭
n

Dividing each equation after first by its preceding equation, we obtain

q1 • − λ 1 ⎫
q2 • − λ 2 / λ 1 ⎪
⎪⎪
q3 • − λ 3 / λ 2 ⎬ …(6)
… … …⎪
⎪
q n • − λ n / λ n−1 ⎪⎭
m
Now since q i = pi2 , so we get pi by m successive square-root extractions of q i and
the sign of pi has to be determined by inserting the root into the equation.
 N-152

5.3 Nearly Equal Roots

We know that Newton’s method can be used when f ′ ( x) ≠ 0 in the
neighbourhood of the actual root x = a i. e., in the interval (a − h, a + h). But this
restriction may not be satisfied in practice or the quantity h satisfying this
condition may be too small. This situation happens when the roots are very close to
each other.We proceed as follows to remove this difficulty.
We know by Rolle’s theorem that f ′ ( x) vanishes at least once between two roots
of f ( x) = 0 and so we can find a sufficiently small quantity h to satisfy the above
said interval (a − h, a + h) in case of nearly equal roots.
In the case of equal roots at x = a, both f ( x) and f ′ ( x) vanish at x = a. Hence while
applying Newton’s method if x i is very close to the root of f ( x) and f ′ ( x) i. e., both
f ( x i ) and f ′ ( x i ) are very small then we proceed to find two new starting values for
the two nearly equal roots.
Now we first apply Newton’s method to the equation f ′ ( x) = 0 in order to find
these two values i. e., we apply the iteration formula
f ′ (x i )
x i+1 = x i − ⋅ …(1)
f ′ ′ (x i )
Suppose x = c is the solution obtained by (1). (If there does not exist a solution like
x = c of (1) or f ′ ′ ( x) is small throughout in a small neighbourhood of x = c then
further modification is needed).
By Taylor’s theorem, we get
( x − c )2
f ( x) = f (c + x − c ) = f (c ) + ( x − c ) f ′ (c ) + f ′ ′ (c ) + …
2!
1
= f (c ) + ( x − c )2 f ′ ′ (c ) + … [ ∵ f ′ (c ) = 0]
2
1
= f (c ) + ( x − c )2 f ′ ′ (c ), neglecting higher power terms.
2
Thus the zeros of f ( x) near x = c are approximately given by
f ( x) = 0
1
i. e., f (c ) + ( x − c )2 f ′ ′ (c ) = 0
2
i. e., x = c ± √ { − 2 f (c ) / f ′ ′ (c )}. …(2)
Now taking these two values as the starting values we can obtain the two nearly
equal roots by Newton’s method.
 N-153

5.4 Rate of Convergence of Newton’s Method

Let a be the exact value of the root. Suppose x n differs from a by the small quantity
εn .
Then xn = a + εn ⇒ x n +1 = a + ε n +1 .
By Newton-Raphson method, we have
f (x n)
x n +1 = x n −
f ′ (x n)
f (a + ε n )
i. e., a + ε n +1 = a + ε n −
f ′ (a + ε n )
f (a + ε n )
or ε n +1 = ε n − …(1)
f ′ (a + ε n )
By Taylor’s theorem, we have
1 2
f (a + ε n ) = f (a) + ε n f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a) + …
2!
1 2
= ε n f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a) + … [ ∵ f (a) = 0]
2
and f ′ (a + ε n ) = f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a) + …
Substituting these values in (1), we get
⎡ f ′ (a) + 1 ε f ′ ′ (a) + …⎤
⎢ 2
n ⎥
ε n +1 = ε n − ε n ⎢
f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a) + … ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
ε n2 f ′ ′ (a) ε n2 f ′ ′ (a)
= =
2 [ f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a)] ⎡ f ′ ′ (a)⎤
2 f ′ (a) ⎢1 + ε n ⎥
⎣ f ′ (a) ⎦
−1
ε n2 f ′ ′ (a) ⎡ f ′ ′ (a)⎤ ε n2 f ′ ′ (a)
= ⎢1 + ε n ⎥ ≈ …(2)
2 f ′ (a) ⎣ f ′ (a) ⎦ 2 f ′ (a)
From (2) we observe that the subsequent error is proportional to the square of the
previous error so that the Newton-Raphson method has a second-order or
quadratic convergence.

5.5 Rate of Convergence of Newton’s Method When

There Exist Double Roots
Proceeding as earlier, we get
f (a + ε n )
ε n +1 = ε n −
f ′ (a + ε n )
 N-154

ε n2 ε 3
f (a) + ε n f ′ (a) + f ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …
2! 3!
= εn −
ε n2 ε 3 iv
f ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ (a) + f ′ ′ ′ (a) + n f (a) + …
2! 3!
ε n2 ε 3
f ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …
2! 3!
= εn −
ε n2
ε n f ′ ′ (a) + f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …
2! [ ∵ f (a) = 0 = f ′ (a)]
1 ε
f ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a)
= εn − εn 2 6 , neglecting higher powers
εn
f ′ ′ (a) + f ′ ′ ′ (a)
2
1 ε
f ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a)
2 3 1 f ′ ′ (a)
= εn = εn ⋅
ε 2 f ′ ′ (a)
f ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a)
2
1 2 −1
= εn = εn .
2 2
This implies that the convergence is linear. In general we can prove that if x = a is a
root of multiplicity m, where m > 1 then the speed of convergence is given by
m −1
ε n +1 ≈ ε n , which is also linear.
m

Y
Example 1: Find the approximate value of the root of
x − sin x − 1 = 0. y=x–1
Solution: Since the L.H.S. of the equation is the
1 x
difference of two functions, we can put it in the form sin
=
x − 1 = sin x. y
O
Then we plot separately on the same set of coordinate 1 2 3 Xx
axes the two equations
–1
y1 = x − 1 and y2 = sin x.
The abscissa of the point of intersection of the graphs
of these equations is seen to be about 1⋅ 9 in the diagram. Hence the approximate
value of the root is 1⋅ 9.
Example 2: Find the approximate value of the smallest real root of e − x = sin x.
Solution: We plot separately on the same set of axes the two equations y1 = e − x
and y2 = sin x as shown in the adjoining diagram.
 N-155

The abscissa of the point of intersection of the graphs of these equations is seen to
be about 0 ⋅ 6. Hence the approximate value of the root is 0 ⋅ 6.
Y

·8 ·9 ·1
x
sin
y=
·1 ·2 ·3 ·4 ·5 ·6 ·7

y= e –x

O X
·1 ·2 ·3 ·4 ·5 ·6 ·7 ·8 ·9 ·1

Example 3: Find the approximate value of the root of the equation

3 x − √ (1 + sin x) = 0.
Solution: Let f ( x) = 3 x − √ (1 + sin x). Then the given equation is f ( x) = 0.
We have f (0) = 3 × 0 − √ (1 + sin 0) = − 1
and f (1) = 3 × 1 − √ (1 + sin 1) = 3 − (1 + 0 ⋅ 8147)1 /2 = 3 − 1⋅ 3570 = 1⋅ 6430.
Since f (0) and f (1) are of opposite signs so at least one root of f ( x) = 0 lies in the
interval (0, 1).
Now f (⋅3) = 3 × ⋅ 3 − √ (1 + sin ⋅ 3) = ⋅ 9 − √ (1 + ⋅ 29552)
= ⋅ 9 − 1⋅ 1381 = − 0 ⋅ 2381,
and f (⋅4) = 3 × ⋅ 4 − √ (1 + sin ⋅ 4) = 1⋅ 2 − √ (1⋅ 38912)
= 1⋅ 2 − 1⋅ 1787 = 0 ⋅ 0213.
Since f (⋅3) and f (⋅4) are of opposite signs so at least one real root lies between
x = ⋅ 3 and x = ⋅ 4.
Further f (⋅38) = 3 × ⋅ 38 − √ {1 + sin (⋅38)}
= 1⋅ 14 − √ {1 + ⋅ 37092}
= 1⋅ 14 − 1⋅ 1708 = − 0 ⋅ 0808,
and f (⋅40) = 0 ⋅ 0213.
Hence at least one root lies between x = ⋅ 38 and x = ⋅ 40. So x = ⋅ 38 can be taken as
an approximate value of the root which lies in the interval (⋅38, ⋅ 40).
Example 4: Find a real root of the equation f ( x) = x 3 − x − 1 = 0. (Agra 2012)
3
Solution: Here f (1) = 1 − 1 − 1 = − 1 and f (2) = 2 − 2 − 1 = 5. Since f (1) is
negative and f (2) is positive so at least one root lies between 1 and 2.
 N-156

1 3
Hence we take x0 = (1 + 2) = ⋅
2 2
Then f ( x0 ) = (27 / 8) − (3 / 2) − 1 = 7 / 8, which is positive. Since f (1) and f (1⋅ 5)
are of opposite signs so the root lies between 1 and 1⋅ 5 and we get
1 + 1⋅ 5
x1 = = 1⋅ 25.
2
19
We have f ( x1 ) = − , which is negative. Hence we conclude that the root lies
64
between 1⋅ 25 and 1⋅ 5. It gives that
1⋅ 25 + 1⋅ 5
x2 = = 1⋅ 375.
2
Repeating the procedure, we obtain the successive approximations as
x3 = 1⋅ 3125, x4 = 1⋅ 34375, x5 = 1⋅ 328125, etc.
Example 5: Compute the real root of x log10 x − 1⋅ 2 = 0 correct to five decimal places.
(Purvanchal 2011)
Solution: Let f ( x) = x log 10 x − 1⋅ 2 .
We have f (2) = − 0 ⋅ 60 and f (3) = 0 ⋅ 23.
It shows that the root lies between 2 and 3 and it is nearer to 3. The following table
shows successive approximations where corrections are computed by
( x2 − x1 )| y1|
h= ⋅
| y1| + | y2|

x y
1 × 0⋅ 6
First 2 − 0⋅6 h1 = = 0⋅ 72
approx. 0⋅ 83
3 + 0 ⋅ 23
x (1) = 2 + 0⋅ 72 = 2⋅ 72 .
Diff. 1 0 ⋅ 83
0⋅ 1 × 0⋅ 04
Second 2⋅ 7 − 0 ⋅ 04 h2 = = 0⋅ 044
approx. 0⋅ 09
2⋅ 8 0 ⋅ 05
x ( 2) = 2⋅ 7 + 0⋅ 044 = 2⋅ 744.
0⋅ 1 0 ⋅ 09
0⋅ 01 × 0⋅ 0006
Third 2⋅ 74 − 0 ⋅ 0006 h3 = = 0⋅ 0007
approx. 0⋅ 0087
2⋅ 75 + 0 ⋅ 0081 ( 3)
x = 2⋅ 74 + 0⋅ 0007 = 2⋅ 7407.
0⋅ 01 0 ⋅ 0087
0⋅ 0001 × 0⋅ 000039
Fourth 2⋅ 7406 − 0 ⋅ 000039 h4 =
approx. 0⋅ 000084
2⋅ 7407 + 0 ⋅ 000045 = 0⋅ 000046
0⋅ 0001 0 ⋅ 000084
 N-157

( 4)
x = 2⋅ 7406 + 0⋅ 000046
= 2⋅ 74065.
Hence the required value of the root is 2 ⋅ 74065.
Example 6: The equation x 6 − x 4 − x 3 − 1 = 0 has one real root between 1⋅ 4 and 1⋅ 5.
Find the root to four decimals by false position method.
Solution: The successive approximations are given below :
x y
⋅1 × ⋅ 056064
First 1 ⋅ 4 − ⋅ 056064 h1 = = ⋅ 003
approx. 2⋅ 009189
1⋅ 5 1 ⋅ 953125 (1)
x = 1⋅ 4 + ⋅ 003 = 1⋅ 403

Diff. ⋅1 2 ⋅ 009189

⋅001 × ⋅ 0167
Second 1 ⋅ 403 − ⋅ 0167 h2 = = ⋅ 0007
approx. ⋅0223
1 ⋅ 404 0 ⋅ 0056 ( 2)
x = 1⋅ 403 + ⋅ 0007 = 1⋅ 4037.
⋅001 ⋅0223
⋅0001 × ⋅ 0001
Third 1 ⋅ 4036 − ⋅ 0001 h3 = = ⋅ 00002
⋅0005
approx.
1 ⋅ 4037 ⋅0004 ( 3)
x = 1⋅ 4036 + ⋅ 00002 = 1⋅ 4036.
⋅0001 ⋅0005
Hence the value of the root is 1⋅ 4036.
Example 7: Use Newton’s method to find a root of the equation x 3 − 3 x − 5 = 0.
(Kanpur 2012)
3 2
Solution: Here we have f ( x) = x − 3 x − 5 ⇒ f ′ ( x) = 3 x − 3.
Also f (2) = − 3 and f (3) = 13.
Hence a root lies between 2 and 3.
We take x0 = 3 and obtain successive approximations using the formula
f (x n)
x n +1 = x n − ⋅
f ′ (x n)
x n3 − 3 x n − 5
It gives x n +1 = x n − ⋅
3 x n2 − 3
x0 3 − 3 x0 − 5 13
∴ x1 = x0 − =3− = 2 ⋅ 46, x2 = 2 ⋅ 295,
3 x0 2 − 3 24
x3 = 2 ⋅ 279, x4 = 2 ⋅ 279.
Hence the value of the required root is 2 ⋅ 279.
 N-158

Example 8: Find the real root of the equation x 2 + 4 sin x = 0 correct to four places of
decimals by using Newton-Raphson method.
Solution: Since the term x 2 is positive for all real values of x so it is obvious that
the equation will be satisfied only by a negative value of x. By the graph we observe
that an approximate value of the root is −1⋅ 9.
Here f ( x) = x 2 + 4 sin x.
∴ f ′ ( x) = 2 x + 4 cos x.
f (x n)
We have x n +1 = x n − , n = 0, 1, 2 , …
f ′ (x n)
x n2 + 4 sin x n
⇒ x n +1 = x n − , n = 0, 1, 2 ,… …(1)
2 x n + 4 cos x n
Taking x0 = − 1⋅ 9, the relation (1) gives
x0 2 + 4 sin x0 (−1⋅ 9)2 + 4 sin (−1⋅ 9)
x1 = x0 − = − 1⋅ 9 −
2 x0 + 4 cos x0 2 (− 1⋅ 9) + 4 cos (−1⋅ 9)
3 ⋅ 61 − 3 ⋅ 78
= − 1⋅ 9 − = − 1⋅ 93.
− 3 ⋅ 8 − 1⋅ 293
The second approximation
x12 + 4 sin x1 (− 1⋅ 93)2 + 4 sin (− 1⋅ 93)
x2 = x1 − = − 1⋅ 93 −
2 x1 + 4 cos x1 2 (− 1⋅ 93) + 4 cos (− 1⋅ 93)
0 ⋅ 0198
= − 1⋅ 93 − = − 1⋅ 93 − 0 ⋅ 0038 = − 1⋅ 9338.
5 ⋅ 266
Hence the value of the root is − 1⋅ 9338.
Example 9: Find 12 to five places of decimal by Newton-Raphson method.

(Kanpur 2009; Rohilkhand 11)

Solution: Let x = 12 = (12)1 /2 .
Then x 2 = 12 or x 2 − 12 = 0.
Therefore the square root of 12 is nothing but the solution of the equation
f ( x) ≡ x 2 − 12 = 0. …(1)
We have f ( x) = x 2 − 12 and f ′ ( x) = 2 x.
2
Also f (3) = 3 − 12 = 9 − 12 = − 3 which is −ve
and f (4) = 42 − 12 = 16 − 12 = 4 which is +ve.
So, a root of (1) lies between 3 and 4.
To shorten this interval we observe the signs of the values of
f (3 ⋅ 1), f (3 ⋅ 2), f (3 ⋅ 3) etc.
We have f (3 ⋅ 4) = (3 ⋅ 4)2 − 12 = 11⋅ 56 − 12 , which is −ve.
and f (3 ⋅ 5) = (3 ⋅ 5)2 − 12 = 12 ⋅ 25 − 12 , which is +ve.
 N-159

So, 12 i. e., the root of (1) lies between 3 ⋅ 4 and 3 ⋅ 5.

We take x0 = 3 ⋅ 4 and obtain successive approximations x1 , x2 , x3 etc., using
Newton-Raphson formula
f (x n)
x n +1 = x n −
f ′ (x n)
x n2 − 12 2 x n2 − x n2 + 12
= xn − =
2xn 2xn
x n2 + 12 1⎛ 12⎞
= = ⎜ xn + ⎟⋅
2xn 2⎝ xn ⎠
1⎛ 12⎞
Thus, x n +1 = ⎜ xn + ⎟⋅ …(2)
2⎝ xn ⎠
Taking n = 0, we have from (2), the first approximation
1⎛ 12 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 12 ⎞
x1 = ⎜ x0 + ⎟ = ⎜3 ⋅ 4 + ⎟
2⎝ x0 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 3 ⋅ 4⎠
1
= (3 ⋅ 4 + 3 ⋅ 5294118) = 3 ⋅ 4647059.
2
Taking n = 1, we have from (2), the second approximation
1⎛ 12⎞ 1
x2 = ⎜ x1 + ⎟ = ⎛⎜3 ⋅ 4647059 + ⎞⎟
12
2⎝ x1 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 3 ⋅ 4647059⎠
1
= (3 ⋅ 4647059 + 3 ⋅ 4634974)
2
= 3 ⋅ 4641017.
Taking n = 2 , we have from (3), the third approximation
1⎛ 12 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 12 ⎞⎟
x3 = ⎜ x2 + ⎟ = ⎜3 ⋅ 4641017 +
2⎝ x2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 3 ⋅ 4641017⎠
1
= (3 ⋅ 4641017 + 3 ⋅ 4641015) = 3 ⋅ 4641016.
2
We see that up to five places of decimal, x2 = x3 . So, we stop the calculation work
here.
Hence, up to five places of decimal, 12 = 3 ⋅ 46410.
Example 10: Find the approximate value for the real root of x log10 x − 1⋅ 2 = 0 correct to
five decimal places by Newton-Raphson method.
Solution: Here f ( x) = x log 10 x − 1⋅ 2 .
∴ f ′ ( x) = log 10 x + x . (1 / x) . log 10 e = log 10 x + ⋅ 43429.
f (x n)
We have x n +1 = x n − , n = 0, 1, 2 , …
f ′ (x n)
x log 10 ( x n ) − 1⋅ 2 ⋅43429 x n + 1⋅ 2
∴ x n +1 = x n − n = ⋅
log 10 x n + ⋅ 43429 log 10 x n + ⋅ 43429
 N-160

Taking initial value x0 = 2 , we get

⋅43429 (2) + 1⋅ 2
x1 = = 2 ⋅ 81.
log 10 2 + ⋅ 43429
⋅43429 (2 ⋅ 81) + 1⋅ 2
Now x2 = = 2 ⋅ 741
log 10 2 ⋅ 81 + ⋅ 43429
⋅43429 (2 ⋅ 741) + 1⋅ 2
x3 = = 2 ⋅ 7406
log 10 2 ⋅ 741 + ⋅ 43429
⋅43429 (2 ⋅ 7406) + 1⋅ 2
x4 = = 2 ⋅ 74065
log 10 2 ⋅ 7406 + ⋅ 43429
⋅43429 (2 ⋅ 74065) + 1⋅ 2
x5 = = 2 ⋅ 74065.
log 10 2 ⋅ 74065 + ⋅ 43429
Hence the required value of the root is 2 ⋅ 74065.
Example 11: By using Newton-Raphson method, find the root of x 4 − x − 10 = 0, which
is nearer to x = 2 , correct to three places of decimals.
(Rohilkhand 2002; Agra 12; Bundelkhand 12)
4
Solution: Here f ( x) = x − x − 10.
3
∴ f ′ ( x) = 4 x − 1.
f (x n) x n4 − x n − 10 3 x n4 + 10
∴ x n +1 = x n − = xn − = ⋅
f ′ (x n) 4 x n3 − 1 4 x n3 − 1
The approximate value of the root is given to be 2 . Taking x0 = 2 , we get
3 x0 4 + 10 3 ⋅ 24 + 10
x1 = = = 1⋅ 871
4 x0 3 − 1 4 ⋅ 22 − 1
3 x14 + 10 3 (1⋅ 871)4 + 10
x2 = = = 1⋅ 856
4 x13 − 1 4 (1⋅ 871)3 − 1
3 x2 4 + 10 3 (1⋅ 856)4 + 10
x3 = = = 1⋅ 856.
4 x2 3 − 1 4 (1⋅ 856)3 − 1
Since x2 = x3 , so the required root is 1⋅ 856.
Example 12: Using the starting value x0 = i, find a zero of
x 4 + x 3 + 5 x 2 + 4 x + 4 = 0.
f (x n)
Solution: Using Newton’s formula x n +1 = x n − , we have
f ′ (x n)
f ( x0 ) f (i) 3i
First approx., x1 = x0 − = i− = i− = 0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i,
f ′ ( x0 ) f ′ (i) 1+ 6 i
f ( x1 ) f (0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i)
second approx., x2 = x1 − = 0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i −
f ′ ( x1 ) f ′ (0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i)
− 0 ⋅ 292 + 0 ⋅ 174 i
= 0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i − = − 0 ⋅ 499 + 0 ⋅ 866 i.
1⋅ 780 + 6 ⋅ 005 i
 N-161

The actual root is x = (−1 + i √ 3) / 2 .

Note: To evaluate f (0 ⋅ 486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i), the various powers can be obtained by
using the De-Moivre’s theorem. For this, first (⋅486 + 0 ⋅ 919 i) is expressed in the
form r (cos θ + i sin θ).
Example 13: Solve the equation 3 x − cos x − 1 = 0 by
(i) false position method (ii) Newton-Raphson method.
Solution: (i) The given equation is
f ( x) = 3 x − cos x − 1 = 0.
Here f (⋅60) = − 0 ⋅ 025, f (⋅61) = ⋅ 010.
Hence a real root lies in the interval (⋅60, ⋅ 61).
By false position method the successive approximations are given below :
x y
⋅01 × ⋅ 025
First ⋅60 − ⋅ 025 h1 = = ⋅ 007
approx. ⋅035
⋅61 ⋅010 (1)
x = ⋅ 60 + ⋅ 007 = ⋅ 607
Diff. ⋅01 ⋅035
⋅001 × ⋅ 00036
Second ⋅607 − ⋅ 00036 h2 = = ⋅ 0001
approx. ⋅00357
⋅608 ⋅00321 ( 2)
x = ⋅ 607 + ⋅ 0001 = ⋅ 6071
⋅001 ⋅00357
⋅0001 × (⋅00000)
Third ⋅6071 ⋅00000 h3 = =0
approx. ⋅00035
⋅6072 ⋅00035 ( 3)
x = ⋅ 6071.
⋅0001 ⋅00035
Since x (2) = x (3) so the value of the root is ⋅6071.
(ii) Newton-Raphson Method: Here f ( x) = 3 x − cos x − 1.
∴ f ′ ( x) = 3 + sin x.
f (x n) 3 x n − cos x n − 1
Now x n+1 = x n − = xn − ⋅
f ′ (x n) 3 + sin x n
Taking x0 = ⋅ 60, we get
3 (⋅60) − cos ⋅ 60 − 1 − ⋅ 025
x1 = ⋅ 60 − = ⋅ 60 − = ⋅ 60701
3 + sin ⋅ 60 3 ⋅ 56464
3 (⋅60701) − cos (⋅60701) − 1
x2 = ⋅ 60701 − = ⋅ 60710.
3 + sin (⋅60701)
Example 14: Obtain the Newton-Raphson extended formula
2
f ( x0 ) 1 { f ( x0 )} f ′ ′ ( x0 )
x1 = x0 − −
f ′ ( x0 ) 2 { f ′ ( x0 )}3
for the root of the equation f ( x) = 0.
 N-162

Solution: Expanding f ( x) in the neighbourhood of x0 by Taylor’s series, we get

0 = f ( x) = f ( x0 + x − x0 ) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ′ ( x0 )
f ( x0 )
⇒ x = x0 − ⋅
f ′ ( x0 )
Hence the first approximation to the root is given by
f ( x0 )
x1 = x0 − ⋅
f ′ ( x0 )
Again by Taylor’s series, we obtain
1
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ′ ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 )2 f ′ ′ ( x0 ).
2
1
∴ f ( x1 ) = f ( x0 ) + ( x1 − x0 ) f ′ ( x0 ) + ( x1 − x0 )2 f ′ ′ ( x0 ).
2
Since x1 is an approximation to the root so f ( x1 ) = 0.
1
Hence f ( x0 ) + ( x1 − x0 ) f ′ ( x0 ) + ( x1 − x0 )2 f ′ ′ ( x0 ) = 0
2
2
1 { f ( x0 )} f ′ ′ ( x0 )
⇒ f ( x0 ) + ( x1 − x0 ) f ′ ( x0 ) + =0
2 { f ′ ( x0 )}2
2
f ( x0 ) 1 { f ( x0 )} f ′ ′ ( x0 )
⇒ x1 = x0 − − ⋅
f ′ ( x0 ) 2 { f ′ ( x0 )}3
This formula is known as Chebyshev formula of third order.
Example 15: Show that the modified Newton-Raphson’s method
2 f (x n)
x n +1 = x n −
f ′ (x n)
gives a quadratic convergence when the equation f ( x) = 0 has a pair of double roots in the
neighbourhood of x = x n .
Solution: Suppose x = a is a double root near x = x n .
Then f (a) = 0, f ′ (a) = 0.
2 f (a + ε n )
We have ε n+1 = ε n − ,
f ′ (a + ε n )
where ε n , ε n +1 have their usual meanings.
Expanding in powers of ε n and using the results f (a) = 0, f ′ (a) = 0, we get

⎡ε 2 ⎤
2 ⎢ n f ′ ′ (a) + …⎥
⎣2! ⎦
ε n +1 = ε n −
⎡ ε n2 ⎤
⎢ε n f ′ ′ (a) + f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …⎥
⎣ 2! ⎦
 N-163

1 ⎡
f ′ ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …⎤
1
2 . ε n2
2 ! ⎣⎢ 3 ⎦⎥
= εn −
⎡ ε ⎤
ε n ⎢ f ′ ′ ′ (a) + n f ′ ′ ′ (a) + …⎥
⎣ 2! ⎦
ε n ⎡ f ′ ′ (a) + ε n f ′ ′ ′ (a)⎤
1
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
• εn −
⎡ εn ⎤
⎢ f ′ ′ (a) + f ′ ′ ′ (a)⎥
⎣ 2 ! ⎦
1 2 f ′ ′ ′ (a) 1 f ′ ′ ′ (a)
• εn • ε n2
6 ⎡ ε n f ′ ′ ′ (a)⎤ 6 f ′ ′ (a)
⎢ f ′ ′ (a) + ⎥
⎣ 2! ⎦
which shows that ε n +1 ∝ ε n2 and so the convergence is quadratic.
Example 16: (i) Show that the following two sequences, both have convergence of the second
order with the same limit √ a.
1 ⎛ a ⎞ 1 ⎛ x 2⎞
x n +1 = x n ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ and x n +1 = x n ⎜3 − n ⎟ ⋅
2 ⎝ xn ⎠ 2 ⎝ a ⎠
(Rohilkhand 2011)
(ii) If x n is suitable close approximation to √ a, show that error in the first formula for x n+1 is
about one-third in the second formula and deduce that
x n +1 = ( x n / 8) [6 + (3a / x n2 ) − ( x n2 / a)],
gives a sequence with third order convergence.
1 ⎛ a ⎞
Solution: (i) We have x n +1 = x n ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
2 ⎝ xn ⎠
1 ⎛ a ⎞
⇒ x n +1 − √ a = x n ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ − √ a
2 ⎝ xn ⎠
2
1⎛ a ⎞ 1⎛ √a ⎞ 1
= ⎜ xn + − 2 √ a⎟ = ⎜ √ x n − ⎟ = ( x n − √ a)2
2⎝ xn ⎠ 2⎝ √ xn ⎠ 2 xn
1
⇒ ε n +1 = ε n2 , …(1)
2 xn
which shows the quadratic convergence.
Similarly for the second sequence, we have
1 ⎛ x 2⎞
x n +1 − √ a = x n ⎜3 − n ⎟ − √ a
2 ⎝ a ⎠

1 ⎛ x 2⎞
= x n ⎜1 − n ⎟ + ( x n − √ a)
2 ⎝ a ⎠
 N-164

⎡ x ⎤
= ( x n − √ a) 1 − n ( x n + √ a)
⎣⎢ 2a ⎥⎦
( x n − √ a)
= {2a − x n2 − √ a x n}
2a
( x n − √ a)
= {(a − x n2 ) + (a − √ a x n )}
2a
( x n − √ a)
=− ( x n − √ a) ( x n + 2 √ a)
2a
( x n + 2 √ a)
=− ( x n − √ a)2 .
2a
( x n + 2 √ a)
Thus ε n +1 = − ε n2 , …(2)
2a
which shows that the convergence is quadratic.
(ii) Since x n is very close to √ a, from (2) we have
x + 2 xn 2 3
ε n+1 • − n 2
εn = − ε n2 . …(3)
2 xn 2 xn
If we look at the equations (1) and (3), we conclude that the error in the first
formula for x n+1 is about one-third of that in the second formula.
Now we shall find the rate of convergence of the third formula.
We have
1 ⎛ 3a x 2⎞
x n+1 − √ a = x n ⎜6 + 2 − n ⎟ − √ a
8 ⎝ xn a ⎠

x n (6 x n2 a + 3a2 − x n4 ) 6 x n2 a + 3a2 − x n4 − 8 x n a √ a
= − √a =
8 x n2 a 8 xn a
(x n + 3 √ a) ( x n3 − 3 x n2 √ a + 3xn a − a √ a
=−
8 xn a
( x n − √ a)3
= − ( x n + 3 √ a) ⋅
8 xn a
( x n + 3 √ a)
Thus ε n +1 = − ε n3 ,
8 xn a
which shows that the convergence is of third order.
Example 17: Find a real root of the equation f ( x) = x 3 + x 2 − 1 = 0, by using iteration
method.
Solution: Here f (0) = − 1and f (1) = 1, so a root lies between 0 and 1. To find this
root, we put the equation in the form x = φ ( x).
1
∴ x3 + x2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ,
√ (1 + x)
 N-165

1 1
so that φ ( x) = , φ′ ( x) = − ⋅
√ (1 + x) 2 (1 + x)3 /2
We have |φ′ ( x)| < 1, for x < 1.
Hence the iterative method can be applied.
Taking x0 = 0 ⋅ 5, we get
1 1
x1 = φ ( x0 ) = = ⋅ 81649, x2 = φ ( x1 ) = = ⋅ 74196,
√ (1⋅ 5) √ (1⋅ 81649)
1
x3 = φ ( x2 ) = = ⋅ 75767.
√ (1⋅ 74196)
Similarly we get other approximations as
x4 = ⋅ 75427, x5 = ⋅ 75500, x6 = ⋅ 75485,
x7 = ⋅ 75488 , x8 = ⋅ 75487, etc.
Example 18: Find the root of the equation 2 x = cos x + 3 correct to three decimal places by
using iteration method.
The given equation can be put in the form
Solution:
1
x = (cos x + 3).
2
1
Here φ ( x) = (cos x + 3).
2
1
∴ φ′ ( x) = (− sin x).
2
⏐sin x⏐
⏐ < 1.
We have |φ′ ( x)| = ⏐
⏐ 2 ⏐
π
Hence the iterative method is applicable and starting with x0 = , we obtain
2
successive approximations as follows :
x1 = 1⋅ 5, x2 = 1⋅ 535, x3 = 1⋅ 518, x4 = 1⋅ 526,
x5 = 1⋅ 522 , x6 = 1⋅ 524, x7 = 1⋅ 523, x8 = 1⋅ 524.
Hence we take the value of the root as 1⋅ 524 correct to three decimal places.
Example 19: Starting with x = ⋅12 , solve x = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + x) by using iteration method.
Solution: The given equation is x = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + x) so that
φ ( x) = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + x) and |φ′ ( x)| < 1.
Hence the iterative method is applicable.
First approximation
x1 = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + ⋅ 12) = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅62) = ⋅ 21 × ⋅ 58104 = ⋅ 1220.
Second approximation
x2 = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + ⋅ 122) = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅622) = ⋅ 21 × ⋅ 58267 = ⋅ 1224.
Third approximation
x3 = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + ⋅ 1224) = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅6224) = ⋅ 21 × ⋅ 58299 = ⋅ 12243.
 N-166

Fourth approximation
x4 = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅5 + ⋅ 12243) = ⋅ 21 sin (⋅62243) = ⋅ 21 × ⋅ 58301 = ⋅ 12243.
Since x3 = x4 , the required root is ⋅12243.
Example 20: Solve x 3 − 8 x 2 + 17 x − 10 = 0 by Graeffe’s method, squaring three times.
(Rohilkhand 2002)
Solution: The given equation is
x 3 − 8 x 2 + 17 x − 10 = 0 …(1)
Let the roots of (1) be p1 , p2 , p3 .
The equation (1) can be written as
x 3 + 17 x = 8 x 2 + 10 or x ( x 2 + 17) = 8 x 2 + 10.
Squaring, we get x 2 ( x 2 + 17)2 = (8 x 2 + 10)2 .
Putting x 2 = y, we have
y ( y + 17)2 = (8 y + 10)2
or y 3 − 30 y 2 + 129 y − 100 = 0 …(2)
The roots of (2) are the squares of the roots of the given equation (1).
Again from (2) bringing terms containing odd powers of y on one side and even
powers of y on the other side, we get
y ( y 2 + 129) = 30 y 2 + 100.
Squaring, we get
y 2 ( y 2 + 129)2 = (30 y 2 + 100)2 .
Putting y 2 = z , we have
z (z + 129)2 = (30 z + 100)2
or z 3 − 642 z 2 + 10641 z − 10 4 = 0. …(3)
2 2
From (3), z (z + 10641) = 642 z + 10000
2 2
or z (z + 10641) = (642 z 2 + 10000)2
2

or t (t + 10641)2 = (642t + 10000)2 [Replacing z 2 by t ]

or t 3 − 390882t 2 + 100390881 t − 10 8
=0 …(4)
The roots of (4) are 8th powers of the roots of the given equation (1).
Let the roots of (4) be q1 , q2 , q3 .
Then q1 = p18 = | p1|8 , q2 = | p2|8 , q3 = | p3|8 .
From equation (4), we have
q1 • 390882 ; q1 q2 •100390881 ; q1 q2 q3 •10 8 .
∴ | p1|8 = q1• 390882
100390881
| p2|8 = q2 •
390882
 N-167

10 8
| p3|8 = q3 • ⋅
100390881
Taking square roots 3 times, we get
| p1| = (390882)1 /8 = 5 ⋅ 00041
| p2| = (100390881 / 390882)1 /8 = 2 ⋅ 00081
| p3| = (10 8 / 100390881)1 /8 = 0 ⋅ 999512 .
Now | p1| = 5 ⋅ 00041 ⇒ p1 = ± 5 ⋅ 00041.
By actually substituting in (1), we see that p1 = 5 ⋅ 00041 satisfies (1) while
p1 = − 5 ⋅ 00041 does not satisfy (1). So, p1 = 5 ⋅ 00041.
Similarly, we see that the admissible values of p2 , p3 are
p2 = 2 ⋅ 00081, p3 = 0 ⋅ 999512 .
Hence, the required roots of the given equation (1) are
5 ⋅ 00041, 2 ⋅ 00081, 0 ⋅ 999512 .
We see that the exact values of the roots of (1) are 5, 2 , 1. The approximate values of
the roots given by Graeffe’s root square method are sufficiently close to them.

Comprehensive Exercise 1

1. Find the root of x 2 − 5 x + 2 = 0 correct to five decimal places which lies

between 4 and 5 by using Newton-Raphson method.
(Kanpur 2008; 11; Purvanchal 08)
2. Find the root of log x = cos x , by Newton-Raphson method up to five
decimal places.
1
3. Find a root of x = + sin x near x = 1⋅ 5.
2
4. The equation x 4 − 5 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 76 x − 79 = 0 has two roots close to x = 2 .
Find the roots correct upto four decimals.
5. Describe the method of false position to solve an equation f ( x) = 0.
Workout two steps of this method to solve x 3 + 1⋅ 2 x 2 − 4 x − 4 ⋅ 8 = 0 .
6. Determine the real root of tan x = x by iteration method.
7. Find the roots of x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0, by Graeffe’s method, squaring
three times.
8. Use Graeffe’s method to solve the equation given below, squaring three
times :
x 3 − 5 x 2 − 17 x + 20 = 0.
9. Find 30 by using iterative process.
 N-168

10. Obtain the cube root of 12 to five decimal places by Newton-Raphson

method.
11. Determine the real root of 2 x − 3 sin x − 5 = 0.
12. Show that the square root of N = AB is given by
S N
√N • + , where S = A + B.
4 S (Rohilkhand 2012)
x
13. Find the real root of the equation e − 3 x = 0, using iteration method.
3 2
14. Solve x − 8x + 17 x − 10 = 0 by Graeffe’s method, squaring two times.
15. The equation sin x = 5 x − 2 can be put as x = sin −1 (5 x − 2) and also as
1
x = (sin x + 2) suggesting two iterative procedures for its solution. Which
5
of these, if any, would succeed and which would fail to give the root in the
neighbourhood of 0 ⋅ 5.
16. Find the cube root of 10.
17. Evaluate by Newton-Raphson method
1 1 /4
(i) 29, (ii) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⋅
⎝ 3⎠

A nswers 1

1. 4 ⋅ 56155 2. 1⋅ 30295 3. 1⋅ 4973

4. 1⋅ 7642, 2 ⋅ 2357 5. 2 6. 4 ⋅ 43464
7. 3 ⋅ 014, − 1⋅ 99, 0 ⋅ 99949 8. 7 ⋅ 017, − 2 ⋅ 974, 0 ⋅ 958
9. 5 ⋅ 47722 10. 2 ⋅ 28943 11. 2 ⋅ 883238.
13. 0 ⋅ 61904 14. 5 ⋅ 03366, 2 ⋅ 01772, 0 ⋅ 98459
16. 2 ⋅ 15444 17. (i) 5 ⋅ 3852 (ii) 0 ⋅ 7673

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. a is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0 if and only if :
(a) f (a) = 0 (b) f (a) ≠ 0
(c) f ′ (a) = 0 (d) f ′ (a) ≠ 0
 N-169

2. An algebraic equation of degree n, where n is a positive integer, has :

(a) n roots (b) n2 roots
3
(c) n roots (d) none of these
3. The real roots of the equation f ( x) = 0 are the abscissae of the points where
the graph crosses the :
(a) y-axis (b) x-axis
(c) line y = x (d) line y = − x
4. In Regula-Falsi method if a root of f ( x) = 0 lies between x1 and x2 then the
approximate value of the desired root is x1 + h where h is :
( x1 − x2 )| y1| ( x2 − x1 )| y1|
(a) (b)
| y1| + | y2| | y1| + | y2|
( x1 − x2 )| y2| ( x2 − x1 )| y2|
(c) (d)
| y1| + | y2| | y1| + | y2| (Meerut 2013B)
5. Let the equation f ( x) = 0 be expressed in the form x = φ ( x). If x0 be an
initial approximation to the solution of x = φ ( x), then in Iteration method
the successive approximations are given by x n+1 =
(a) φ ( x n ) (b) φ′ ( x n )
(c) φ ( x n ) − x0 (d) φ′ ( x n ) − x0
6. Let x0 be an approximate value of the desired root of the equation f ( x) = 0.
Then by Newton-Raphson method the improved value of the root is x0 + h
where h is :
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
(a) (b) −
f ′ ( x0 ) f ′ ( x0 )
f ′ ( x0 ) f ′ ( x0 )
(c) (d) −
f ( x0 ) f ( x0 )
7. Newton’s iterative formula for obtaining a −1 is :
(a) x n +1 = x n (2 + ax n ) (b) x n +1 = x n (2 − ax n )
(c) x n +1 = x n (1 + ax n ) (d) x n +1 = x n (1 − ax n )
8. Newton’s iterative formula for obtaining the square root of a is :
1⎛ a⎞ 1⎛ a⎞
(a) x n +1 = ⎜ x n + ⎟ (b) x n +1 = ⎜ x n − ⎟
2⎝ xn ⎠ 2⎝ xn ⎠
a a
(c) x n +1 = x n + (d) x n +1 = x n −
xn xn
9. The method which does not require any prior information of the roots such
as approximate value of the root etc. is :
(a) Bisection method
(b) Iteration method
(c) Secant method
(d) Graeffe’s root squaring method
 N-170

10. One root of the equation x 3 − x − 1 = 0 lies between :

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 0 and 1
(c) 2 and 3 (d) none of these
11. The exact roots of the equation x 3 − 8 x 2 + 17 x − 10 = 0 are :
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 2 , 5
(c) 2, 3, 5 (d) 1, 3, 5
12. Newton-Raphson method is suitable for :
(a) f ′ ( x) is small
(b) f ′ ( x) is large
(c) f ′ ( x) is negative
(d) f ′ ( x) is positive
13. Which method is not applicable for finding roots ?
(a) Secant (b) Bisection
(c) Langrange’s (d) Newton’s
14. If a + ib is a root of f ( x) = 0, then other root is :
(a) a − ib (b) a
a
(c) ib (d) i
b
15. Every equation of odd degree has at least …… real root :
(a) two (b) three
(c) one (d) four
16. If x = a is a root of the equation f ( x) = 0, then f ( x) is exactly divisible by :
(a) x + a (b) x − a
x a
(c) (d)
a x
17. If f (a) and f (b) are of opposite signs then at least …… or an …… number of
real roots of the equation f ( x) = 0 lie between a and b :
(a) one; odd (b) one; even
(c) two; odd (d) two; even

18. In iteration method for finding the roots of the equation f ( x) = 0 it is

expressed in the form :
(a) x = −φ( x) (b) x = φ( x)
1 1
(c) x = (d) x = −
φ( x) φ( x)
19. In Newton-Raphson method successive approximations are given by x n+1 =
f (x n) f ' (x n)
(a) x n + (b) x n −
f ' (x n) f (x n)
f (x n) f ' (x n)
(c) x n − (d) x n +
f ' (x n) f (x n)
 N-171

20. The rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method is :

(a) linear (b) quadratic
(c) cubic (d) none of these
(Meerut 2013B)
21. The rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method for double roots is :
(a) linear (b) quadratic
(c) cubic (d) none of these
22. The rate of convergence of Bisection method is :
(a) linear (b) quadratic
(c) cubic (d) none of these
23. The rate of convergence of Regula-Falsi method is :
(a) linear (b) quadratic
(c) cubic (d) none of these
24. The rate of convergence of Iterative method is :
(a) linear (b) quadratic
(c) cubic (d) none of these
25. If the root of the given equation lies between a and b, then the first
approximation to the root of the equation by bisection method is :
a−b a+b
(a) (b)
2 2
b−a
(c) (d) none of these
2
26. Newton-Raphson method is :
(a) divergent (b) convergent
(c) conditionally convergent (d) none of these
27. Bisection method is always :
(a) divergent (b) convergent
(c) conditionally convergent (d) none of these
28. False Position method is always :
(a) convergent (b) conditionally convergent
(c) divergent (d) none of these
29. Bisection method is also known as :
(a) open method (b) breaking method
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
30. Newton's iterative formula for obtaining the inverse square root of a is :
1
(a) x n +1 = 2 x n (3 − ax n2 ) (b) x n +1 = x n (3 − ax n )2
2
1
(c) x n +1 = x n (3 − ax n2 ) (d) none of these
2
31. Newton's iterative formula for obtaining the pth root of a is :
( p − 1) x n p + a ( p + 1) x n p + a
(a) x n+1 = (b) x n+ 1 =
px n p −1 px n p −1
p
( p − 1) x n − a
(c) x n+1 = (d) none of these
px n p −1
 N-172

32. Bisection method does not work if two roots are :

(a) unequal (b) nearly equal
(c) equal (d) none of these
33. The equation f ( x) = 0 is called an algebraic equation if f ( x) is a :
(a) polynomial (b) transcendental equation
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
34. A transcendental equation may contain
(a) logarithmic functions (b) exponential functions
(c) trigonometric functions (d) all of the given choices
35. Newton-Raphson method can be used for solving :
(a) algebraic equations (b) transcendental equations
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
36. By Newton-Raphson method, the value of 12 correct to four places of
decimals is given by :
(a) 3.5600 (b) 3.4641
(c) 3.6461 (d) 3.7541 (Meerut 2013B)
37. Using False position method, a real root of the equation 3 x − cos x − 1 = 0 is
given by :
(a) 0.8701 (b) 0.7070
(c) 0.6071 (d) 0.5077
38. One root of the equation x 3 − x − 4 = 0 lies between :
(a) 2 and 3 (b) −3 and −2
(c) 1 and 2 (d) −2 and −1 (Meerut 2013B)

A nswers
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (b)
26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (c)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (c)
36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (c)

¨
 6
N umerical D ifferentiation

6.1 Introduction
he process of finding the derivative or derivatives of a function at some value of
T the independent variable, when we know the values of the function corresponding
to the given values of the independent variable, is called numerical differentiation.
The problem of differentiation is solved by the principle “Fit up an interpolation
polynomial to the given set of values of the function and then differentiate it as many
times as desired”. In case the values of the argument are equally spaced, we represent
the function by Newton-Gregory formula. If it is required to find the derivative of the
function at a point near the beginning (end) of a set of tabular values, we use
Newton-Gregory forward (backward) formula. To find the derivative at a point near
the middle of the table, we should use one of central difference formulae. If the values
of the argument are unequally spaced, Newton’s divided difference formula should be
used to represent the function.
To find the maximum or minimum value of a tabulated function we compute the
necessary differences from the given table, and substitute them in some suitable
interpolation formula. Then we put the first derivative of the function obtained
from this formula equal to zero and solve for u. The required value of x is obtained
from the relation x = x0 + hu.
 N-174

Example 1: Find the first, second and third derivatives of the function tabulated below, at
the point x = 1⋅ 5
x : 1⋅ 5 2 ⋅0 2 ⋅5 3 ⋅0 3 ⋅5 4 ⋅0
y = f ( x) : 3 ⋅ 375 7 ⋅ 000 13 ⋅ 625 24 ⋅ 000 38 ⋅ 875 59 ⋅ 000

Solution: Since the derivatives are required at x = 1⋅ 5, which is near the beginning
of the table, therefore we shall use Newton’s forward formula. The difference table
is given below :
x y Δy Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y
1⋅ 5 3 ⋅ 375
3 ⋅ 625
2 ⋅0 7 ⋅ 000 3 ⋅ 000
6 ⋅ 625 ⋅750
2 ⋅5 13 ⋅ 625 3 ⋅ 750 0
10 ⋅ 375 ⋅750
3 ⋅0 24 ⋅ 000 4 ⋅ 500 0
14 ⋅ 875 ⋅750
3 ⋅5 38 ⋅ 875 5 ⋅ 250
20 ⋅ 125
4 ⋅0 59 ⋅ 000
Newton’s forward formula is
f (a + xh) = f (a) + x
C1 Δf (a) + x
C2 Δ2 f (a) + x
C3 Δ3 f (a),
upto third differences
x ( x − 1) x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) 3
= f (a) + xΔf (a) + Δ2 f (a) + Δ f (a).
2! 3!
Differentiating w.r.t. x thrice and then putting x = 0 in the equations obtained, we
get
1 1
hf ′ (a) = Δf (a) − Δ2 f (a) + Δ3 f (a),
2 3
h2 f ′ ′ (a) = Δ2 f (a) − Δ3 f (a), h3 f ′ ′ ′ (a) = Δ3 f (a).
Putting a = 1⋅ 5, h = ⋅ 5 and the values of various differences in these equations, we
get
1 ⎡
3 ⋅ 625 − (3 ⋅ 000) + (⋅750)⎤ = 4 ⋅ 750,
1 1
f ′ (1⋅ 5) =
⋅5 ⎣⎢ 2 3 ⎦⎥
1
f ′ ′ (1⋅ 5) = [3 ⋅ 000 − (⋅750)] = 9 ⋅ 000,
⋅25
1
f ′ ′ ′ (1⋅ 5) = [⋅750] = 6 ⋅ 000.
⋅125
Note: The function tabulated in the given table of this problem is
 N-175

y = x 3 − 2 x + 3.
dy d2 y d3 y
Hence = 3 x2 − 2 , = 6 x, = 6.
dx dx 2 dx 3
Putting x = 1⋅ 5, we get
⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 3 × (1⋅ 5)2 − 2 = 4 ⋅ 750,
⎝ dx ⎠ 1⋅5

⎛ d2 y ⎞ ⎛ d3 y ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 9 ⋅ 000, ⎜ 3 ⎟ = 6 ⋅ 000.
2
⎝ dx ⎠ x =1⋅5 ⎜ dx ⎟
⎝ ⎠ x =1⋅5
Thus we get the same values as obtained by numerical differentiation.
Example 2: Find the derivative of f ( x) at x = ⋅ 4 from the following table :
x : ⋅1 ⋅2 ⋅3 ⋅4
f ( x) : 1 ⋅ 10517 1 ⋅ 22140 1 ⋅ 34986 1 ⋅ 49182

(Avadh 2009; Kanpur 10, 12; Garhwal 10; Purvanchal 10)

Solution: Since the derivative is required at x = ⋅ 4, which is near the end of the
table, therefore we shall use Newton’s Backward formula. The difference table is
given below :

x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y
⋅1 1 ⋅ 10517
⋅11623
⋅2 1 ⋅ 22140 ⋅01223
⋅12846 ⋅00127
⋅3 1 ⋅ 34986 ⋅01350
⋅14196
⋅4 1 ⋅ 49182
Newton’s Backward formula is
x ( x + 1)
f (a + nh + xh) = f (a + nh) + x ∇f (a + nh) + ∇ 2 f (a + nh)
2!
x ( x + 1) ( x + 2) 3
+ ∇ f (a + nh), taking upto third differences only.
3!
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
2 x +1
hf ′ (a + nh + xh) = ∇f (a + nh) + ∇ 2 f (a + nh)
2
3 x2 + 6 x + 2 3
+ ∇ f (a + nh).
6
Putting a + nh = ⋅ 4 , h = ⋅ 1, x = 0, we get
 N-176

1 2 1
(⋅1) f ′ (⋅4) = ∇f (⋅4) + ∇ f (⋅4) + ∇ 3 f (⋅4)
2 3
1 1
= ⋅ 14196 + (⋅01350) + (⋅00127) = ⋅ 14913.
2 3
∴ f ′ (⋅4) = 1⋅ 4913.
Example 3: Find f ′ (7 ⋅ 50) from the following table :

x : 7 ⋅ 47 7 ⋅ 48 7 ⋅ 49 7 ⋅ 50 7 ⋅ 51 7 ⋅ 52 7 ⋅ 53
y = f ( x): ⋅193 ⋅195 ⋅198 ⋅201 ⋅203 ⋅206 ⋅208

Solution: Here we want to find the derivative at x = 7 ⋅ 50 which lies near the
middle of the table and so we shall use one of the central difference formulae. Take
x = 7 ⋅ 50 as the origin. Then x0 = 7 ⋅ 50, h = ⋅ 01.
x − x0 x − 7 ⋅ 50
∴ u= = ⋅
h ⋅01
The Bessel’s formula with the variable u is given by
2 2
1 ⎛ 1⎞ u (u − 1) [Δ y −1 + Δ y0 ]
y u = [ y0 + y1 ] + ⎜ u − ⎟ Δy0 +
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2! 2
⎛ 1⎞
⎜u − ⎟ u (u − 1)
⎝ 2⎠ (u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) [Δ4 y−1 + Δ4 y−2 ]
+ Δ3 y−1 +
3! 4! 2
⎛⎜ u − 1⎞⎟ (u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2)
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ5 y −2
5!
6 6
(u + 2) (u + 1) u (u − 1) (u − 2) (u − 3) [Δ y−3 + Δ y−2 ]
+ +…
6! 2
…(1)
The difference table is given below :

x u yu Δyu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu Δ5 yu Δ6 yu
7 ⋅ 47 −3 ⋅193
⋅002
7 ⋅ 48 −2 ⋅195 ⋅001
⋅003 − ⋅ 001
7 ⋅ 49 −1 ⋅198 ⋅000 ⋅000
⋅003 − ⋅ 001 ⋅003
7 ⋅ 50 0 ⋅201 − ⋅ 001 ⋅003 − ⋅ 010
⋅002 ⋅002 − ⋅ 007
7 ⋅ 51 1 ⋅203 ⋅001 − ⋅ 004
⋅003 − ⋅ 002
7 ⋅ 52 2 ⋅206 − ⋅ 001
⋅002
7 ⋅ 53 3 ⋅208
 N-177

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. u and putting u = 0, we get

1 1
f ′ (0) = ⋅ 002 − [− ⋅ 001 + ⋅ 001] + (⋅002)
4 12
1 1 1
+ [− ⋅ 004 + ⋅ 003] − (− ⋅ 007) − (− ⋅ 010 )
24 120 120
= ⋅ 002 + 0 + ⋅ 0001666 − ⋅ 0000416 + ⋅ 0000583 + ⋅ 0000833
= ⋅ 0022666.
x − x0
We have u = ⋅
h
du 1
∴ = ⋅
dx h
d d du 1
∴ { f ( x)} = { f ( x)} ⋅ = f ′ (u).
dx du dx h
1
When x = 7 ⋅ 50, we have u = 0. Therefore f ′ (7 ⋅ 50) = f ′ (0).
⋅01
1
∴ f ′ (7 ⋅ 50) = (⋅0022666) = ⋅ 22666.
⋅01
Example 4: Find the value of f ′ (⋅04) from the following table :
x : ⋅01 ⋅02 ⋅03 ⋅04 ⋅05 ⋅06
y = f ( x) : ⋅1023 ⋅1047 ⋅1071 ⋅1096 ⋅1122 ⋅1148

Solution: Here we require the derivative at the point x = ⋅ 04 which lies near the
middle of the table, so we may use Gauss’s forward formula.
x − ⋅ 04
With a new variable u = , Gauss’s forward formula is
⋅01
u (u − 1) 2 u (u + 1) (u − 1) 3
f (u) = f (0) + uΔf (0) + Δ f (−1) + Δ f (−1)
2! 3!
u (u + 1) (u − 1) (u − 2) 4
+ Δ f (−2) + … …(1)
4!
The difference table is given below :
x u yu Δyu Δ2 yu Δ3 yu Δ4 yu
⋅01 −3 ⋅1023
⋅0024
⋅02 −2 ⋅1047 0
⋅0024 ⋅001
⋅03 −1 ⋅1071 ⋅0001 − ⋅ 001
⋅0025 0
⋅04 0 ⋅1096 ⋅0001 − ⋅ 001
⋅0026 − ⋅ 001
⋅05 1 ⋅1122 0
⋅0026
⋅06 2 ⋅1148
 N-178

x − ⋅ 04
Since u= ,
h
du 1
∴ = ⋅
dx h
d d du 1
Hence { f ( x)} = { f ( x)} . = f ′ (u).
dx du dx h
When x = ⋅ 04 , we have u = 0.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. u and putting u = 0, we get
1 1 1 4
f ′ (0) = Δ f (0) − Δ2 f (−1) − Δ3 f (−1) + Δ f (−2),
2 6 12
leaving higher order differences
1 1 1
= ⋅ 0026 − (⋅0001) − (0) + (− ⋅ 0001) = ⋅ 0025417.
2 6 12
⋅0025417
∴ hf ′ (⋅04) = ⋅ 0025417 ⇒ f ′ (⋅04) = = 0 ⋅ 25417.
⋅10
Example 5: For the following pairs of values of x and y find numerically the first derivative
at x = 4.
x : 1 2 4 8 10
y : 0 1 5 21 27
(Kanpur 2011)
Solution:Here the values of x are not equally spaced, therefore we shall use
Newton’s divided difference . The divided difference table is given below :

x y Δ| y Δ| 2 y Δ| 3 y Δ| 4 y
1 0
1
2 1 1
3
2 0
1
4 5 1 −
3 144
1
4 −
16
8 21 1
−
6
3
10 27

We know that Newton’s divided difference formula is

f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )

+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 , x4 ),
neglecting terms of higher order differences.
 N-179

Differentiating this w.r.t. x, we get

f ′ ( x) = f ( x0 , x1 ) + {( x − x1 ) + ( x − x0 )} f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )

+ {( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1)} f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 )

+ {( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 )

+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1) ( x − x3 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1) ( x − x2 )} × f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 , x4 ).

Putting x = 4, x0 = 1, x1 = 2 , x2 = 4, x3 = 8, x4 = 10 and the values of divided

differences, we get
1
f ′ (4) = 1 + {(4 − 2) + (4 − 1)} + {(4 − 1) (4 − 2)} × 0
3
⎛ 1 ⎞
+ {(4 − 1) (4 − 2) (4 − 8)} ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 144 ⎠
5 24
=1+ +0 + = 1 + 1⋅ 666 + 0 ⋅ 166 = 2 ⋅ 8326.
3 144

Example 6: Find f ′ (5) from following table :

x : 0 2 3 4 7 9
f ( x) : 4 26 58 112 466 922

Solution: Since the values of the argument are unequally spaced therefore we
shall use Newton’s divided difference formula. The divided difference table is
given below :
x f ( x) Δ| f ( x) Δ| 2 f ( x) Δ| 3 f ( x)
0 4
11
2 26 7
32 1
3 58 11
54 1
4 112 16
118 1
7 466 22
228
9 922
Newton’s divided difference formula if third differences are constant, is
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ( x0 , x1 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 ) f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )
+ ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 ).
Differentiating this w.r.t. x we get
f ′ ( x) = f ( x0 , x1 ) + {( x − x1 ) + ( x − x0 )} f ( x0 , x1 , x2 )
+ {( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1)} f ( x0 , x1, x2 , x3 ).
 N-180

Putting x = 5, x0 = 0, x1 = 2 , x2 = 3, x3 = 4 and values of various divided

differences, we get
f ′ (5) = 11 + {(5 − 2) + (5 − 0)} × 7
+ {(5 − 2)(5 − 3) + (5 − 0 )(5 − 3) + (5 − 0 )(5 − 2)} × 1
= 11 + 56 + 31 = 98.
Example 7: Assuming Bessel’s interpolation formula, show that
d 1 3
( y x ) = Δy x −(1 /2) − Δ y x −(3 /2) + …
dx 24 (Bundelkhand 2011)
d2 1 2
2
( yx) = [Δ y x −(3 /2) + Δ2 y x −(1 /2) ] + …
dx 2
d3
( y x ) = Δ3 y x −(3 /2) + … .
dx 3
Solution: We know that Bessel’s formula is
y0 + y1 x ( x − 1) Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0
+ ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ Δy0 +
1
yx =
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2! 2
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ x − ⎟ x ( x − 1)
⎝ 2⎠
+ Δ3 y−1 + … …(1)
3!
1
Putting x + in place of x in (1), we have
2
⎛⎜ x + 1⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ x − 1⎞⎟
2 2
y0 + y1 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ Δ y − 1 + Δ y0
y x +(1 /2) = + x Δ y0 +
2 2! 2

x ⎛⎜ x + ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟
1 1
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 3
+ Δ y −1 + … …(2)
3!
Differentiating (2) w.r.t. x, we get
d Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0 ⎛ x2 1⎞ 3
( y x +1 /2 ) = Δy0 + x +⎜ − ⎟ Δ y −1 + …
dx 2 ⎝ 2 24⎠
Putting x = 0 in this, we get
d 1 3
( y1 /2 ) = Δy0 − Δ y −1 + …
dx 24
Changing the origin to − ⎛⎜ x −
1⎞
⎟ i. e., increasing each subscript by ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ ,we get
1
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
d 1 3
( y x ) = Δy x −(1 /2) − Δ y x −(3 /2) + …
dx 24
Differentiating (2) twice w.r.t. x, we have
d2 Δ2 y −1 + Δ2 y0
2
( y x +1 /2 ) = + x Δ3 y −1 + …
dx 2
 N-181

Putting x = 0 and then shifting the origin from x = 0 to − ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ as earlier, we get

1
⎝ 2⎠
d2 1 2
2
( yx) = [Δ y x −(3 /2) + Δ2 y x −(1 /2) ] + …
dx 2
In the same way, we can show that
d3
( y x ) = Δ3 y x −(3 /2) + …
dx 3

Example 8: From Stirling’s formula, obtain the following result

d 2 1
( y x ) = [ y x +1 − y x −1 ] − [ y x +2 − y x −2 ],
dx 3 12
upto third differences.
Solution: We know that Stirling’s formula is
Δ y0 + Δ y − 1 x2 2 x ( x 2 − 1) Δ3 y −1 + Δ3 y −2
y x = y0 + x + Δ y −1 + ,
2 2! 3! 2
taking upto third differences only.
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
d Δ y0 + Δ y − 1 3 x 2 − 1 Δ3 y −1 + Δ3 y −2
( yx) = + x Δ2 y −1 + ⋅
dx 2 3! 2
Putting x = 0, we get
d Δ y0 + Δ y − 1 1 3
( y0 ) = − (Δ y −1 + Δ3 y −2 ) …(1)
dx 2 12
Now we have Δ y0 = y1 − y0 , Δy −1 = y0 − y −1 ,
Δ3 y −1 = ( E − 1)3 y −1
= ( E3 − 3 E2 + 3 E − 1) y −1
= y2 − 3 y1 + 3 y0 − y −1 ,
3
and Δ y −2 = y1 − 3 y0 + 3 y −1 − y −2 .
Putting these values in (1), we get
d 1 1
( y0 ) = [ y1 − y0 + y0 − y −1 ] − [( y2 − 3 y1 + 3 y0 − y −1 )
dx 2 12
+ ( y1 − 3 y0 + 3 y−1 − y−2 )]
1 1
= ( y1 − y −1 ) − ( y2 − 2 y1 + 2 y −1 − y −2 )
2 12
2 1
= ( y1 − y −1 ) − ( y2 − y −2 ).
3 12
Now shifting the origin to − x i. e., increasing each subscript by x, we get
d 2 1
( y x ) = ( y x +1 − y x −1 ) − ( y x +2 − y x −2 ).
dx 3 12
 N-182

Example 9: Prove that

y ′ = ⎛⎜δy − δ y − …⎞⎟
1 1 3 3 5
δ y+
h⎝ 24 640 ⎠
1 ⎛ 2
δ y − …⎞⎟ ⋅
1 4 1 6
and y ′ ′ = 2 ⎜δ y − δ y+
h ⎝ 12 90 ⎠
Solution: We have δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 = e hD /2
− e − hD /2
hD
= 2 sinh ⋅
2
hD δ hD δ
∴ sinh = ⇒ = sinh −1 …(1)
2 2 2 2
By Taylor’s series expansion, we know that
x3 3 5
sinh −1 x = x − + x −…
6 40
3 5
δ δ 1 ⎛ δ⎞ 3 ⎛ δ⎞
∴ sinh −1 = − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ −…
2 2 6 ⎝ 2⎠ 40 ⎝ 2⎠
From (1), we have
3 5
hD δ 1 ⎛ δ ⎞ 3 ⎛ δ⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ −…
2 2 6 ⎝ 2⎠ 40 ⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎡ δ3 3 5 ⎤
⇒ D= ⎢δ − + δ − …⎥
h 24 640 …(2)
⎣ ⎦
Now operating these operators on y, we get
1⎡ δ3 3 5 ⎤
Dy = ⎢δ − + δ − …⎥ y
h⎣ 24 640 ⎦

y ′ = ⎡δy − δ y − …⎤ ⋅
1 1 3 3 5
or δ y+
h ⎣⎢ 24 640 ⎦⎥
Squaring (2), we get
D2 = 2 ⎡δ 2 − δ − …⎤
1 1 4 1 6
δ +
h ⎢⎣ 12 90 ⎥⎦

D2 y = 2 ⎡δ 2 − δ − …⎤ y, operating on y
1 1 4 1 6
⇒ δ +
h ⎢⎣ 12 90 ⎥⎦

y ′ ′ = 2 ⎡δ 2 y − δ y − …⎤ ⋅
1 1 4 1 6
⇒ δ y+
h ⎣⎢ 12 90 ⎥⎦

Example 10: Show that

μ ⎛
δ y − …⎞⎟
1 1 5
y ′ = ⎜δy − δ 3 y +
h ⎝ 6 30 ⎠
1 ⎡
(δ y1 − δ 4 y −1 ) − …⎤ ⋅
1 1 4
and y0 ′ = ( y1 − y −1 ) − (δ 2 y1 − δ 2 y −1 ) +
2h⎣ ⎢ 6 30 ⎥⎦
(Bundelkhand 2012)
 N-183

δ2
Solution: We know that μ 2 = 1 + ⋅
4
−1 / 2
−1 ⎛ δ2 ⎞ δ2 3 4
∴ μ = ⎜1 + ⎟ =1− + δ −…
⎝ 4⎠ 8 128
Also from the equation (2) Example 11, we have
hD δ2 3 4
=1− + δ −…
δ 24 640
hD hD −1 ⎡ δ 2 3 4 ⎤ ⎡ δ2 3 4 ⎤
Now = μ = ⎢1 − + δ − …⎥ ⎢1 − + δ − …⎥
δμ δ ⎣ 24 640 ⎦ ⎣ 8 128 ⎦
δ2 1 4
=1− + δ −…
6 30
δμ ⎡ δ 2 1 4 ⎤ μ ⎡ δ3 δ5 ⎤
or D= ⎢1 − + δ − …⎥ = ⎢δ − + − …⎥ ⋅
h ⎣ 6 30 ⎦ h ⎣ 6 30 ⎦
Operating these operators on y, we get

μ ⎡ δ3 δ5 ⎤
Dy = ⎢δ − + − …⎥ y
h ⎣ 6 30 ⎦

μ ⎡ δ3 y δ5 y ⎤
⇒ y′= ⎢δy − + − …⎥
h ⎢⎣ 6 30 ⎥⎦ …(1)

By definition, we have
1
δ = E 1 /2 − E −1 /2 and μ = ( E 1 /2 + E −1 /2 ).
2
1
∴ δμ = ( E − E −1 ) = μδ.
2
1 1
∴ (δμ) y0 = ( E − E −1 ) y0 = ( y1 − y −1 ) = μδy0 …(2)
2 2
From (1), we have
⎡
1 μδ 3 μδ 5 ⎤
y0 ′ = ⎢μδy0 − y0 + y0 − …⎥
h
⎣ 6 30 ⎦
1 ⎡
(δ y1 − δ 4 y −1 ) − …⎤ ⋅
1 1 4
= ( y1 − y −1 ) − (δ 2 y1 − δ 2 y −1 ) +
2 h ⎢⎣ 6 30 ⎦⎥
1⎛
⎜ Δy − Δ2 y + Δ3 y − Δ4 y + …⎞⎟
1 1 1
Example 11: Prove that y ′ =
h ⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠

y ′ ′ = 2 ⎛⎜∇ 2 y + ∇ 3 y + ∇ y + …⎞⎟ ⋅
1 11 4
and
h ⎝ 12 ⎠ (Garhwal 2010)
hD
Solution: We know that E = e .
hD
∴ 1+ Δ = e or hD = log (1 + Δ)
 N-184

1
⇒ D= log (1 + Δ)
h
1 1⎧ Δ2 Δ3 Δ4 ⎫
⇒ Dy = log (1 + Δ) y = ⎨ Δ − + − + …⎬ y.
h h⎩ 2 3 4 ⎭
1 ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
2 3 4
Δ y Δ y Δ y
∴ y ′ = ⎨ Δy − + − + …⎬ ⋅
h⎪ 2 3 4 ⎪⎭
⎩
Again e − hD = 1 − ∇.
1
∴ D=− log (1 − ∇).
h
2
y ′ ′ = D2 y = ⎧⎨ − log (1 − ∇)⎫⎬ y = 2 { log (1 − ∇)}2 y
1 1
Now
⎩ h ⎭ h
2
1 ⎧ 1 2 1 3 ⎫ y
= ⎨∇ + ∇ + ∇ + …⎬
h2 ⎩ 2 3 ⎭
1 ⎧ 2
∇ + …⎫⎬ y
3 11 4
= 2 ⎨∇ + ∇ +
h ⎩ 12 ⎭
1 ⎧ 2
∇ y + …⎫⎬ ⋅
3 11 4
= 2 ⎨∇ y + ∇ y +
h ⎩ 12 ⎭

Example 12: Prove that

d 1 1
( y x ) = ( y x +h − y x −h ) − ( y x +2 h − y x −2 h )
dx h 2h
1
+ ( y x +3 h − y x −3 h ) − …
3h
(Bundelkhand 2011)
Solution: We have the R.H.S.
1 1 1 1 1
= { y x +h − y x +2 h + y x +3 h − …} − { y x − h − y x −2 h
h 2 3 h 2
1
+ y x −3 h − …}
3
1 1 1 1
= [{ Ey x − E2 y x + E3 y x − …} − {E −1 y x − E −2 y x
h 2 3 2
1
+ E−3 y x − …}]
3
1
= [{ log (1 + E)} y x − { log (1 + E −1 )} y x ]
h
1 ⎛ 1+ E ⎞
= log ⎜⎜ ⎟ yx
−1 ⎟
h ⎝1 + E ⎠

= ⎧⎨ log E⎫⎬ y x = ⎛⎜ log e hD ⎞⎟ y x

1 1
[ ∵ E = e hD ]
⎩h ⎭ ⎝ h ⎠
d
= Dy x = ( y x ) = the L.H.S.
dx
 N-185

Example 13: Find first and second derivatives of the function given below at the point
x = 1⋅ 2
x : 1 2 3 4 5
y : 0 1 5 6 8

Solution: Here the derivatives are required at x = 1⋅ 2 , which is near the beginning
of the table so we shall use Newton’s Forward formula.
The difference table is given below :
x y Δy Δ2 y Δ3 y Δ4 y
1 0
1
2 1 3
4 −6
3 5 −3 10
1 4
4 6 1
2
5 8
Newton’s Forward formula is
x ( x − 1) x ( x − 1) ( x − 2)
f (a + xh) = f (a) + xΔ f (a) + Δ2 f (a) + Δ3 f (a)
2! 3!
x ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) 4
+ Δ f (a), taking upto 4th differences only.
4!
Differentiating w.r.t. x twice, we get
(2 x − 1) 2 (3 x 2 − 6 x + 2) 3
hf ′ (a + xh) = Δf (a) + Δ f (a) + Δ f (a)
2 6
(4 x3 − 18 x2 + 22 x − 6) 4
+ Δ f (a)
24
and h2 f ′ ′ (a + xh) = Δ2 f (a) + ( x − 1) Δ3 f (a)
(12 x2 − 36 x + 22) 4
+ Δ f (a).
24
Putting a = 1, h = 1, x = ⋅ 2 and the values of various differences in these equations,
we get
1 1
f ′ (1⋅ 2) = 1 + {(2 × ⋅ 2) − 1} × 3 + {(3 × ⋅ 04) − (6 × ⋅ 2) + 2} (−6)
2 6
1
+ { (4 × ⋅ 008) − (18 × ⋅ 04) + (22 × ⋅ 2) − 6 } × 10
24
= 1 − 0 ⋅ 9 − 0 ⋅ 92 − 0 ⋅ 683 = − 1⋅ 50
1
f ′ ′ (1⋅ 2) = 3 + (⋅2 − 1) (−6) + {(12 × ⋅ 04) − (36 × ⋅ 2) + 22} × 10
24
= 3 + 4 ⋅ 8 + 6 ⋅ 366
= 14 ⋅ 16.
 N-186

Comprehensive Exercise 1

dy d2 y
1. Find and at x = 1 from the following table :
dx dx 2

x : 1 2 3 4 5 6
y : 198669 295520 389418 479425 564642 644217

2. Compute f ′ ′ ′ (15), given

x : 2 4 9 13 16 21 29
f ( x) : 57 1345 66340 402052 1118209 4287844 21242820

3. Find the first three derivatives of the function tabulated below at the point
x = 2⋅5 :
x : 1⋅ 5 1⋅ 9 2 ⋅5 3 ⋅2 4 ⋅3 5 ⋅9
f ( x) : 3 ⋅ 375 6 ⋅ 059 13 ⋅ 625 29 ⋅ 368 73 ⋅ 907 196 ⋅ 579

4. From the following data, find f ′ (10) :

x : 3 5 11 27 34
f ( x) : − 13 23 899 17315 35606
(Purvanchal 2008)
dy
5. Find at x = 1 from the following table :
dx

x: ·7 ·8 ·9 1·0 1·1 1·2 1·3

f (x): 0·644218 0·717356 0·783327 0·841471 0·891207 0·932039 0·963558

6. Find the first and second derivatives of log e x at x = 500.

x : 500 510 520 530 540 550

log x : 6·214608 6·234411 6·253829 6·272877 6·291569 6·309918

dy d2 y
7. Find and of y = x1 /3 at x = 50 from the following table :
dx dx 2
x: 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
1 /3
y=x : 3⋅6840 3⋅7084 3⋅7325 3⋅7563 3⋅7798 3⋅8030 3⋅8259
 N-187

8. Find the first two derivatives of f ( x) at x = 1 from the following table :

x : −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
f ( x) : 104 17 0 −1 8 69 272

9. Using divided differences, find the value of f ′ (8), given that

f (6) = 1⋅ 556, f (7) = 1⋅ 690, f (9) = 1⋅ 908, f (12) = 2 ⋅ 158 .

10. Find f ′ (6) from the following table :

x: 0 1 3 4 5 7 9

f ( x) : 150 108 0 – 54 – 100 – 144 – 84

11. Show that the expressions given below are approximations to the third
derivative of y x :
(i) Δ3 y0 + ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ Δ4 y0
3
⎝ 2⎠

(ii) Δ3 y −1 + ⎛⎜ x − ⎞⎟ ⋅ (Δ3 y −2 + Δ4 y −1 )
1 1
⎝ 2⎠ 2

12. Use Stirling’s formula to find the first derivatives of the function
y = 2e x − x − 1 tabulated below at the point x − 0 .6.
x : 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

y : 1.5836 1.7974 2.0442 2.3275 2.6510

A nswers 1

1. 98006 ⋅ 683, − 1985 ⋅ 9167 2. 1626

3. 16 ⋅ 750, 15 ⋅ 00, 6 ⋅ 00 4. 233
5. 0 ⋅ 54030
6. 0 ⋅ 002000, − 0 ⋅ 0000040 7. 0 ⋅ 02455, − 0 ⋅ 0003
8. 1, 6 9. 0 ⋅ 10859
10. – 23 12. 2 ⋅ 644225
 N-188

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. Given the following pairs of values of x and y = f ( x) :
x: 1 2 4 8 10
y: 0 1 5 21 27
Then numerically the first derivative at x = 4 is
(a) 2 ⋅ 8326 (b) 2 ⋅ 8426
(c) 2 ⋅ 9326 (d) 2 ⋅ 9426
2. The process of finding the derivative of a function with the help of the given
set of values of that function is called :
(a) quadrature (b) numerical integration
(c) numerical differentiation (d) none of these
⎛ dy ⎞
3. Using forward differences, the formula for ⎜ ⎟ is equal to :
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a
1 1 1 1
(a) [Δf (a) − Δ 2 f (a) + Δ 3 f (a) − Δ 4 f (a) + ...]
h 2 3 4
1 1 1
(b) h[Δf (a) − Δ 2 f (a) + Δ 3 f (a) − Δ 4 f (a) + ...]
2 3 4
1 1 2 1 3 1
(c) [Δf (a) + Δ f (a) + Δ f (a) + Δ 4 f (a) + ...]
h 2 3 4
(d) none of these
⎛ dy ⎞
4. Using backward differences, the formula for ⎜ ⎟ is equal to :
⎝ dx ⎠ x = x
n
1 1 2 1 1
(a) [∇yn − ∇ yn + ∇3 yn − ∇4 yn +...]
h 2 3 4
1 1 2 1 1
(b) [∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇3 yn + ∇4 yn +...]
h 2 3 4
1 1 1
(c) h[∇yn + ∇2 yn + ∇3 yn + ∇4 yn +...]
2 3 4
(d) none of these
5. Which one of the following is correct ?
⎛ dy ⎞ 1 1 1 1
(a) ⎜ ⎟ = [∇yn + ∇2 yn + ∇3 yn + ∇4 yn +...]
⎝ dx ⎠ x = x h 2 3 4
n
⎛ d2 y ⎞ 1 11 4
(b) ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = [∇2 yn + ∇3 yn + ∇ yn +...]
⎝ dx ⎠ x = x h 12
n
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these
 N-189

6. Which one of the following is true ?

⎛ dy ⎞ 1 1 1 1
(a) ⎜ ⎟ = [Δy0 − Δ 2 y0 + Δ 3 y0 + Δ 4 y0 +...]
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a h 2 3 4
⎛ d2 y ⎞ 1 11 4
(b) ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 2 [Δ 2 y0 − Δ 3 y0 + Δ y0 −...]
⎝ dx ⎠ x =a h 12

⎛ d3 y ⎞ 1 3
(c) ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ = 3 [Δ 3 y0 + Δ 4 y0 +...]
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a h 2

(d) all are true

7. Using Stirling's central difference interpolation formula, the formula for
⎛ d2 y ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ =
2 ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ x = a
1 2 1 4 1 6
(a) [Δ y−1 − Δ y −2 + Δ y−3 −...]
h2 12 90
1 1 4 1 6
(b) [Δ 2 y−1 − Δ y −2 + Δ y−3 −...]
h 12 90
1 1 4 1 6
(c) 2 [Δ 2 y−1 + Δ y −2 + Δ y−3 −...]
h 12 90
(d) none of these
8. Using Newton's divided difference formula f ′ ( x) is given by :
2
(a) Δ| f ( x0 ) + {2 x + ( x0 + x1)} Δ| f ( x0 ) + ...
(b) − Δ| f ( x0 ) − {2 x − ( x0 + x1 )} Δ| 2 f ( x0 ) + ...
2
(c) Δ| f ( x0 ) + {2 x − ( x0 + x1)} Δ| f ( x0 ) + ...
(d) none of these
9. For unequally spaced values of the argument, f ′(x) is found by :
(a) Newton's divided difference formula
(b) Lagrange's interpolation formula
(c) Central difference formula
(d) both (a) and (b)
10. If x : 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
y : 0.9975 0.9900 0.9776 0.9604
dy
then at x = 0.1 is :
dx
(a) −0 .050167 (b) 0.050167
(c) 0.06000 (d) none of these
11. If f (6) = 1.556, f (7) = 1.690, f (9) = 1.908, f (12) = 2 .158, then f ′ (8) is :
(a) 0.109 (b) 1.101
(c) −0 .109 (d) −1.01
 N-190

12. For the following table

x : 1 2 3 4 5
f ( x) : 0 1 5 6 8
which of the following is true ?
(a) f ′ (1.2) = −1.50 (b) f ′′ (1.2) = 1416
.
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
13. From the following table
x : 1 3 5 7 9
y: 85.3 74.5 67.0 60.5 54.3
the value of y' (3) is given by :
(a) −4 .1167 (b) 4.1167
(c) 3.1167 (d) −3 .1167
14. From the following table
x : 1 2 4 8 10
y: 0 1 5 21 27
the value of y ′ (4) is given by :
(a) 2.8000 (b) 2.8326
(c) 2.8500 (d) −2 .8326
15. From the following table
x : 2 4 9 10
f ( x) : 4 56 711 980
the value of f ′ (5) is given by :
(a) 2097.65 (b) 2097.60
(c) 2097.68 (d) 2097.61

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)

¨
 B

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
C hapters

1. Basic Computer Organization

2.

3. Operating System

4. Computer Software and Programming

5. Computer Networks
 C-3

B asic C omputer O rganization

1.1 Introduction to Computer

he word ‘computer’ came into use in English in 1646 as a word for a ‘one who
T computes’ and then by 1897 as a ‘mechanical calculating machine’. The word
referred to an electronic machine by 1946. It is formed from the word ‘compute’,
which was borrowed in 1631 from French, which was a learned borrowing from
Latin computer, meaning ‘to count, sum up; reckon’.
Some technical definitions of computer are :
“A computer is an electronic device which is capable of creating solution by performing complex
processing of information”.
“A computer is an electronic device that stores, retrieves and processes data and can be
programmed with instructions”.
“A computer is a machine that accepts data and manipulates it for some result based on a
program which describes how data is to be manipulated or processed”.
“A machine that accepts input, processes it according to specified rules and produces output”.
 C-4

In fact, the original objective for inventing a computer was to create a fast
calculating machine. However, more than 80% of work done by computers today
is of non-mathematical or non-numerical nature. Hence, to define a computer
merely as a calculating device is to ignore over 80% of its functions.
Thus, we can define a computer as a device that operates upon data. Data can be
anything like bio-data of applicants when computer is used for short listing
candidates for recruiting, marks obtained by students in various subjects when
used for preparing results, details (name, age, sex, etc.) of passengers when used for
making airline or railway reservations, or number of different parameters when
used for solving scientific research problems, etc.
A computer can store, process and retrieve data as and when desired. The fact that
computers process data is so fundamental that many people have started calling it
a data processor.
Technically the term computer is used to describe a device made up of a
combination of electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part
mechanical) components. By-itself, a computer has no intelligence and is referred
to as hardware. A computer, or computer system, does not come to life and it is
connected to the other parts of its system. A computer system is a combination of
the following five elements:
(i) Hardware
(ii) Software
(iii) People or User
(iv) Procedures
(v) Data/Information
When one computer system is set to communicate with another computer system,
connectivity becomes a sixth element. In other words, the number in which the
various individual systems are connected, for example, by phone lines, microwave
transmission, or satellite, is an element of the computer system.
The purpose of a computer system is to convert data into information. Data is raw,
unevaluated facts and figures, concepts, or instructions. This raw material is
processed into useful information. In other words, information is the product of
data processing. This processing includes refining, summarizing, categorizing and
otherwise manipulating the data into a useful form for decision-making. Software
is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a
task, without software instructions, the hardware does not know what to do.
People, however, constitute the most important component of the computer
system. People operate the computer hardware, they create the computer software
instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions present.
 C-5

1.2 Characteristics of Computer

Computers are fast, accurate and reliable, they do not forget anything and they do
not complain. All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of
their type and size. Computers are not just adding machines, they are capable of
doing complex activities and operations. They can be programmed to do complex,
tedious and monotonous tasks. The characteristics of computer are :
(i) Speed
(ii) Accuracy
(iii) Reliability
(iv) Memory Capability
(v) Versatility

1.2.1 Speed
A computer is a very fast machine. Current computer systems can perform tasks in
a few seconds, which may take human being years or even his entire lifetime to do
consequently. The computer based processing goes far beyond that of seconds that
means milliseconds (10 −3 seconds), microseconds (10 −6 seconds), nanoseconds
(10 −9 seconds) and picoseconds (10 −12 seconds).
With the second as the only means of comparison, it is difficult for us to
comprehend the time scale of computers. Even the operations for personal
computers are measured in thousands of a second, or milliseconds. Operations for
larger processors are measured in microseconds, nanoseconds and picoseconds.
To classify the speeds of different computer systems, the industry has developed
the criterion of million instructions per second (MIPS).

1.2.2 Accuracy
Computers in addition to being very fast, are very accurate also. Accuracy of a
computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its
design. A computer performs every calculation with the same accuracy.
Computers never mistake, it is the human, who instruct the computer and provide
data, who make mistakes. However, errors can occur in a computer. These errors
are mainly due to human rather than technological weakness.
The vast majority of these errors can be traced to a program logic error, a
procedural error or erroneous data. These are human errors. Hardware errors are
usually detected and corrected by the computer system itself.
 C-6

Computers rarely make mistakes and can accurately perform all kinds of complex
computations. Just for a moment, consider the accuracy afforded by the onboard
computers used on NASA's space shuttle flights. Without them, the success of
these missions would be jeopardised.

1.2.3 Reliability
The reliability comes from the fact that we can replace many tasks performed by
human with computers. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without
creating any error and without grumbling. Hence, computers score over human
beings in doing routine type of jobs that require great accuracy. If ten million
calculations have to be performed, a computer will perform the last one with
exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one.

1.2.4 Memory Capability

The capability of storage makes computer very useful. It saves the effort of inputs
every time, which is useful for many computation in computer. The facilities of the
storage of data is on the temporary basis as well as long term basis.
A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It can retain a piece of information as long as a user
desires and the user can recall the information whenever required. Even after
several years, a user can recall exactly the same information that he/she had stored
in the computer several years ago. A computer forgets or looses certain information
only when a user asks to do so.

1.2.5 Versatility
The most wonderful thing about a computer is it versatility. One moment it is
preparing results of an examination, next moment it is busy in preparing electricity
bills, and between them it may be helping an office secretary to trace an important
letter in seconds. Computers can be used for generic as well as specialized purpose.
All that is required to change its talent is to slip in a new program into it. In brief, a
computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a
finite series of logical steps. As such, computer is a versatile machine, which is
extremely useful in many lines of work.

1.3 Generations of Computers

"Generation" in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for
the growth of computer industry. Originally, the term "generation" was used to
 C-7

distinguish between varying hardware technologies but it has now been extended
to include both hardware and software that together make up a computer system.
The custom of referring to computer era in terms of generations came into wide use
only after 1964. There are totally five computer generations known till today.
Below we describe each generation along with its identifying characteristics.
Although there is a certain amount of overlap between different generations, the
approximate period shown against each are normally accepted.

1.3.1 First Generation (1942-1958)

During the IInd world-war, computers with electronic valves (vacuum tubes) were
built. The computers using valves are also known as the ‘First generation
computers’. The 150 kilowatt ENIAC was built in the year 1946 with 70000
resistors and 18000 valves. The program for this huge computer head was to be
written in machine language and it had no back-up storage device like magnetic
tape or disk. In spite of its vast size, it was less capable as compared to today’s
desktop PCs.
In 1949, at Cambridge University, EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage
Automatic Calculator) was developed. Another famous computer built in USA in
1951 was UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer). In 1952, at Pennsylvania
University, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator) was
developed. This was a commercial computer from the first generation series. the
first generation lasted till the late 50s.
Examples of first generation computers are :
(i) ENIAC
(ii) EDVAC
(iii) EDSAC
(iv) UNIVAC1
Characteristics of First Generation Computers
− The fastest calculating devices in their time.
− Too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for installation.
− Used thousands of vacuum tubes that emitted large amount of heat and
burnt out frequently. Hence, the rooms/areas in which these computers
were located had to be properly air-conditioned.
− Each vacuum tube consumed about half a watt of power. Since a computer
typically used more than ten thousand vacuum tubes, power consumption
of these computers was very high.
− As vacuum tubes used filaments, they had a limited life. Because a
computer used thousands of vacuum tubes, these computers were prone to
frequent hardware failures.
 C-8

− Due to low mean time between failures, these computers required constant
maintenance.
− Thousands of individual components were assembled manually by hand
into electronic circuits. Hence, commercial production of these computers
was difficult and costly.
− Since these computers were difficult to program and use, they had limited
commercial use.
− Drum was used as primary storage.
− Punched card and paper-tape were used as secondary storage.
− Vacuum tube circuit.
− Continuous maintenance required.
− Applications: Payroll and other simple applications in large companies.
− Batch processing.
− Machine and symbolic language programming.
− Different computers for scientific and business applications.
− The first computer which could perform arithmetic and logical operations
without human intervention.
− Program and data were fed through punched paper tape.
− Vacuum tubes generated considerable heat.
− Huge computers which required a lot of space and special air-conditioning.
− Poor reliability.
− Limited internal storage capacity.
− Slow input/output operation, used punched cards.
− Computers programmed with machine language.

1.3.2 Second Generation (1959-1964)

Built from semi-conductor devices called TRANSISTORS, the Second
Generation of computers entered the scene in 1959 onwards. Transistors were
cheaper, faster, reliable, smaller in size and consumed less power. The IBMs 146
computer was built in this era. For the first time, a programming language called
Autocoder was available. The computers of this generation also supported backup
storage devices, later magnetic tapes and disks.
Examples of second generation computers :
(i) IBM - 700
(ii) ATLAS
(iii) TCL 1901
Characteristics of Second Generation Computers
− More than ten times faster than the first generation computers.
 C-9

− Smaller than first generation computers and required smaller space.

− Consumed less power and dissipated less heat than the first generation
computers. The rooms/areas in which the second generation computers
were located still required to be properly air-conditioned.
− More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than the first generation
computers.
− Faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to first
generation computers.
− Easier to program and use than the first generation computers. Hence, they
had wider commercial use.
− Magnetic core primary storage.
− Tape secondary storage.
− Transistor circuits.
− Greater reliability and speed.
− High level procedural language FORTAN and COBOL.
− Application Payroll, inventory and accounts receivable in large and
medium-sized companies, batch processing.
− Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
− Reduced generated heat.
− Smaller and more reliable.
− Faster than Ist generation.
− Increased storage capacity.
− Require less power to operate.
− Development of magnetic disk storage.
− Computers programmed in high level languages. In 1961, COBOL was
developed.

1.3.3 Third Generation (1965-1971)

In 1964, there came a ‘IC’ (Integrated Circuit) technology. The computers under
this technology were called the ‘Third Generation’ computers. These machines
used Medium Scale Integration (MIS) technology, with 10-100 circuits in a single
chip. A popular computer of this era was the IBM 360 computer system. Several
programming languages were developed during this era.
Examples of third generation computers :
(i) IBM - 360/370
(ii) NCR 395
(iii) Burroughs B 6500
 C-10

Characteristics of Third Generation Computers

− More powerful than second generation computers. They were capable of
performing about 1 million instructions per second.
− Smaller than second generation computers requiring smaller space.
− Consumed less power and dissipated less heat than second generation
computers. The rooms/areas in which third generation computers were
located still required to be properly air-conditioned.
− More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than second-generation
computers requiring lower maintenance cost.
− Faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to second
generation computers.
− General purpose machines suitable for both scientific and commercial
applications.
− Mini computers of third generation made computers affordable even by
smaller companies.
− Unbundling of software from hardware gave users of these systems an
opportunity to invest only in software of their need and value.
− Magnetic-disk secondary storage.
− On-line realtime processing.
− Multi-programing operating systems.
− Integrated circuits.
− Increased miniaturization, speed and reliability.
− Multi purpose computers capable of performing both scientific and
business tasks.
− Development of mini computers.
− Applications: Order processing, airline reservation systems and realtime
inventory control.
− Transistors replaced by integrated circuits.
− Better storage devices.
− Improved input, output device.
− Faster than the previous generation computers.
− Concept of multi-programming was used.
− Used "Operating System".

1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1985)

During the ‘Fourth Generation’, which can be said to have commenced in the late
1970s, the chips were made with Large Scale Integration (LSI), i.e. having the
integration capability of upto 1000 transistors. These machines are the cheapest
and the most reliable as compared to machines of 1st, 2nd & 3rd generation Era.
 C-11

Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers

− Personal computers were smaller and cheaper than mainframe or mini
computers of third generation.
− Although the fourth generation mainframes required proper
air-conditioning of the rooms/areas in which they were located, no
air-conditioning was required for personal computers.
− Consumed less power than third generation computers.
− More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than third generation
computers requiring negligible maintenance cost.
− Faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to third
generation computers.
− They were general purpose machines.
− Use of standard high level programming languages allowed programs
written for one computer to be easily ported to and executed on another
computer.
− Graphical user interface enabled new users to quickly learn how to use
computers.
− Large scale and very large scale integrated circuits.
− Semi-conductor primary storage.
− Dynamic decrease in hardware cost.
− Increasing costs of software.
− Development of the micropersonal computer.
− Development of electronic spreadsheet.
− Widespread use of CRT terminals.
− Database management systems.
− Application development by users.
− User-friendly software.
− Virtual-storage operating systems.
− Distributed data processing.
− Increased use of data communications and computer networks.
− Graphics terminals.
− Applications : Corporate modeling, decision-support systems, electronic
funds transfer, electronic spreadsheet, word-processing and small business
applications.
− Use of very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI)
− Compact, faster.
− More reliable.
− Microprocessor used.
− Cheaper.
 C-12

1.3.5 Fifth Generation (Since 1985)

Until now, computers could do as per the programmed instructions only. Now in
order to make computer think like human being, the concept of Arificial
Intelligence (AI) is added. During fifth generation, there was tremendous
outgrowth of computer networks. Communication technologies became faster
day-by-day and more and more computers were networked together. This trend
resulted in emergence and popularity of the internet and associated technologies
and applications. The internet made it possible for computer users sitting across
the globe to communicate with each other within minutes by use of electronic mail
facility. A vast ocean of information became readily available to computer users
through the world wide web. Moreover, several new types of exciting applications
like electronic commerce, virtual libraries, virtual classroom, distance education
etc. emerged during this period.
Tremendous processing power and massive storage capacity of fifth generation
computers also made them a very useful and popular tool for a wide range of
multimedia applications, It deals with information containing text, graphics,
animation, audio and video data. In general, the data size of multimedia
information is much larger than textual information because the requirement of
number of bits for the representation of graphics, animation audio or video media
in digital form is larger than the requirement for representation of textual
information.
Storage technology also advanced very fast making larger and larger main memory
and disk storage available in newly introduced systems. During fifth generation,
optical disks also emerged as a popular portable mass storage media such as
CD-ROM.
Characteristics of Fifth Generation Computers
− Portable personal computers are much smaller and handy than personal
computers of fourth generation allowing users to use computing facility
even while travelling.
− Fifth generation desktop personal computers and workstations are several
times more powerful than personal computers of fourth generation.
− Although fifth generation mainframes require proper air-conditioning of
the rooms/areas in which they are located, no air conditioning is normally
required for notebook computers, desktop personal computers and
workstations.
− Consume less power than their predecessors do.
− More reliable and less prone to hardware failures than their predecessors
were, requiring negligible maintenance cost.
− Many of the large scale fifth generation systems have hot-plug feature than
enables a failed component to be replaced with a new one without the need
 C-13

to shutdown the system. Hence, the uptime of these systems is very high.
− Faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to their
predecessors.
− General purpose machines.
− Manufacturing does not require manual assembly of individual
components into electronic circuits resulting in reduced human labour and
cost involved at assembly stage. Hence, commercial production of these
systems is easier and cheaper. However, highly sophisticated technology
and expensive setup is required for manufacturing VVLSI chips.
− Use of standard high-level programming languages allows programs written
for one computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.
− More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features make the systems
easier to learn and use by anyone, including children.
− Newer and more powerful applications, including multimedia applications,
make the systems more useful in every occupation.
− Explosion in the size of the internet coupled with internet-based tools and
applications have made these systems influence the life of even-common
people.
− These systems also use the concept of unbundled software and add-on
hardware allowing the users to invest only in the hardware configuration
and software of their need and value.
− With so many types of computers in all price ranges today, we have a
computer for almost any type of user whether the user is a child or a
world-fame scientist.
− Organic chips.
− Decreasing costs of software.
− Decreasing costs of hardware.
− Super and ultra personal computers.
− Increased miniaturization.
− Vast improvements in the price performance ratio.
− Artificial intelligence.
− Auto-decisions.
− Large storage facility.
− High speed.
− Multi point Input/Output.
− Non-Procedural software.
 C-14

1.4 Types of Computers

Computers can be classified into different types based on memory size and
processing speed.
In this section, we describe the following types of computers:
(i) Super computers
(ii) Mainframe computers
(iii) Workstation computers
(iv) Micro computers
(v) Laptops
(vi) Midrange computers or machines
(vii) Hand-held computers
(viii) Pen-based computers.
The given figure shows the classification of different types of computers into
organization- wide, work-group and personal information systems.

Types of Computers

1.4.1 Super Computers

Super computers are the fastest and largest computers available today, they are
used in a wide variety of applications. For example, the university of Oklahoma
uses a super computer at the Pittsburgh Super computing Center to forecast severe
storms: with its help, weather experts can now extend the forecasting period from
30 minutes to 4 or 5 hours. Super computers have large memories and high
processing speeds. They can process up to a billion instructions per second. They
are used for processing very large files and performing large-scale mathematical
 C-15

calculations. In fact, super computers are used for such intense computing that
they are enclosed in frames containing liquid coolant to prevent them from melting
down.
Most super computers have two characteristics in common. One is the ability to
recover automatically from failures. Also, unlike conventional computers, which
have a single processor which processes one instruction at a time, super computers
have multiple processors that process multiple instructions at a time, this is known
as parallel processing. Some business applications to which parallel processing is
ideally suited are resource optimization, image processing, graphics and financial
portfolio analysis.
Fault-tolerant computers use a backup mechanism to automatically isolate and
reconfigure hardware which fails during system operation. Companies that require
highly reliable computer systems use fault-tolerant computers.
The primary disadvantage of super computers is their high cost. [Super computer’s
cost varies between $ 250,000 and $ 3 million, like software that runs on them is
also very expensive]. This is one reason why today there are fewer [200 super
computers in the united states]. The given table shows other applications of super
computers.

Application Total Sales (SM)

Scientific research and R & D 119.8

Classified defense 40.3

Geoscience and geo-engineering 26.0

Design engineering and analysis 21.4

Economic and Financial modelling 18.8

Imaging 13.7

Simulation 12.6

Biological and chemical engineering 9.1

Business/professional 6.8

Software engineering 5.5

Applications of super computers and their market share

(Data: International Data Corporation)
 C-16

1.4.2 Mainframe Computers

A mainframe is a large, general-purpose computer with a large memory and
excellent processing capabilities. Mainframes, which are frequently
organization-wide systems, take their name from the "mainframe" that once
housed the CPU. They are ideal for transaction processing, financial applications,
payroll, investment analysis, weather forecasting, airline reservation and other
applications that require massive computations and large scale processing. Unlike
PC's, which serve only one user, mainframes serve many users at the same time.
One of the main disadvantage of the mainframe is that it is expensive to purchase,
operate and maintain. Mainframes often require customized software and highly
trained computer personnel to run and operate them. In spite of this disadvantage,
mainframes have been in use since the late 1950s and continue to be used for a
wide variety of applications.

1.4.3 Midrange Machines/Mini Computers

In the 1970s, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the concept of a
midrange computer, or mini computer called the VAX. Mini computers which are
typical work group systems, are small yet powerful multi-user systems with excellent
memory capabilities and processing speeds. Although they are slower than
mainframes and often have less memory, these workhouses can deliver
considerable "bang for the back". The introduction of midrange computers allowed
American corporations that were unable to afford mainframes to enter the age of
computing.

1.4.4 Workstations
Workstations lie some where between midrange computers and PCs. They can be
used by individuals or by groups. They are faster and more sophisticated than PCs
and are equipped with a number of productivity tools that increase their efficiency.
Advances in microprocessors and sophisticated software have significantly
increased the capabilities of these machines and today some workstations are
handling tasks that run on super computers and mainframes as little as 2 years ago.
Further, their low cost makes them an attractive alternative to the PC. SPARC
stations from Sun Microsystem, IBM RS/6000s, Hewlett-Packard's series 700 and
DEC's Alpha-based Model 3000 are some popular workstations.
Engineers, designers, architects and film-industry animators are heavy users of
workstations. For example, at Da Point in Wilmington, Delaware, about one in
five workstations is a high-end machine used for simulative and molecular
 C-17

modeling. Pitney-Bowes uses workstations to model advanced office products

before they are manufactured.

1.4.5 Micro Computers or Personal Computers

Micro computers also known as personal computers, are regarded by many as one
of the greatest inventions in history. They have completely revolutionised the way
American corporations do business. Although the memory size and processing
capabilities of micro computers are less than those of mainframe and midrange
computers, advances in hardware technology have made the PC a compact,
powerful and versatile machine. In fact, recent advances in hardware technology
have equipped many micro computers with the same, or even better, memory and
speed capabilities than the mainframe of a few years ago – with the result that many
companies are replacing their mainframes with PCs to run sophisticated
applications.
Components of a PC: The basic units of a PC are the system unit, the
video-display terminal (VDT), a keyboard and a mouse.
The system unit is the rectangular metal box that houses the processor, where data
is input, processed, stored and retrieved. This unit also contains primary memory,
disk drives, a power supply and outlets for connecting input and output devices.
The VDT provides users with images of data, instructions and output. The
keyboard and the mouse are the most popular input device for micro computers.
When the components of a PC are customized to meet the particular information
needs of the user, the process is called configuration.

1.4.6 Laptops and Notebooks

Laptops and Notebooks provide mobile computing technology. These are
computers that are battery-operated and hence can be used any time and
anywhere. Laptop computers are small enough to fit on the lap of a user, notebook
computers are even smaller. Some popular mobile computing devices and
applications are shown in the given table.
The primary differences between a laptop and a notebook are size and weight.
Notebooks are smaller than laptops and weightless. However, both are equipped
with powerful microprocessors, graphic capabilities, adequate memory size and
mouse-driven input. Some laptops and notebooks even have fax capabilities,
CD-ROM drives and optical storage devices and can be linked to various input and
output devices.
The portability of laptops and notebooks has increased the productivity of many
workers, particularly field workers and those who travel extensively.
 C-18

Devices Weight Description Typical User

Pocket Less than 1 Shirt-pocket-size machine A mobile user who does

Organizers pound for organizational applica- not need communication
tions capabilities

Hand-held Less than 1 8086-based machines that Field service person with
Computers pound contain an inexpensive data entry applications
docking station

Personal digital Less than 3 A powerful hand-held Mobile users who desire
assistants pounds communications intensive two-way com mu ni ca-
device with a focus on tions, for either business
ease of use or personal use

Sub notebooks Less than 4 A device with full PC User with non-RAM
pounds functionality but with a heavy applications
reduced keypad and screen
and no floppy drive

Pen-based drives Less than 6 A device with an input Field service person with
pounds stylus, using either the pen data entry applications
point or the pen windows
operation system
Popular mobile computing devices and applications

1.4.7 Hand-Held Computers

Hand-held computers are even smaller than notebooks. They are primarily used to
collect field data.

1.4.8 Pen-Based Computing

Pen-based computing refers to portable computers that use an electronic writing
pad and a light sensitive electronic pen, thus freeing users from the constraints of a
keyboard. When the user writes on the pad, the writing is converted into digital
input and stored in a file in the computer. Pen-based computing is becoming
increasingly popular because most people are comfortable using a pen. It is
particularly useful for sales and service representatives, insurance agents, retail
suppliers, delivery people, inventory clerks and health care providers, who are
often on the move.
Pen-based computing is revolutionizing the way companies record data and
conduct business. For example, ADP Automotive claims uses pen-based
computers to estimate auto claims and develop collision estimates. The company's
pen-based system and a point Pen Pro, collects and stores data and images on parts
and labor costs for modern cars. If a car has a damaged front end, say, the system
 C-19

guides the estimator from the bumper to the grill, headlights, radiator, fan and
other parts, and helps assess the cost of the damage.
The system automatically tallies the cost of parts and assembly along with related
labour expenses, and uses the same logic that an automotive expert would use in
the estimation process.

Parallel Super Mainframe Mini Micro

Size Huge Huge Large Medium Desktop

Nu m b e r o f Thousands 4–16 1–4 1 Single-chip

processors

Users Multi Multi Multi Multi Single

Environment Special Special Special Not necessary Not

necessary

Cadding Special Special Special no no

platform platform platform

Clock speed >100MHz >100MHz >50MHz >10MHz >10MHz

MIPS > 1 billion >500 million >100 million > 10 million > 1 million

Software Special Special Multi–user Multi–user Single us er

parallel vector software software Software
processing processing
software software

Application D e f e n se / S i m u l a t i o n Commercial Commercial C o mm e r c i a l

space d e f e n se / and home use
space

Characteristics of different types of computers

1.5 Basic Computer Organization

The computers depending on their circuit or hardware design, vary in size, speed
and capacity but have the same functional organization.
The components of a computer that accept instructions and data, are called Input
devices or Input-units. The part of a computer which stores information in the form of
instructions and data is named as memory unit. The processing of data inside the
computer is done by the central processing unit (C.P.U.) and it is called the heart
and nerve centre of the computer. Modern Computers have memory units
synthesised in C.P.U. Finally, the devices communicating the results to the user
are called output devices or output units. The input and output devices (I/O) are
 C-20

termed as Peripheral units and provide a communication link between the man
and the computer.
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability and cost of computers have
been changing over the years, the basic logical structure (based on the stored
program concept), as proposed by Von Neumann, has not changed. No matter
what shape and size of computer we are talking about, all computer systems
perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input data into
useful information and presenting it to a user :
(i) Inputting
(ii) Storing
(iii) Processing
(iv) Outputting
(v) Controlling

Basic Organization of a Computer System

The IPOS cycle describes the computer’s processing of data. The input-process-
output (IPO) model, also known as the IPO+S model, is a function model and
conceptual schema of a general system. An IPO chart/table identifies a program’s
inputs, its outputs, and the processing steps required to transform the inputs into
the outputs.
 C-21

The IPO model has many interdisciplinary applications, and is used to convey
systems fundamentals in IT overview education and as a brainstorming,
preliminary investigation tool in systems development processes such as the
SDLC. It consists of at least three, and sometimes four, distinct components. In
contemporary information technology, it is almost always discussed as a four
component model in which the fourth is a named optional. Data has to flow into
the system in some form. Input is the data flowing into the system from outside.
The next stage in the information flow is the input data being manipulated in some
way. Processing is the action of manipulating the input into a more useful form.
The final stage in the information flow is normally to present the information in a
user-friendly way. Output is the information flowing out of the system.
The components of the IPOS model are defined as:
(i) I: Input - The information, ideas, and resources used in creating a program
(ii) P: Processing - Actions taken upon/using input or stored material
(iii) O: Output - Results of the processing that then exit the system
(iv) S: Storage - Location(s) where material inside the system is/are placed for
possible
use at a later point in time.

1.6 Input Units

Data must be entered into a computer before processing may take place. The
device used to enter data into a computer is called an input device. Most commonly
used input devices are :
(i) Keyboard
(ii) Mouse
(iii) Joystick
(iv) Scanner
Many other special-purpose input devices like barcode reader, etc. are also
available. Computers often have more than one input device attached. For
example, most personal computers have both a keyboard and mouse.

1.6.1 Keyboard
Most input data is entered into the computer by using a keyboard. This input
method is similar to typing on a typewriter.
Most typewriters and computer keyboards are QWERTY keyboards. The
alphabetic keys are arranged in a manner so that the upper-left row of letters begins
with the six letters QWERTY. Designers of other keyboards claim that their boards
are easier to learn than the QWERTY keyboard. The Dvorak keyboard is one
example. It is not widely accepted, however, because most people have already
learned the QWERTY keyboard.
 C-22

In different parts of the world, we find different keyboards. The coding used on the
QWERTY and Dvorak keyboards works with an 8-bit code which accommodates
256 different characters. Asian languages have many more characters.
Computer keyboards also include keys that are designed to perform specific tasks
instead of entering characters only. These special keys include function keys,
directional keys and special purpose keys such as Alt, Ctrl, Enter, Ins and Esc.
These keys enable the user to perform complex tasks easily when using the
application.
Some new keyboards have even 110 keys, with three new keys designed to simplify
working with windows operating systems. Two of these keys, next to the Alt key,
bring up the start menu. The third key, next to the right Ctrl key, brings up a menu
of functions that are frequently accessed in whichever application is currently
being used.
Prolonged keyboard use can cause wrist problems, sometimes so serious as to
require surgery. To help prevent these problems, ergonomic keyboards have been
introduced in the market.
One special type of keyboard construction is the MEMBRANE-SWITCH
KEYBOARD, in which a protective film covers the keyboard. Membrane-switch
keyboards are reliable, durable and resistant to such hazards as liquids or grease.
However, membrane keys require more pressure than keys on a standard computer
keyboard. You have probably seen membrane-switch keyboards in fast-food
restaurants. Membrane-switch keyboards are ideal in situations that require little
actual keying.
A computer keyboard is a rather sophisticated electromechanical component
designed to create special standardized electronic codes when a key is pressed. The
code is transmitted along the cable that connects the keyboard to the computer
system unit or terminal where the incoming code is analyzed and converted into
the appropriate computer usable code.
Keyboards come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but most keyboards used with
computer systems have the certain number of features are common, for example,
(i) Standard typewriter keys
(ii) Function keys
(iii) Special purpose keys
(iv) Cursor-movement keys
(v) Numeric keys.
In general, the typewriter-like keys are used to type in text and other data. The
function keys, labeled F1, F2, F3 and so on are used to issue commands. Function
keys are also called programmable keys. The user's manual that comes with the
software tells you how to use the function keys. Computer keyboards also have
some special-purpose keys.
 C-23

If you have used a typewriter keyboard, you should find it easy to learn to work
with a computer keyboard. However, since some of the keys are different, you may
want to experiment with some of the keyboard familiarization software programs
on the market today. These packages provide computer users with the opportunity
to become familiar with the layout of the keyboard, which may differ according to
the kind of computer you are using and to develop typing proficiency.

1.6.2 Voice Input Devices

In an effort to increase worker productivity, a substantial amount of research is
being done in voice recognition : programming the computer to recognize spoken
commands. Voice input devices or voice recognition systems, convert spoken
words into electrical signals by comparing the electrical patterns produced by the
speaker's voice with a set of prerecorded patterns. If a matching pattern is found,
the computer accepts this pattern as a part of its standard "Vocabulary". This
technology is also used by people who are not able to use traditional input devices.
NASA is currently developing experimental space suits that use microprocessors
and storage devices to allow astronauts to view computerized displays across their
helmet visors.
These displays would be activated and manipulated by spoken
command–convenient when you have got both hands busy on an outer space repair
job.
To date, the biggest problem with this technology involve limitations on the size of
the computer's vocabulary, pronunciation differences among individuals, and the
computer's inability to accept continuous speeds. However, research continues at a
fast pace. Several voice input units are currently available for use with micro
computers, and speaker-independent voice recognition systems are being
designed, so equipment need not be turned to the voice of any one person.

1.6.3 Pointing Devices

Data input also involves entering commands and selecting options. The light pen,
the mouse, the touch screen and the digitizer tablet were all developed to make this
easy. Each of these devices allows the user to identify and select the necessary
command or option by, in effect, moving the cursor on the screen or tablet and
sending a signal to the computer. For this reason they are sometimes called
pointing devices and they are used in menu driven programs, that is, programs that
offer varying levels of menus, or choices to the user to lead him or her through the
program functions.
Light Pen
The light pen uses a light–sensitive photoelectric cell to signal screen position to
the computer. The pen is pushed to close the photoelectric circuit, thereby
 C-24

indicating the x-y screen co-ordinates to the computer. Light pens are frequently
used by graphics designers, illustrators and drafting engineers.
Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held device connected to the computer by a small cable. As the
mouse is rolled across the desktop, the cursor moves across the screen, when the
cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse
once or twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the computer. Mouse
technology is often used with graphics-oriented micro computers like the
Macintosh. With special software for graphics, the mouse can be used like a pen or
a paintbrush to create figures and patterns directly on the video display screen. The
keyboard, however must still be used to type in characters and issue some
commands depending on the software.
Working of a Mouse.
The most common type of mouse has a ball inside it that extends just below the
housing. When you slide the mouse around on a flat surface, such as the desktop or
a mouse pad, the ball rolls.
On two sides of the ball, at 90 degrees angle from each other, are two small rollers
that touch the mouse and spin when the ball rolls. A sensor detects how much each
roller spins and send this information to the computer. The computer translates
the information and changes the position of the on-screen pointer to correspond to
the position indicated by the mouse.
Like the keyboard, the mouse does not send a message directly to the program that
the computer is running. Rather, it sends an interrupt request to the CPU. The
program that is running checks regularly to see after the request of mouse.
Like all input devices, the mouse needs some connection to the host computer in
order to transmit its input. Typically, the mouse uses a thin electrical cord for this
purpose. It was most likely the combination of the tall-like cord, its size and shape,
which led the inventors of the mouse to name it as such, cordless mice use wireless
communication to transmit data via infrared, radio or bluetooth.
There are several other uses of mouse:
1. Move the mouse cursor on the computer screen.
2. We make icon on the computer monitor or screen, in any application or
software, also called as graphical user interface (GUI) this icon we can
directly open with the help of right click or double click of the mouse
button.
3. We can use the mouse for playing the computer game.
The mouse switch, called a micro switch or a cherry switch, uses a still but flexible
metal strip that is bent to actuate the switch. The bending of the metal makes a
snapping or clicking noise in the same way as the safety button does on the lids of
vacuum-packaged jars to indicate that they have been opened.
 C-25

Single Clicking. It is the most common method of distinguishing mouse-based

input. On a single-button mouse this involves using the mouse's one button. On
the multiple-button mouse, it involves any one of the buttons, and is usually
characterized by which button is pushed.
Double Clicking. A double-click occurs when the user presses the button twice in
quick succession. This triggers an action separate from that of a single-click. For
example in the Macintosh Finder, the user single-clicks to select a file and
double-clicks in order to open that file. Usability studies have found that the
double-click can be confusing and hard to use– for example, users with poor motor
skills may not perform the second click fast enough, with the result that the action
is interpreted as two single-clicks rather than a double-click. Ironically, the double
click was introduced because the previous solution– separate mouse buttons for
separate actions– was also found to be confusing in user studies. Most
multiple-button mice allow setting one button to emit a double click on a single
press.
Triple-Click. A triple-click occurs when the user presses the button three times in
quick succession. This also triggers an action separate from that of a single-click. It
is most commonly seen is word processors to select a whole paragraph and in web
browsers to select a whole line to text.

1.6.4 Touch-Screen
Limited amounts of data can be entered via a terminal or a micro computer that has
a touch screen. The user simply touches the screen at the desired locations, marked
by labeled boxes, to "point-out" choices to the computer. The software determines
the kinds of choices of the user.

1.6.5 Digitizer
An interesting method of input that is used in map making is the digitizing tablet.
The tablets, which come in different sizes are the working surface. Each is
converted by a grid of many tiny wires that is connected to the computer. Drawings
placed over this grid can be traced and entered into the computer by the use of a
special pen or mouse like device with cross hairs that opens and closes electrical
circuits in the grid and thus identifies x – y co-ordinates. Original drawings may also
be entered. As it progresses, the drawing is displayed on the screen, which can later
be stored or printed. Digitizers are also used in design and engineering business
such as those that develop circuit or computer chips.

1.6.6 Touch-Tone Devices

Touch-Tone phone can be used to send data to a computer, for example, if you
want to arrange for Federal Express to come to your home or office and pick up a
package, you can dial a special 800 number. A computerized voice requests that
you touch the numbers for your account number, ZIP code and number of
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packages being picked up. The data goes to the central computer system, is checked
and is then retrieved by the appropriate local pick-up system which sends an
employee to get your package.
Touch-Tone devices usually called Card Dialers are also used to run credit card
checks in retail stores. After appropriate keys are touched, the device sends data
over the phone lines to a central computer, which then checks the data against its
files and reports credit information back to the store.
Most specialized, monkey board input devices are used in conjunction with a
keyboard because the specialized devices cannot be used to input all types of data
and instructions. An exception may be Eyesican Communication that translates
eye movements into signals for a computer. This innovation–still being
refined–allows people who cannot speak or use keyboards to communicate using a
computer.

1.7 Storage Unit

Data and instructions entered into a computer system through input units have to
be stored inside the computer before actual processing starts. Similarly, results
produced by a computer after processing have to be kept somewhere inside the
computer system before being passed on to an output unit. Moreover, a computer
must also preserve intermediate results for ongoing processing. Storage unit of a
computer system caters to all these needs. It provides space for storing data and
instructions, intermediate results and results for output.
Storage unit of all computers is comprised of following two types of storage :
(i) Primary Storage (ii) Secondary Storage
Primary Storage. Primary storage of a computer also known as its main memory,
is used to hold pieces of program instructions and data, intermediate results of
processing and recently produced results of those job(s) on which the computer is
currently working. These pieces of information are represented electronically in
the main memory chip's circuitry and while it remains in the main memory, central
processing unit can access it directly at a very fast speed. However, primary storage
memory can hold information only while computer system is on. As soon as the
computer system switches off or resets the information held in primary storage is
erased. Moreover, primary storage normally has limited storage capacity because it
is very expensive. Primary storage of modern computer systems is made of
semiconductor devices.
Secondary Storage. Secondary storage of a computer also known as its auxiliary
storage is used to take care of the limitations of primary storage. That is, it
supplements the limited storage capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary
storage. This is because secondary storage is much cheaper than primary storage
and it can retain information even when a computer system switches off or resets.
Secondary storage holds the program instructions, data and information of those
jobs on which the computer system is currently not working but needs to hold
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them for processing later. Magnetic disk is the most commonly used secondary
storage medium.

1.8 Arithmetic Logic Unit

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where actual
execution of instructions takes place during processing operation. To be more
precise, calculations are performed and all comparisons are made in the ALU. Data
and instructions stored in primary storage before processing are transferred as and
when needed to the ALU where processing takes place. Intermediate results
generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to primary storage until
needed later. Hence, data may move from primary storage to ALU and back again
to storage many times before processing is over.
The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can
perform is determined by the engineering design of its ALU. However, almost all
ALUs are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations and logical
operations or comparisons such as less than, equal to and greater than.

1.9 Central Processing Unit

Control unit (CU) and Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system are
together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of a
computer system. In a human body the brain takes all major decisions and other
parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly in a computer system,
all major calculations and comparisons take place inside the CPU and the CPU is
responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of the
computer system.

1.10 Output Units

Output devices are varied and as innovative as input devices. From traditional
printed output to audio output and robots, there is a multitude of forms of
computer output.
Most output can be divided into two categories:
(i) Soft copy
(ii) Hard copy
Soft copy is ideal when you are writing a document, playing a game, watching a
video clip or reading the latest news. Soft copy is what you see on the monitor, it is
temporary, after you have finished with it, there is nothing solid to hold. You can,
however, transfer soft copy to a disk to transport it.
Hard copy on the other hand, can be touched and carried. It is usually some form of
paper output. It is especially helpful if you need to have a colleague look at your
work or you need to give your work to a supervisor or a teacher.
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An output device is an electro-mechanical device that accepts data from a

computer and translates them into a form suitable for use by outside world. Several
output devices are available today. They can be broadly classified into following
categories:
(i) Monitors
(ii) Printers
(iii) Plotters
(iv) Screen image projector
(v) Voice response system.

1.10.1 Monitors
When you think about viewing computer output, you probably visualize a
monitor. Monitor output is a soft copy, when you have finished viewing it, you
cannot move it. Monitor display is the most common form of soft copy.
Sometimes when watching television, you may notice that the picture looks a little
snowy. This condition occurs because the images are not solid but rather created by
configurations of dots. These dots or picture elements, combine to form the image
you see. The more are the picture elements, also known as pixels, the better is the
resolution of the image. The better the resolution the clearer is the picture.
Computer monitors are similar to television screens.
The large monitors that you see connected to desktop computers are
Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT) monitors. Monitors that are used on laptops and
notebook computers are known as flat-panel displays. Flat-panel displays weight
less and consume less electricity than CRTs. Common type of flat-panel displays
include Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs). Electro Luminescent (EL) displays and
Gas Plasma (GP) displays. Flat-panel display monitors are still more expensive
than CRTs, but eventually their prices are expected to decrease. Can you imagine
monitor hanging on the wall like a painting? It may be common in a few years.
Most new monitors are SVGA (Super Video Graphics Adapters), with a pixel
configuration of 800 by 600 at low resolution mode and 1024 by 768 at high
resolution mode. The first number designates the horizontal pixel, count and the
second is the vertical pixel count. The higher resolution, with more pixels, provides
a cleaner more detailed image. Each pixel displays a single colour at a time. Each
colour is represented by a numeric code. If the monitor displays only 16 colours,
the numeric code can be represented with only 4 bits. To display 256 colours
requires eight bits.
One monitor may look "sharper" than another, even though they may have the
same pixel configuration. This is due to the dot pitch, which is the distance
between pixels. A 28 dot pitch gives a crisper image than a 30 dot pitch. The 28 dot
pitch is fairly standard. You should consider dot pitch when purchasing a monitor.
The dot pitch is built in by the manufacturer and cannot be changed.
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With user increasingly viewing video clips, animated objects and complex
graphics, monitors have taken on a new importance. Users now must decide how
large a monitor they need. Fourteen inch to seventeen inch monitors are
commonly used with desktop micro-computer systems. Larger monitors are
available, but are expensive.
Monitors are of two types:
1. Black and White
2. Colour
Monochrome monitors are rapidly becoming a thing of the past, as most
applications today require colour. In fact, a display of 256 colour is usually
necessary for working with information CD-ROMs and clip-art collections.
In order to connect a monitor to a micro computer, you must have a graphics adapter
board. Each types of monitor requires a different type of board. The graphics board
plugs into an expansion slot inside the computer and the monitor plugs into the
board.
In order to run today's graphics intensive programs properly and quickly most
graphic boards come with some memory capability, known as vide memory. It is
important to realize that video RAM (VRAM) must meet higher performance
specifications than regular RAM. It is recommended that instead of using RAM on
a video card the user should place VRAM or dynamic RAM (DRAM), which is
slightly slower than VRAM on a video card.
The refresh rate of a monitor is also important and is affected by the video card.
Even a steady image is constantly regenerated or refresh from top to bottom. A
slow refresh rate of 60 times per seconds (60 Hz) can cause headache, 70 Hz is a
reasonable minimum. Some monitors known as interlaced monitors, refresh every
other line, non-interlaced monitors are easier on the eyes. The Motion Picture
Expert Groups (MPEG) has developed standards for video compression that
improve the quality of the video on the monitor. MPEG drivers are available as
software or as hardware.
Monitors are the most popular output devices used today for producing soft-copy
output. They display the generated output on a television like screen. A monitor is
associated usually with a keyboard and together they form a video display terminal
(VDT). A VDT is the most popular Input/Output device used with today's
computers. It serves as both an input and output device. The keyboard is used for
input to a computer and the monitor is used to display the output from the
computer. The name "terminal" comes from the fact that a terminal is at the
terminus or end of a communication path.
Two basic types of monitors used today are
(i) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
(ii) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
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CRT monitors work much like a television screen and are used with non-portable
computer systems. On the other hand, LCD flat-panel monitors are thinner,
lighter and are used commonly with portable computer system like notebook
computers with gradual reduction in price of LCD flat-panel monitors, they are
used increasingly with non-portable desktop computer system also. They are also
preferred because they occupy less table space.

1.10.2 Printers
The second most common form of computer output is the printed document.
Although a computer can operate perfectly well without a printer, it is certainly
helpful for the user to have one. Because you can hold printed output it is
considered a form of hard copy.
Printers can be categorized by whether anything mechanical touches the paper
whether they do or do not produce a solid character or how many pages or a line, or
a character they produce at a time.
When a part of the printer passes the paper to form the character the printer is
considered an impact printer. Impact printers can produce carbon copies and are
fairly loud although covers are available to muffle the noise. In contrast,
non-impact printers are quiet. However because nothing presses on the page, a
non-impact printer can not produce carbon copy. This fact is usually not a problem
because it is easy to produce multiple-originals, but sometimes carbons are
required for legal purpose.
Printers are most popular output devices used today for producing hard copy
output. Different types of printers are described below.
Dot-Matrix Printers
Dot matrix printers are character printers that print one character at a time. They
form characters and all kinds of images as patterns of dots. A dot-matrix printer has
a print head that moves horizontally across the paper. Print head contains an array
of pins that can be activated independent of each other to extend and strike against
an inked ribbon to form patterns of dots on the paper. To print a character, the
printer activates the appropriate set of pins as the print head moves horizontally.
For faster printing many dot matrix printers print both ways– while the print head
moves from left to right and while it moves from right to left on return. Such
method is called a bidirectional printing.
Since dot-matrix printers produce printed output as patterns of dots, they can
print any shape of character that a program can describe. They, therefore, can print
many special characters in different sizes and also have the ability to print graphics
such as charts and graphs.
Dot-matrix printers are impact printers because they print by hammering the pins
on the inked ribbon to leave ink impressions on a paper. Hence, they can be used to
produce multiple copies by using carbon paper or its equivalent. Due to impact
printing dot-matrix printers are noisy as compared to non-impact printers.
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Dot-matrix printers are normally slow with printing speeds ranging from 30 to 600
characters per second. However, they are cheap in terms of both initial cost and
cost of operation. Hence, they are preferred by individuals and organizations for
generating printed outputs if the speed and quality of printing are not important
factors. They are also used for applications requiring multi-copy output such as
shipping forms and invoices that rely on impact printing for generating multiple
copies.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are character printers that form characters and all kinds of images
by spraying small drops of ink on a paper. The print head of an inkjet printer
contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be heated up selectively in a few
microseconds by an integrated circuit resistor. When the resistor heats up the ink
near it vaporizes and is ejected through the nozzle making a dot on the paper
placed in front of the print head. To print a character the printer selectively heats
the appropriate set of nozzles as the print head moves horizontally.
Inkjet printers produce higher quality output than dot-matrix printers do because
they form characters by very tiny ink dots. A high-resolution inkjet printers has as
many as 64 nozzles within a height of 7mm providing print resolution of around
360 dots per inch.
Since inkjet printers produce printed output as patterns of tiny dots, they can print
any shape of characters that a program can describe. This allows the printer to print
many special characters in different sizes and the ability to print graphics such as
charts and graphs.
Inkjet printers are non-impact printers because they print by spraying ink on the
paper. Hence, they are quieter in operation. Being of non-impact type they can not
be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
A colour inkjet printer usually comes with two ink cartridges: black and tri-colour.
The tri-colour cartridge contains red, blue and yellow colours in a package that can
mix appropriate amount of these colours with black front the other cartridge to get
any desired colour with saturation. This makes it possible to get multicoloured and
photo-quality output from inkjet printers.
Inkjet printers are slower than dot-matrix printers are with printing speeds ranging
from 40 to 300 characters per second. Typically, an inkjet printer is more
expensive than a dot-matrix printer. They are preferred if speed of printing is not
an important factor.
Drum Printers
Drum printers are line printers that print an entire line at a time. Recall that dot
matrix and inkjet printers print one character at a time. It consists of a solid
cylindrical drum with characters embossed on its surface in the form of circular
bands. Each band consists of all the printing characters supported by the printer in
its character set. Total number of bands is equal to the maximum number of
characters that can be printed on a line. Hence, a drum printer with 132 characters
pen line and supporting a character set of 96 characters will have altogether 12,
672 (132 × 96) characters embossed on its surface.
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In addition to the drum, the printers has a set of hammers mounted in front of the
drum in a manner that an inkjet ribbon and paper can be placed between the
hammers and the drum. The total number of hammers is equal to the total number
of bands on the drum, which is also equal to the total print positions per line.
The drum rotates at a high speed. A character is printed at a desired print position
by activating the appropriate hammer when the character embossed on the band at
the print position passes below it. Hence, the drum would have to complete one
full revolution to print each line of output. This means that not all characters on a
line are printed at exactly the same time, but the time required to print an entire
line is so that it appears as if one line is printed at a time.
The drum of a drum printer is expensive and cannot be changed often. Hence,
drum printers can print a predefined set of characters only in a predefined style
embossed on the drum. Drum printers, therefore, do not have the ability to print
any shape of characters, different sizes of print and graphics such as charts and
graphs.
Drum printers are impact printers because they print by hammering on a paper
and inked ribbon against the characters embossed on the drum. Hence, they can be
used to produce multiple copies by using carbon paper or its equivalent. Due to
impact printing, drum printers are noisy in operation and often use a cover to
reduce the noise level.
Printing speeds of drum printers are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Chain/Band Printers
Chain/Band printers are line printers that print one line at a time. It consists of a
metallic chain/band on which all characters of the character set supported by the
printer are embossed. A standard character set may have 48, 64 or 96 characters. In
order to enhance printing speed, the characters in the character set are embossed
several times on the chain/band. For example, the chain/band of a 64 character set
printer may have four sets of 64 characters each embossed on it. In this case, the
chain/band will have altogether 256 (64 × 4) character embossed on it.
The printer has a set of hammers mounted in front of the chain/band in a manner
that an inked ribbon and paper can be placed between the hammers and chain/band.
The total number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.
Therefore, a printer supporting 132 print position will have 132 hammers.
The chain/band rotates at a high speed. A character is printed at a desired print
position by activating the appropriate hammer when the character embossed on
the chain/band passes below it. Since the character set is repeated several times on
the chain/band, it is not necessary to wait for the chain/band to make a complete
revolution to position the desired character in the correct print position.
Unlike the drum of a drum printer, the chain/band of a chain/band printer can be
changed easily. This allows use of different fonts and different scripts to be used
 C-33

with the same printer. Like drum printers, chain/band printers, therefore, do not
have the ability to print any shape of characters, different sizes of print and
graphics such as charts and graphs.
Chain/band printers are impact printers because they print by hammering on a
paper and inked ribbon against the characters embossed on the chain/band.
Hence, they can be used to produce multiple copies by using carbon paper or its
equivalent. Due to impact printing, chain/band printers are noisy in operation and
often use a cover to reduce the noise level. Printing speeds of chain/band printers
are in the range of 400 to 3000 lines per minute.
Laser Printers
Laser printers are page printers that print one page at a time. Main components of a
laser printer are a laser beam source a multi-sided mirror a photoconductive drum
and toner. To print a page of output the laser beam is focused on the electro
statically charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror. The mirror focuses the
laser beam on the surface of the drum in a manner to create the patterns of
characters/images to be printed on the page. Since the drum is photoconductive, a
difference in electric charge is created on those parts of the drum surface that are
exposed to the laser beam. As a result, the toner composed of oppositely charged
ink particles, sticks to the drum in the places where the laser beam has charged the
drum's surface. The toner is then fused permanently on the paper with heat and
pressure to generate the printed output. The drum is then rotated and cleaned with
a rubber blade to remove the toner sticking to its surface to prepare the drum for
next page printing.
Laser printers produce very high quality output because they form characters by
very tiny ink particles. The most common laser printers have resolution of 600 dpi
(dots per inch), whereas some high end laser printers have resolution of 1200 dpi.
Due to their high resolution, these printers give excellent graphics art quality.
Since laser printers produce printed output as patterns generated by the laser beam
they can print any shape of characters that a program can describe. They,
therefore, can print many special characters, different sizes of print and also have
the ability to print graphics such as charts and graphs.
Laser printers are non-impact printers. Hence, they are very quiet in operation.
Being of non-impact type, they cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a
document in a single printing.
Mostly laser printers can print in black colour only because they also have a single
toner-drum arrangement but colour laser printers are available at affordable price.
A colour laser printer like colour inkjet printer contains four colour toners each
with a drum of its own. The usage of drums and toners are same as earlier but each
drum is charged in such a way that together they produce the desired colour
output.
Laser printers are faster in printing speed than other printers. Low speed laser
printers can print 4 to 12 pages per minute. High speed laser printers are also
 C-34

available in the market. Owning to their better print quality and printing speed,
laser printers are more expensive than other types of printers.

1.10.3 Plotters
We learnt earlier that dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers are capable of producing
graphics output. However, many engineering design applications like architectural
plan of a building, design of mechanical components of an aircraft or a car etc.
often require high quality, perfectly-proportioned graphic output on large sheets.
The various types of printers discussed above are not suitable for meeting this
output requirement of such applications. A special type of output device called
plotters, is used for this purpose. Plotters are an ideal output device for architects,
engineers, city planners and others who need to routinely generate high-precision,
hard-copy, graphic output of widely varying sizes. Two commonly used types of
plotters are drum plotters and flatbed plotter. They are described below:
Drum Plotters
In a drum plotter, the paper on which the design is to be made is placed over a drum
that can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to produce vertical
motion. The mechanism also consists of one or more pen holders mounted
perpendicular to the drum's surface. The pen(s) clamped in the holders(s) can
move left to right or right to left to produce horizontal motion. A graph-plotting
program controls the movements of the drum and pen(s). That is, under computer
control the drum and pen(s) move simultaneously to draw designs and graphs on
the sheet placed on the drum. The plotter can also annotate the designs and graphs
so drawn by using the pen to draw characters of various sizes. Since each pen is
program selectable, pens having ink of different colours can be mounted in
different holders to produce multi-coloured designs.
Flatbed Plotter
A flatbed plotter plot a design or graph on a sheet of paper spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table. In this type of plotter, normally the paper does not move
the pen holding mechanism provides all types of motions necessary to draw
complex designs and graphs. That is, under computer control the pen(s) move in
the required manner to draw designs and graphs on the sheet placed on the flatbed
table. The plotter can also annotate the designs and graphs so drawn by using the
pen to draw characters of various sizes. Provision is also there to mount more than
one pen in the pen(s) holding mechanism. Since each pen is program selectable,
pens having ink of different colours can be mounted in different holders to produce
multi-coloured designs. The plot size is restricted by the area of the bed. Some may
be as small as A4 size while some very large beds used in the design of cars, ships, air
crafts, buildings, highways etc. can be up to 20 ft. by 50 ft. Some plotters can also
plot on plastic or metal plates. In this case, the plastic or metal sheet is spread on
the bed and the drawing pen has a sharp edged needle.
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1.10.4 Screen Image Projector

Screen image projector is an output device used to project information from a
computer on a large screen so that a group of people can view it simultaneously. It is
very useful for making presentations to a group of people with direct use of a
computer.
Before such an output device was available the contents of a presentation were
prepared using a computer. The presentation material was then printed on a
printer and the printout was next reproduce on overhead projector transparency
sheets by using a copier machine. Finally, the presentation was made by using an
overhead projector. Special marker pens had to be used for marking certain
portions of the contents on the transparency sheets during the presentation.
A screen image projector simplifies this job. It can be plugged to a computer system
directly and a presenter can make a presentation to a group of people by projecting
the presentation material one after another on a large screen with the help of
computer's keyboard, or mouse. With this facility, the presenter can also directly
point to mark or edit certain portions of the contents of the displayed material
during the presentation to make the presentation more understandable.
Additionally, a full-fledged multimedia presentation with audio, video, image and
animation can be prepared and made by using this facility to make the
presentation move lively and interesting.
Screen image projectors have become common presentation equipment today.
They are used commonly with portable notebook computers to setup a modern
presentation facility quickly at any place with great ease. Like monitors, screen
image projectors provide a temporary, soft-copy output.

1.10.5 Voice Response Systems

Just as a speech recognition system allows a user to talk to a computer a voice
response system enables a computer to talk to a user. A voice response system has
an audio-response device that produces audio output. Obviously, the output is
temporary, soft-copy output. Voice response systems are of two types
(i) Voice Reproduction System
(ii) Speech Synthesizer.
Voice Reproduction System
A voice reproduction system produces audio output by selecting an appropriate
audio output from a set of prerecorded audio responses. The set of prerecorded
audio responses may include words, phrases or sentences spoken by human beings
music or alarms generated by musical instruments or any other type of sound. The
actual analog recordings of the prerecorded sounds are converted into digital data
first and then stored on a computer's disk or in its memory chip permanently.
When audio output is to be produced the computer selects the appropriate sound
from the set of prerecorded sounds. The selected sound is converted back into
analog form and then routed to a speaker to produce the audio output.
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Voice reproduction systems are very useful in a wide range of applications. Their
uses include:
(1) Audio help for guiding how to operate a system. For example, banking, industry
uses voice reproduction systems in automatic teller machines to provide
systematic guidance to customers on how to transfer with the bank by using an
ATM.
(2) Automatic answering machines.
(3) Video games are made exciting and interesting by playing an event-based sound
from a set of prerecorded sounds.
(4) Talking alarm clocks.
(5) Talking toys and home appliances also use a voice reproduction system.
(6) Often personal computers with audio facility are used for automated
multimedia presentations during exhibitions.
Speech Synthesizer
A speech synthesizer converts next information into spoken sentences. To produce
speech, these devices combine basic sound units called phonemes. From a given
text information sequence of words are combined into phonemes, amplified and
output through a speaker attached to the system. Speech synthesizers are still in
their infancy because they can produce only limited unique sounds with only
limited vocal inflections and phrasing. Hence, they are very useful in a wide range
of applications. Their uses include:
(1) For reading our text information to blind person.
(2) For allowing those persons who cannot speak to communicate effectively.
(3) For translation systems that convert an entered text into spoken words in a
selected language.

1.11 Control Unit

How does an input device know that it is time for it to feed data to storage unit?
How does the ALU know what should be done with the data once they are
received? Moreover, how it is that only results for output are sent to an output
device and not the intermediate results? All this is possible due to the control unit
of the computer system. Although, it does not perform any actual processing on
data the control unit acts as a central nervous system for other components of a
computer system. It manages and co-ordinates the entire computer system. It
obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the
instructions and issues signals causing other units of the system to execute them.
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1.12 Storage Devices

A computer can perform tasks with the help of input, output, processing, memory
etc. But it is really very useful, it needs some place to keep program files and related
data when we are not using them. The purpose of storage is to hold data. The storage
device is like the file cabinet and RAM as an electronic work-table. When one needs
to work with a program a set of data, the computer locates it in the file cabinet and
puts a copy on the table. After you have finished working with the program or data,
you put it back in the file cabinet. There is a distinction between storage and memory
even though their functions are similar, but they work in different ways like:
(1) There is more room in storage than in memory.
(2) Contents get wiped off in main memory when power turns off but remains
stored in storing drive.
The most common storing medium is the magnetic disk which is round flat object
that spins around its centre. Read/write heads, which are similar to the heads of a
tape recorder or VCR are used to read data from the disk or write data on to the
disk. Depending upon the type of disk.
(1) ROM
(2) RAM
(3) R / W Memory
Just above the disks surface we can actually touch or see the disk it is not imaginary.
The device which holds a disk is called a disk drive. Mostly the personal computers
have at least one non-removable hard disk. There are two main categories of
storage technology and they are
(1) Magnetic storage
(2) Optical storage.
The primary types of magnetic storage are as follows:
(1) Diskette
(2) Hard disk
(3) High capacity floppy disks
(4) Disk cartridges
(5) Magnetic tape.
The primary types of optical storage are as follows:
(1) Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM)
(2) Digital video disk read only memory (DVD-ROM)
(3) CD-Recordable (CD-R)
(4) CD-Re-writeable (CD-R/W)
(5) Photo CD
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1.13 Memory and Its Types

Memory is also known as primary memory or Main memory is a part of micro
computer that holds data processing, instructions for processing the data and
information. Part of the contents of the memory is held only temporarily, that is, it
is stored only as long as the micro computer is turned on. When the machine is
turned off all the contents are lost. The capacity of the memory to hold data and
program instructions varies in different computers. The original IBM PC could
hold an approximate 6,40,000 characters of data or instructions only. But modern
computers can hold millions and even billions of characters in their memory.
The type of memory discussed above is commonly known as RAM, ROM, PROM
and EPROM.

1.13.1 Read Only Memory (ROM)

In Read Only Memory information is permanently stored. The information from
the memory can only be read and it is not possible to write fresh information into it.
That's why it is called ROM. When the power is switched off, the information
stored inside the ROM is not lost as it is in the case of RAM chip. Such memories
are also known as file stores, permanent stores or dead stores.
A special type of Hard disk is called the ROM (Read-only-memory), it is a
non-volatile memory chip in which data is stored permanently and cannot be
altered by usual programs. In fact, storing data permanently into this kind of
memory is called "burning in the data" because data in such memory is stored by
using fuse-links. Once a fuse-link is burnt, it is permanent. Data stored in a ROM
chip can only be read and used–they cannot be changed. This is the reason why it is
called read-only- memory. Since ROM chips are non-volatile, data stored in a
ROM are not lost when power is switched off or interrupted unlike in the case of a
volatile RAM chip. ROMs are also known as field stores, permanent stores or dead
stores.
ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data that do not change and are
frequently used. Most basic computer operations are carried out by wired
electronic circuits. However, several higher-level and frequently used operations
require very complicated electronic circuits for their implementation. Hence,
instead of building electronic circuits for these operations, special programs are
written to perform them. These programs are called micro-programs because they
deal with low-level machine functions and are essentially substitutes for additional
hardware. ROMs are used by computer manufacturers to store these
micro-programs so that they cannot be modified by the users.
 C-39

A good example of a micro-program is the set of instructions needed to make a

computer system ready for use when it is powered on. The micro-program called
"system boot program", contains a set of start-up instructions to check if the system
hardware like memory, Input/output devices etc are functioning properly. It looks
for an operating system and loads its core part in the volatile RAM of the system to
produce the initial display-screen prompt. Note that this micro-program is used
every time the computer is switched on and needs to be retained when the
computer is switched off. Hence, ROM is an ideal storage for storing it.
PROM
PROM is a variation of ROM. ROM chips are supplied by the computer system
manufacture and it is not possible for a customer to modify the programs stored
inside the ROM chip. However, it is possible for the user to customize a system by
converting his own programs to micro-programs and storing them in a PROM
chip, they can usually be executed in a fraction of the time previously require.
PROMs are programmed to record information using a special facility known as a
prom- programmer. However, once the chip has been programmed and the
recorded information cannot be changed, i.e., the PROM becomes ROM and it is
only possible to read the stored information. PROM is also non-volatile.
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. There are two types of
read only memory (ROM)–manufacturer-programmed and user programmed. A
manufacturer- programmed ROM is one in which data is burnt in by the
manufacturer of the electronic equipment in which it is used. For example, a
personal computer manufacturer may store the system boot program permanently
in a ROM chip located on the motherboard of each PC manufactured by it.
Similarly, a printer manufacturer may store the printer controller software in a
ROM chip located on the circuit board of each printer manufactured by it.
Manufacturer- programmed ROMs are used mainly in those cases where the
demand for such programmed ROMs is large. Note that manufacturer- programed
ROM chips are supplied by the manufactures of electronic equipment and it is not
possible for a user to modify the programs or data stored in a ROM chip. On the
other hand, a user programmed ROM is one in which a user can load and store
"read only" programs and data. That is, it is possible for a user to "customize" a
system by converting his/her programs to micro-programs and storing them in a
user programmed ROM chip. Such a ROM is commonly known as Programmable
Read-Only Memory (PROM) because a user can program it. Once the user
programs are stored in a PROM chip then can be executed usually in a fraction of
the time previously required. PROMs are programmed to record information using
a special device known as PROM-programmer. However, once the chip has been
 C-40

programmed, the PROM becomes a ROM. That is, the information recorded in it
can only be read. PROM is also non-volatile storage, i.e., the stored information
remain intact–even if power is switched off or interrupted.
EPROM
In ROM chip or in a PROM chip the information stored cannot be changed.
However, we can outcome this difficulty by using EPROM which is Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory. In EPROM chip, we can erase the
information stored and chip can be reprogrammed to store new information using
a special PROM programmer facility. EPROM information is erased by exposing
the chip for some time to ultraviolet light. When an EPROM is in use, information
can only be read and the information remains on the chip until it is erased. EPROM
chips are of two types– one in which the stored information is erased by exposing
the chip for some time to ultraviolet light and the other one in which the stored
information is erased by using high voltage electric pulses. The former is known as
Ultra Violet EPROM and the later's known as Electrically-EPROM. It is easier to
alter information stored in an EEPROM chip as compared to an UV EPROM chip.
EEPROM is also known as flash memory because of the ease with which programs
stored in it can be altered. Flash memory is used in many new input/output and
storage devices like USB pen drive and MP3 music player.

1.13.2 Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. When people talk about computer
memory, they usually mean the volatile RAM memory. Physically, this memory
consists of some integrated circuits (IC) chips either on the motherboard or on a
small circuit board attached to the motherboard. A computer's motherboard is
designed in a manner that its memory capacity can be enhanced easily by adding
more memory chips. Hence, if you decide to have more memory than your
computer currently has, you can buy more memory chips and plug them in the
empty memory slots on the motherboard. Service engineers normally do this job.
The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets on the motherboard,
are known as single -in-line-memory modules (SLMMs)

Comprehensive Exercise

1. What is computer? Write the types of computer.

2. What do you mean by memory?
3. What is the difference between Software and Hardware?
4. What is super computer and mainframe computer?
5. What is the main function of computer?
6. Write definition of software and hardware?
 C-41

7. What do you mean by input device?

8. What do you mean by output device?
9. Write about two input devices?
10. Write about two output devices?
11. Describe RAM and ROM in detail.
12. How does mouse work.

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. Computers are related to ___, data and people.
(a) money, software (b) hardware, money
(c) software, hardware (d) communication, hardware
2. Keyboard is an example of:
(a) output device (b) input device
(c) memory unit (d) I/O
3. The _____ computer is used in scientific application.
(a) mainframe (b) mini
(c) super (d) desktop
4. ROM stands for:
(a) Read open memory (b) Random only memory
(c) Read online memory (d) Read only memory
5. Hard disk is the example of:
(a) electrical (b) magnetic
(c) optical (d) paper
6. The major components of a computer are:
(a) memory (b) CPU
(c) I/O devices (d) all of the above
7. Which is the component that allows the computer to permanently retain large
amounts of data?
(a) CPU (b) memory
(c) mass storage device (d) none of the above
8. Which of the following does not describe one or more characteristics of a
computer?
(a) electronic (b) external storage
(c) stored program (d) program modification at execution
 C-42

9. The CPU (central processing unit) consist of:

(a) input, output and processing
(b) control unit, primary storage secondary storage
(c) control unit, arithmetic logic unit and primary storage
(d) input, processing and storage
10. All of the following are examples of input devices except:
(a) COM (computer output micro film)
(b) CRT (cathode ray tube)
(c) optical scanners
(d) voice-recognition devices
11. Which of the following is not true of primary storage?
(a) it is a part of the CPU (b) it allows very fast access of data
(c) it is relatively more expensive (d) all of the above are true
12. The most common input device used today is the:
(a) motherboard (b) central processing unit
(c) keyboard (d) system unit
13. Which of the following is the most powerful type of computer?
(a) super computer (b) super micro
(c) super conductor (d) micro computer
14. Which of the following term is related to a monitor?
(a) video display (b) screen
(c) monochrome monitor (d) RGB monitor
15. Advances in computer hardware and software are generally classified into
generations. We are currently in which generation:
(a) second (b) third
(c) fourth (d) fifth
16. The first machine to successfully perform a long series of arithmetic and logical
operations was:
(a) ENIAC (b) Mark-I
(c) Analytic Origin (d) UNIVAC-I
17. Which of the following was not used in first generation computers?
(a) vacuum tube (b) cards
(c) magnetic core (d) punched paper tape
18. Which of the following is true of the ENIAC?
(a) it was developed by Charles Babbage
(b) it was the first stored-program electronic digital computer
 C-43

(c) it was an electro-mechanical computer

(d) it used vacuum tubes in places of electromagnetic relays

19. In the third generation of computers:

(a) high level procedural languages were first used
(b) an operating system was first developed
(c) distributed data processing first became popular
(d) on line, real time systems first became popular

20. Which of the following is true of the digital computer?

(a) it represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digit
(b) it is used primarily in scientific application
(c) it is less accurate than the analog computer
(d) all of the above

21. Which of the following is not true of primary storage?

(a) it represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits
(b) it stores operating system programs
(c) it stores data while they are being processed by the CPU
(d) it stores the bulk of data used by a computer application
22. Compared with secondary storage, primary storage is:
(a) slow and inexpensive (b) fast and inexpensive
(c) fast and expensive (d) slow and expensive

23. Which of the following is an example of non-volatile memory?

(a) ROM (b) RAM
(c) LSI (d) VLSI
24. What is the name of the cycle that describes the computer's processing of data?
(a) processing cycle (b) cyber-phobia cycle
(c) IPOS cycle (d) information cycle

25. What are the two essential parts of the computer?

(a) keyboard and mouse (b) hardware and software
(c) printer and screen (d) none of the above
26. The purpose of the computer is to process the data into:
(a) meaningful data (b) information
(c) arithmetic operations (d) formulas
 C-44

27. What is the other name for the personal computers?

(a) mainframes (b) super computers

(c) desktop computers (d) micro computers

28. Vacuum tube based electronic computers belong to:

(a) first generation (b) second generation

(c) third generation (d) none of the above

29. The ____ generation of computers was characterized by micro computers.

(a) first (b) second

(c) third (d) fourth

30. The second generation of computers was characterized by:

(a) magnetic cards (b) artificial intelligence

(c) transistors (d) transformers

31. Integrated circuits signified the beginning of the ____ generation of computers.

(a) first (b) second

(c) third (d) fourth

32. The acronym ENIAC stands for:

(a) electrical neon infuser and calculator

(b) electronic numerical integrator and computer

(c) eulogistic nuisance is a cart

(d) electronic number interpreter and calculator

33. The first counting tool was the:

(a) Abacus (b) slide rule

(c) ENIAC (d) none of the above
34. The difference between a calculator and a computer is that a computer can
store for long periods of time.
(a) True (b) False
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
35. 0, 1 computer takes signal as :
(a) input (b) output
(c) command (d) all of the above
 C-45

36. System software enables the computer to perform which of the following
functions?
(a) read (b) write
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
37. ……… is a programmable machine :
(a) Monitor (b) Keyboard
(c) CPU (d) Computer
38. Computer can execute prerecorded list of instructions called :
(a) input (b) signal
(c) program (d) none of these
39. ……… is the component of computer that executes the information :
(a) Monitor (b) CPU
(c) Plotters (d) all of the above
40. The name of the first digital computer is :
(a) ATLAS (b) NCR 395
(c) ENIAC (d) none of these
41. Computers are ……… machines.
(a) versatile (b) non-versatile
(c) programmable (d) both (a) and (c)
42. ……… introduced the first personal computer.
(a) IBM (b) NCR
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
43. You can write data into ……… and read data from the ……… .
(a) RAM, ROM (b) RAM, RAM
(c) ROM, RAM (d) ROM, ROM
44. ROM is ……… memory.
(a) temporary (b) permanent
(c) fixed (d) none of these
45. RAM is ……… memory.
(a) permanent (b) fixed
(c) temporary (d) both (a) and (b)
46. Machine languages are called ……… generation language.
(a) third (b) second
(c) first (d) fourth
47. ……… languages are machine dependent.
(a) machine (b) assembly
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
 C-46

48. ……… computer is also called a personal computer.

(a) Mainframe (b) Micro
(c) Super (d) Workstation
49. ……… computer is the largest of all the computers.
(a) Mainframe (b) Super
(c) Workstation (d) Micro
50. The ……… generation of computers was based on the integrated
circuits.
(a) first (b) third
(c) fourth (d) second

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d 5. (b)

6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (b)
26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a)
36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (c)
41. (d) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (c)
46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (b) 50. (b)

¨
 C-47

2
N umber S ystem and
C omputer A rithmatic

2.1 Number System

omputers are built using devices that can be at any time in one of the two
C states—‘on’ or ‘off’, which represent 0 and 1, respectively. It is not surprising,
therefore, that almost all of the present day computers are based on binary system
of representation which uses only two symbols 0 and 1.
The number system, that we are accustomed to use contains ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This is called the decimal, or base 10 number system. The
significance of these digits in a number depends upon the positions occupied by
these digits. For example, the number 596 represents the number five hundred
ninety six and can be written in the expanded form as
(5 × 100) + (9 × 10) + (6 × 1),
or (5 × 10 2 ) + (9 × 101 ) + (6 × 10 0 )
Thus the digits which appear in the various positions of a decimal (base 10)
number are coefficients of powers of 10 representing various positions.
 C-48

In a decimal number, representing a fraction, digits to the right of the decimal

point also represent coefficients of powers of 10, but the powers appearing on the
base 10 are negative integers. For example, the number 47.238 can be written in
the expanded form as
(4 × 10) + (7 × 1) + (2 × 1 / 10) + (3 × 1 / 100) + (8 × 1 / 1000)
or (4 × 101 ) + (7 × 10 0 ) + (2 × 10 −1 ) + (3 × 10 −2 ) + (8 × 10 −3 ).
In most programming languages, the numbers that contain decimal points are
known as real numbers or floating point numbers. The fractional part of such a
number is called the MANTISSA and the integer part is the EXPONENT. Thus
47.238 is a real number, 47 is its exponent and 238 its mantissa.
There are four types of number systems:
(i) Decimal number system
(ii) Binary number system
(iii) Octal number system
(iv) Hexadecimal number system.

2.2 Decimal Number System

Decimal Number System has base-10. The absolute value of each digit is fixed but
its positional value is determined by its position in the whole number:
Example: 3958

Number Symbol Position from Position Decimal

3 9 5 8 Value the right hand Value equivalent
8 0 10 0 8 × 10 0 = 8

5 1 101 5 × 101 = 50

9 2 10 2 9 × 10 2 = 900

3 3 10 3 3 × 10 3 = 3000

3958

2.3 Binary Number System

Binary Number System has base-2. It consists of 2 digits as 0 and 1.
Example: (110110110)2
 C-49

Number Symbol Position from Position Decimal

110110110 Value the right hand Value equivalent
0
0 0 2 0 × 20 = 0

1 1 21 1 × 21 = 2

2 2 22 1 × 22 = 4

3 3 23 0 × 23 = 0

4 4 24 1 × 24 = 16

5 5 25 1 × 25 = 32

6 6 26 0 × 26 = 0

7 7 27 1 × 27 = 128

8 8 28 1 × 28 = 256

(438)10

2.4 Binary Arithmetic

Addition and Subtraction :
The complete table for binary addition is as follows :
0 +0 = 0
0 +1= 1
1+ 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 plus a carry over 1.
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
5 101 13/4 11.01
6 110 23/4 101.11
11 1011 9 1001.00

Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. This is the binary sub-

traction table.
0 −0 = 0
1− 0 = 1
1− 1 = 0
0 − 1 = 1 with a borrow of 1.
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
16 1 0 0 0 0 25/4 110.01
–3 – 1 1 –9/4 –100.10
13 1101 7/4 1.11
 C-50

Binary Multiplication and Division :

The binary multiplication table is :
0 *0 = 0
1* 0 = 0
0 *1 = 0
1* 1 = 1
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
12 1 1 0 0 1.25 1.01
* 10 *1 0 1 0 * 2 .5 * 1 0.1
00 0 0 0 0 625 1 0 1
12 1 1 0 0 250 0 0 0
120 0 0 0 0 3.125 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1.0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
As in the decimal system, division by zero is meaningless. The complete
table is :
0/1 = 0
1/1 = 1
Decimal Binary
5 101
5 25 101 11001
101
101
101

2.5 Octal Number System

Octal number system has 8-symbols as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. It has base-8. These digits
have exactly same physical meaning as in decimal system, position value of
different digits is given by different powers of 8.
Example: 7651

Number Symbol Position Value Position Decimal

7 6 5 1 Value from the right hand Value equivalent

1 0 80 1 × 80 = 1

5 1 81 5 × 81 = 40

6 2 82 6 × 82 = 384

7 3 83 7 × 83 = 3584

(4009)10
 C-51

2.6 Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal number system has base 16 and it uses sixteen distinct digits 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and
A → 10
B → 11
C → 12
D → 13
E → 14
F → 15
Example: 9AC 2

Number Symbol Position from Position Decimal

9 A C 2 Value the right hand Value equivalent

2 0 160 2 × 160 = 2

C 1 161 C × 161 = 192

A 2 162 A × 162 = 2560

9 3 163 9 × 163 = 36864

(39618)10

2.7 Conversion of a Base-10 Decimal Number to it’s Base-b

Equivalent
In order to find the base-b equivalent of a base-10 whole number, the number is
divided repeatedly by b until a quotient of zero results. The successive remainders
are the digits from right to left of the base-b representation. On the other hand, to
convert a decimal number with a fractional part of its base-b equivalent, the
fractional part of the number is repeatedly multiplied till the fractional part
reduces to zero. The integer parts are the digits rom left to right of the base-b
representation. It may be noted that even though the base-10 representation of a
fraction may terminate, its representation in some other base need not terminate.
As for example, the binary representation of 0.7 does not terminate.
 C-52

2.8 Binary to Decimal Conversion

The weight of n th digit of the number from the right side = n th digit × (base) n − 1
If we have to convert n binary number to its decimal equivalent, we will take
following steps:
The weight of n th bit of the number from the right side
= n th bit × (2) n − 1
base = 2 (binary number system)
Method 1:
(a n . . . . . . . . a 5 a 4 a 3 a 2 a1)2
= a n × 2n −1 + . . . . . + a 5 × 24 + a 4 × 23 + a 3 × 22 + a 2 × 21 + a1 × 20
Method 2:
(a n a n −1. . . . . . . . . . . . a 5 a 4 a 3 a 2 a1 a 0 a −1 a − 2 a − 3. . . . . . . )2
= a n × 2n −1 + a n −1 × 2n −2 + . . .+ a 5 × 24 + a 4 × 23 + a 3 × 22 + a 2 × 21

+ a1 × 20 + a 0 × 2−1 + a −1 × 2− 2 + a − 2 × 2− 3 + a − 3 × 2− 4 + . . . . .

Method 3:

2n − 1 ..... 25 24 23 22 21 20
2n − 1 ..... 32 16 8 4 2 1
Example 1: Convert the binary number (1100010110)2 to its equivalent decimal
number.
Solution:
Method 1: (1100010110)2
= 1 × 29 + 1 × 28 + 0 × 27 + 0 × 26 + 0 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22

+ 1 × 21 + 0 × 20

= 1 × 512 + 1 × 216 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 × 16 + 0 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 2 + 0
= 512 + 256 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0
= (790 )10
Method 2:

29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
= 512 + 256 + 16 + 4 + 2
= (790 )10
 C-53

Example 2: Find the decimal number of (11010 .0110)2

Solution:
(11010 .0110 )2
= 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 + 0 × 2 −1 + 1 × 2 −2

+ 1 × 2 −3 + 0 × 2 −4
1 1
= 1 × 16 + 1 × 8 + 0 + 1 × 2 + 0 + 0 + + +0
4 8
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 0 .25 + 0 .125 + 0
= (26 .375)10
Example 3: Convert the binary number (110101110)2 to its decimal equivalent.
Solution:
Method 1: (110101110)2
= 1 × 28 + 1 × 27 + 0 × 26 + 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23

+ 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20

= 1 × 256 + 1 × 128 + 0 + 1 × 32 + 0 + 1 × 8 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 2 + 0
= 256 + 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 0
= (430 )10
Method 2:

28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
= 256 + 128 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2
= (430 )10
Example 4: Convert the fractional binary number (110101101
. )2 to its equivalent decimal
number.
Solution: Method 1: For real part
(1101)2
= 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20

= 1× 8 + 1× 4 + 0 + 1× 1
= 8 + 4 + 0 +1
= (13)10
For fractional part
(0 .01101)2
= 0 × 2 −1 + 1 × 2 −2 + 1 × 2 −3 + 0 × 2 −4 + 1 × 2 −5
 C-54

1 1 1
=0 + + +0 +
4 8 32
= 0 + 0 .25 + 0 .125 + 0 + 0 .03125
= (0 .40625)10
Decimal number is = (13 .40625)10
Method 2:
(1101.01101)2
= 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 0 × 2 −1 + 1 × 2 −2 + 1 × 2 −3

+ 0 × 2 −4 + 1 × 2 −5
1 1 1
= 1× 8 + 1× 4 + 0 + 1× 1+ 0 + + +0 +
4 8 32
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 .25 + 0 .125 + 0 + 0 .03125
= (13 .40625)10

2.9 Decimal to Binary Conversion

In a decimal number the1st position from the right side is for 1s, 2nd for 10s, 3rd for
100s, 4th for 1000 and so on. Similarly, in a binary number the 1st position from
right hand side is for 1, 2nd for 2, 3rd for 4, 4th for 8, 5th for 16, 6th for 32 and so
on. This fact is utilized for the conversion of a decimal number to its binary
equivalent. A method is to be developed to determine which multiples of 2 are
present in a given decimal number.
To convert the decimal number to binary number, the decimal number is divided
by 2 successively. The quotient and remainder are noted down at each stage till the
quotient becomes zero. The binary number equivalent to the decimal number is
given by the following expressions.
Example 5: Convert the decimal number (45)10 to its binary number.
Solution: Method 1:
(45)10

25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
= (101101)2
 C-55

Method 2:

2 45
2 22 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1 MSB
(Most Significant Bit)
= (101101)2
Example 6: Convert the decimal number (60 .40) to binary number.
Solution: Method 1:

2 60 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

2 30 0
2 15 0
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (111100 )2
Method 2:
25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 0 0

= (111100 )2
For fraction part

0 .40 × 2 = 0 .80 0 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

0 .80 × 2 = 0 .60 1

0 .60 × 2 = 0 .20 1

0 .20 × 2 = 0 .40 0

0 .40 × 2 = 0 .80 0

----------------------------- LSB (Least Significant Bit)

 C-56

-----------------------------

-----------------------------

= (111100 .01100 .......)2

Example 7: Convert decimal number (17)10 to its equivalent binary number?
Solution:
Method 1: (17)10

24 23 22 21 20
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 1
= (10001)2
Method 2:

2 17 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

2 8 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (10001)2
Example 8: Convert decimal number (89)10 to its equivalent binary number.
Solution: Method 1:

2 89
2 44 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
2 22 0
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (1011001)2
 C-57

Method 2:

26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
= (1011001)2
Example 9: Convert the decimal number (0 .8125)10 into its equivalent fractional binary
number.
Solution:

Fractional Operation Product Fractional Integer part

number Part of product of product

0 .8125 ×2 1.6250 0 .6250 1

0 .6250 ×2 1.2500 0 .2500 1
0 .2500 ×2 0 .5000 0 .5000 0
0 .5000 ×2 1.0000 0 .0000 1

= (0 .1101)2 = Binary number

Example 10: Convert decimal number (16 .725)10 into its equivalent fractional binary
number.
Solution: Method 1:
= (16 .725)10

For real part

2 16 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (10000 )2
Method 2:

24 23 22 21 20
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0

= (10000 )10
 C-58

For fractional part

Fractional Operation Product Fractional Integer part

number part of product of product

0 .725 ×2 1.450 0 .450 1

0 .450 ×2 0 .900 0 .900 0

0 .900 ×2 1.800 0 .800 1

0 .800 ×2 1.600 0 .600 1

0 .600 ×2 1.200 0 .200 1

0 .200 ×2 0 .400 0 .400 0

0 .400 ×2 0 .800 0 .800 0

0 .800 ×2 1.600 0 .600 1

-------------------------------------

-------------------------------------

Binary Number is = (10000 .10111001......)2

Example 11: Convert the decimal number (41)10 to its binary equivalent.
Solution: Method 1:

2 41 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

2 20 1
2 10 0
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (101001)2
Method 2:

25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 0 1

Binary Number is → (101001)2

 C-59

Example 12: Convert the decimal number (73)10 to its equivalent binary number.
Solution:
Method 1: (73)10

2 73
2 36 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
2 18 0
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (1001001)2
Method 2:

26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1

= (1001001)2
Example 13: Convert decimal number (153)10 to binary number:
Solution:
Method 1:
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
Binary Number is → (10011001)2
Method 2:
2 153
2 76 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
2 38 0
2 19 0
2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
 C-60

= (10011001)2

2.10 Binary to Octal Conversion

The octal number system has a base = 8.
8 → 23 for binary to octal conversions.
Groups of three binary bits are formed in the binary number. After forming the
groups, each group of three binary bits is converted to its octal equivalent
23 = 22 21 20

4 2 1 These are three binary bits.

Example 14: Convert (10010110)2 into octal number.
Solution: (10010110)2

2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

2 2 6
= (226)8
Example 15: Convert the binary number
(1101010110110110
. )2 into octal number.
Solution: (1101010110110110
. )2

4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 ⋅ 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

6 5 3 3 3 0

= (653 .330 )8
Example 16: Convert binary number (110101110)2 into its octal number.
Solution: (110101110)2

4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0

6 5 6

= (656)8
Example 17: Convert binary number (100111010010111010
. )2 to its octal number.
Solution: (100111010010111010
. )2
 C-61

2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1⋅ 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

2 3 5 1 3 5 0

= (2351.350 )8

2.11 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Since the maximum value represented to 4 bit is equal to
24 − 1 = 16 − 1 = 15
Thus, four binary digits can be converted in one hexadecimal digit.
24 = 16

23 22 21 20

8 4 2 1

These are four binary digits.

Example 18: Convert the binary number (1101100011)2 to the equivalent hexadecimal
number.
Solution: (1101100011)2

2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

3 6 3

= (363)16
Example 19: Convert the binary number (110110111110)2 into hexadecimal number.
Solution: (110110111110)2

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

D B E
= (D B E)16
Example 20: Convert the binary number (1101011101101110 .10100111)2 into
hexadecimal number.
Solution: (1101011101101110 .10100111)2
 C-62

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 • 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

D 7 6 E A 7
= (D 7 6 E . A 7)16

2.12 Octal to Decimal Conversion

A number expressed in base-8 can be converted to its decimal equivalent by
multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of base-8 and adding.
Example 21: Convert the octal number (176)8 to its decimal number.
Solution: (176)8
= 1 × 82 + 7 × 81 + 6 × 80
= 1 × 64 + 7 × 8 + 6 × 1
= 64 + 56 + 6
= (126)10
Example 22: Convert the octal number (167 .45)8 to its decimal number.
Solution: (167 .45)8
= 1 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 7 × 80 + 4 × 8 −1 + 5 × 8 −2
4 5
= 1 × 64 + 6 × 8 + 7 × 1 + +
8 64
= 64 + 48 + 7 + 0 .5 + 0 .078125
= (119 .57813)10
Example 23: Convert the octal number (162)8 to its equivalent decimal number.
Solution: (162)8
= 1 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 2 × 80

= 1 × 64 + 6 × 8 + 2 × 1
= 64 + 48 + 2
= (114)10
Example 24: Convert the octal number (177 .670)8 to its equivalent decimal number.
Solution: (177 .670)8
= 1 × 82 + 7 × 81 + 7 × 80 + 6 × 8 −1 + 7 × 8 −2 + 0 × 8 −3
6 7
= 1 × 64 + 7 × 8 + 7 × 1 + + +0
8 64
= 64 + 56 + 7 + 0 .75 + 0 .109375
= (127 .85938)10
 C-63

2.13 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

A number expressed in base-16 can be converted to its decimal equivalent by
multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of 16 and adding.
Example 25: Convert the Hexadecimal number (A 9 D 8)16 to its decimal number.
Solution: (A 9 D 8)16
= A × 163 + 9 × 162 + D × 161 + 8 × 160

= 10 × 4096 + 9 × 256 + 13 × 16 + 8 × 1
= 40960 + 2304 + 208 + 8
= (43480 )10
Example 26: Convert the hexadecimal number (9AC6.27A)16 to its equivalent decimal
number.
Solution: (9AC6.27A)16
= 9 × 163 + A × 162 + C × 161 + 6 × 160 + 2 × 16 −1 + 7 × 16 −2 + A × 16− 3
2 7 10
= 9 × 4096 + 10 × 256 + 12 × 16 + 6 × 1 + + +
16 256 4096
= 36864 + 2560 + 192 + 6 + 0 .175 + 0 .0273438 + 0 .0024414
= (39622 .205)10
Example 27: Convert the hexadecimal number (A 9 D)16 to its equivalent decimal number.
Solution: (A 9 D)16

= A × 162 + 9 × 161 + D × 160

= 10 × 256 + 9 × 16 + 13 × 1

= 2560 + 144 + 13 = (2717)10

Example 28: Convert the hexadecimal number (AC8.C9)16 to its equivalent decimal
number.
Solution: (AC8.C9)16

= A × 162 + C × 161 + 8 × 160 + C × 16−1 + 9 × 16− 2

12 9
= 10 × 256 + 12 × 16 + 8 × 1 + +
16 256
= 2560 + 192 + 8 + 0 .75 + 0 .0351563 = (2760 .7852)10

2.14 Decimal to Octal Conversion

The conversion from decimal to octal number to base-8 system is more convenient
if the number is separated into an integer part and a fractional part. The conversion
of each part is done separately.
 C-64

Example 29: Convert (196)10 to its equivalent octal number.

Solution: (196)10

8 196 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

8 24 4
8 3 0
0 3 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
= (304)8
Example 30: Convert (961)10 to its equivalent octal number.
Solution: (961)10

8 961
8 120 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
8 15 0
8 1 7
0 1 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (1701)8
Example 31: Convert (506 .61)10 to its octal number.
Solution:
8 506 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
8 63 2
8 7 7
0 7 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (772)8
for fractional part

0 .61 × 8 = 0 .88 4
0 .88 × 8 = 0 .04 7
0 .04 × 8 = 0 .32 0
0 .32 × 8 = 0 .56 2
0 .56 + 8 = 0 .48 4
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
= (772 .47024 .....)8
 C-65

Example 32: Convert the decimal number (27)10 to its equivalent octal number.
Solution: (27)10

8 27
8 3 3 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
0 3 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (33)8
Example 33: Convert the decimal number (17 .821)10 to its equivalent octal number.

Solution: (17 .821)10

8 17
8 2 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
0 2 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (21)8
For fractional part

Fractional Operation Product Fractional Integer part

number part of product of product

0 .821 ×8 6 .568 0 .568 6

0 .568 ×8 4 .544 0 .544 4

0 .544 ×8 4 .352 0 .352 4

0 .352 ×8 2 .816 0 .816 2

---------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------

Octal number = (216442

. .....)8

2.15 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

The conversion from decimal to hexadecimal base system is more convenient if the
number is separated into an integer part and a fraction part. The conversion of each
part is done separately.
 C-66

Example 34: Convert (961)10 to its hexadecimal number.

Solution: (961)10

16 961
16 60 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
16 3 C
0 3 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

= (3C1)16
Example 35: Convert (961.12)10 to its hexadecimal number.
Solution: For real part
16 961
16 60 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
16 3 C
0 3 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
= (3C1)16
For fractional part
0 .12 × 16 = 0 .92 1
0 .92 × 16 = 0 .72 E
0 .72 × 16 = 0 .52 B
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
-----------------------------
= (3C1.1EB ....)16
Example 36: Convert the decimal number (87)10 to its hexadecimal number.
Solution:
16 87
16 5 7 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
0 5 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
= (57)16
Example 37: Convert the decimal number (140)10 to its equivalent hexadecimal number.
Solution:
16 140
16 8 C LSB (Least Significant Bit)
0 8 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
= (8C)16
 C-67

Example 38: Convert the decimal number (97 .76)10 to its equivalent hexadecimal number.
Solution: For real part

16 97
16 6 1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
0 6 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
= (61)16
For fraction part

0 .76 × 16 12 .16 0 .16 C

0 .16 × 16 2 .56 0 .56 2
0 .56 × 16 8 .96 0 .96 8
0 .96 × 16 15 .36 0 .36 F
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------

= (61. C2 8F. . . . . )16

2.16 Octal to Binary Conversion

Conversion from octal to binary is done by a procedure reverse of the above. Each
octal digit is converted to its three digit binary equivalent.
Example 39: Convert the octal number (671.54)8 into a binary number.

Solution: (671.54)8

4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 • 1 0 1 1 0 0

6 7 1 5 4

Binary number is = (110111001.101100)2

Example 40: Convert the octal number (765 .727)8 into its binary number.

Solution: (765 .727)8

 C-68

4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 • 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

7 6 5 7 2 7
Binary number is → (111110101111010111
. )2

2.17 Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Conversion from hexadecimal to binary is done by a procedure reverse of the
above. Each hexadecimal digit is converted to its four digit history equivalent.
Example 41: Convert the hexadecimal number (A 2B)16 into the binary number.
Solution: (A 2B)16

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

A 2 B
Binary number is → (101000101011)2
Example 42: Convert the hexadecimal number (2CB. AD)16 into the Binary number.
Solution: (2CB. AD)16

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8421 8 4 2 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 11 • 1010 1 1 0 1

2 C B A D

Binary number is → (00101100101110101101

. )2

2.18 Equivalent of Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
 C-69

5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17
24 11000 30 18
25 11001 31 19
26 11010 32 1A
27 11011 33 1B
28 11100 34 1C
29 11101 35 1D
30 11110 36 1E
31 11111 37 1F

2.19 Computer Codes

Numeric data is not the only form of data handled by a computer. We often require
to process alphanumeric data also. An alphanumeric data is a string of a symbol,
where a symbol may be one of the letters A,B,C, D..........Z, or one of the digits 0, 1,
2, 3.............9 or a special character, such as +, −, *, ( ), = etc. An alphabetic data
consists of only the letters A, B, C ....... Z and blank character. Similarly, numeric
data consists of only the digits 0, 1, 2, 3............ and 9. However, the bits 0 and 1
must represent any data internally. Hence, computers use binary coding schemes
 C-70

to represent data internally. In binary coding, a group of bits represents every

symbol that appears in the data. The group of bits used to represent a symbol is
called a byte. To indicate the number of bits in a group sometimes a byte is referred
to as "n-bit byte", where the group contains n bits. However, the term "byte"
commonly means an 8-bit byte because most modern computers use 8-bits to
represent a symbol.

2.20 BCD Code

BCD code stands for Binary Coded Decimal code is one of the early computer codes.
The idea of this coding scheme is to convert each digit of a decimal number into its
binary equivalent instead of converting the entire decimal value into a binary number.
This makes the conversion process easier.
The figure below shows BCD equivalent of each decimal digit. Since 8 and 9 require 4
bits all decimal digits are represented in BCD by 4 bits. For example, we have
(42)10 → (101010 )2 is a binary number
(42)10 → 0100 0010 is a BCD code
0100 0010
(42)10 →
4 2

Decimal Digit BCD Equivalent

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
 ..........
 ..........
8 1000
9 1001
10 00010000
11 00010001
12 00010010
.......... ................
.......... ................
.......... ................
56 01010110
57 01010111
.......... ................
.......... ................
92 10010010
93 10010011
94 10010100
.......... ................
.......... ................
98 10011000
99 10011001
The BCD is the simplest binary code that is used to represent a decimal number. In the
BCD code 4 bits represent a decimal number.
 C-71

2.21 EBCDIC
EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is
the standard character code for large computers. It is an 8-bit code without parity.
A 9'th bit can be used for parity with 8 bits up to 256 characters can be coded.
Hence, BCD code was extended from a 6 bit code to an 8-bit code. The added two
bits are used as additional zone bits, expanding the zone to four bits. The resulting
code is called the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. In this code,
it is possible to represent 256 different characters instead of 64. In addition to the
various character requirements mentioned above this also allows a large variety of
printable characters and several non-printable control characters. The control
characters are used to control such activities as printer vertical spacing, movement
of cursor on terminal screen etc. All of the 256 combinations have not yet been
assigned characters. Hence, the code can still grow as new requirements develop.
This code was originated by IBM.
The EBCDIC uses eight bits which represent each character. Its concept is similar
to the ASCII, however, the specific bit pattern are different. To translate ASCII to
EBCDIC, the integrated circuits are available so that two incompatible computers
or terminals can be connected to each other.

Character EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code)

A 1100 0001

B 1100 0010

C 1100 0011

D 1100 0100

E 1100 0101

F 1100 0110

G 1100 0111

H 1100 1000

I 1101 1001

J 1101 0001

K 1101 0010

L 1101 0011

M 1101 0100

N 1101 0101

O 1101 0110

P 1101 0111
 C-72

Q 1101 1000
R 1101 1001
S 1110 0010
T 1110 0011
U 1110 0100
V 1110 0101
W 1110 0110
X 1110 0111
Y 1110 1000
Z 1110 1001
0 1111 0000
1 1111 0001
2 11110010
3 1111 0011
4 1111 0100
5 1111 0101
6 1111 0110
7 1111 0111
8 1111 1000
9 1111 1001

2.22 ASCII
ASCII code stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
Several American computer manufactures have adopted ASCII as their computers
internal code. This code popular in data communications is used almost
exclusively to represent data internally in microcomputers and is frequently found
is larger computers produced by some vendors.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published ASCII standard in
1963. However, the standard lacked lowercase letters and ANSI subsequently
revised ASCII in 1967. Later revisions in 1968, 1977 and finally in 1986 brought it
in its present form. Today, ASCII is one of the most popular and widely supported
character encoding standards.
ASCII is of two types:
(1) ASCII-7
(2) ASCII-8
 C-73

ASCII-7 is a 7-bit code that can represent 128 different characters. Computer
using 8-bit (byte a group of 8-bits) and the 7-bit ASCII either set the 8'th bit of each
byte as zero or use it as a parity bit. ASCII-8 is an extended version of ASCII-7. It is
an 8-bit code that can represent 256 different characters. The additional bit is
added to the left of the 7'th bit of ASCII-7 codes.

Characters ASCII

0 48

1 49

2 50

3 51

4 52

5 53

6 54

7 55

8 56

9 57

: 58

; 59

< 60

= 61

> 62

! 63

@ 64

A 65

B 66

C 67

D 68

E 69
C-74

F 70

G 71

H 72

I 73

J 74

K 75

L 76

M 77

N 78

O 79

P 80

Q 81

R 82

S 83

T 84

U 85

V 86

W 87

X 88

Y 89

Z 90

a 97

b 98

c 99

d 100

e 101

f 102
 C-75

g 103

h 104

i 105

j 106

k 107

l 108

m 109

n 110

o 111

p 112

q 113

r 114

s 115

t 116

u 117

v 118

w 119

x 120

y 121

z 122
 C-76

Comprehensive Exercise

1. What is meant by the base of a number system? Write bases of binary, octal,
hexadecimal and decimal number system.

2. Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary, octal and hexadecimal
(a) (49)10 (b) (317)10
(c) (760 .375)10 (d) (674 .8125)10
(e) (119 .28)10 (f) (260 )10

3. Find out the octal, decimal and hexadecimal numbers of the following binary
number
(a) (110111001.0100111)2 (b) (11101011.010010001)2
(c) (11101.000100111)2 (d) (1110110001.0111100 )2
(e) (101110 .001011)2 (f) (10111.01101101)2

4. Find out decimal number, hexadecimal and binary number into following octal
number
(a) (127)8 (b) (576)8
(c) (756 .671)8 (d) (367 .6)8
(e) (675 .23)8 (f) (256 .71)8

5. Convert the following hexadecimal number into binary, octal and decimal
number system
(a) (A28)16 (b) (B2C .10)16
(c) (A6D. E9)16 (d) (29A . B9)16
(e) (965. A5)16 (f) (3B9. AD)16
6. How many digits are used in binary number systems?
7. How many digits are used in hexadecimal number system?
8. Write all basic digits of octal number system.
9. Convert (55)10 into hexadecimal and octal number system.
10. Convert (11)10 into equivalent decimal number.
11. What is number system?
12. Name the type of ASCII code.
13 Discuss various number system.
14. Differentiate between ASCII and EBCDIC code.
 C-77

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. A group of 8 bits is called:
(a) octave (b) byte
(c) nibble (d) none of the above
2. EBCDIC can code up to how many different characters:
(a) 16 (b) 32
(c) 64 (d) 256
3. The hexadecimal number system has a base of:
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 16
4. The parity bit is added for _____ purpose.
(a) coding (b) indexing
(c) error-detection (d) controlling
5. A band is always equivalent to:
(a) a byte (b) a bit
(c) 100 bits (d) none of the above
6. Which number system is used for representing numbers within the computer?
(a) decimal (b) octal
(c) binary (d) hexadecimal
7. Which of the following is a valid octal number?
(a) (893)8 (b) (126)8
(c) (794)8 (d) (679)8
8. Which number system makes use of alphabets to represent numbers?
(a) binary (b) octal
(c) decimal (d) hexadecimal
9. How many fundamental digits are used in binary number system?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 4
10. Which of the following is not a binary number?
(a) (20 )2 (b) (10 )2
(c) (101) (d) (11011)2
 C-78

11. Decimal number system uses ________ symbol.

(a) 8 (b) 2
(c) 10 (d) 16
12. Octal number system uses ______ symbol.
(a) 2 (b) 10
(c) 8 (d) 16
13. The digits used in binary number system are:
(a) 0 and 9 (b) 1 and 2
(c) 0 and 1 (d) 3 and 4
14. The octal equivalent of binary number (111010 )2 is:
(a) 81 (b) 72
(c) 71 (d) none of the above
15. The binary code of octal number (73)8 is:
(a) (111101)2 (b) (111100 )2
(c) (111011)2 (d) none of the above
16. A four digit binary number (1001)2 is represented in the decimal system by:
(a) 7 (b) 1
(c) 9 (d) none of the above
17. A collection of 2 byte is:
(a) 12 bit (b) 17 bit
(c) 16 bit (d) 20 bit
18. EBCDIC can code upto how many different characters:
(a) 816 (b) 32
(c) 64 (d) 256
19. Binary means:
(a) three (b) four
(c) ten (d) two
20. What is the decimal equivalent of 210 ?
(a) 4096 (b) 1024
(c) 1000 (d) 16
21. The binary equivalent of the octal number (13 .54)8 is:
(a) (10111011
. )2 (b) (11011110
. )2
(c) (10011110
. )2 (d) none of the above
22. ASCII and EBCDIC often in:
(a) their efficiency in storing data
(b) the random and sequential access method
(c) the number of mbytes used to store characters
(d) their collecting sequential.
 C-79

23. Computers use base-two number system because:

(a) it is easier to do calculations than in a base-10 system
(b) they are made of switches, which are either on or off
(c) it was the first number system used by people
(d) the first mechanical calculators used the same number system.
24. BCD is one the early ……… codes.
(a) memory (b) binary
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
25. ASC II stands for :
(a) American System Code (b) American Standard Code
(a) Additional System Code (d) Additional Standard Code
26. The base or radix of octal number is :
(a) 6 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 4
27. 1’s complement of (1001110)2 will be
(a) 0110001 (b) 0001110
(c) 1110001 (d) 1100011
28. A digital computer works on binary digits :
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 0 and 1 (d) none of these
29. ……… code is not a coding method.
(a) Pseudo Code (b) BSD Code
(c) EBCDIC (d) ASC II
30. The 2’s complement of binary number 101100 is :
(a) 100100 (b) 000100
(c) 010100 (d) none of these'
31. ASC II codes are of ……… types.
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 5
32. In our day to day functioning, we make use of ……… number system.
(a) Decimal (b) Binary
(c) Octal (d) Hexadecimal
33. Computer makes use of ……… number system for doing all calculations.
(a) octal (b) binary
(c) decimal (d) both (a) and (c)
34. Binary equivalent of (22)10 is :
(a) (10111)2 (b) (10110)2
(c) (00111)2 (d) (01001)2
 C-80

35. 1’s complement of (11101) 2 will be :

(a) 00010 (b) 00001
(c) 011000 (d) none of these

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d)

6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (b)
26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a)

¨
 C-81

O perating S ystem

3.1 Operating System

perating system is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources

O of a computer system and provides its users with an interface or virtual
machine that is easier to use than the bare machine. According to this definition,
the two primary objectives of an operating system are:
1. Make a computer system easier to use: An operating system hides details of
hardware resources from programmer and other users and provides them with a
convenient interface for using a computer system. It acts as an intermediary
between the hardware and its users, providing a high-level interface to low-level
hardware resources and making it easier for programmers and other users to use
those resources.
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Logical architecture of a computer system— Operating system hides details of

hardware from pro grammers and other users and pro vides them with a
convenient interface for using the system

Figure shows the logical architecture of a computer system. As shown, hardware

resources are surrounded by operating system layer that, in turn, is surrounded by a
layer of other system software and a set of application programs. Finally, end users
view the computer system in terms of the user interfaces of the application
programs.
2. Manage the resources of a computer system: An operating system manages
all the resources of a computer system. This involves performing such tasks as
keeping track of who is using what resources, granting resource requests,
accounting for resource usage and mediating conflicting requests from different
programs and users. Efficient and fair sharing of system resources among users
and/or programs is a key goal of all operating systems.
An operating system manages and co-ordinates the functions performed by the
computer hardware, including the CPU, Input/output devices, secondary storage
devices and communication and network equipment. Operating systems are the
most important program that runs on a computer. Every general purpose
computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating
systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending
output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
The operating system software must keep track of each hardware resource, determine
who gets what, determine when the user will have access to the resource, allocate how
much of the resource the user will be given and terminate access at the end of the use
period.
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Operating systems vary in complexity from those that support single user
microcomputers to those that handle multi-user mainframes. Their complexity
depends on the computer system's size and scope together with the type of
performance provided to its users. A single stand−alone microcomputer will have a
relatively simple operating system, whereas a mainframe that supports hundred of
users accessing the system simultaneously, will have one that is far more complex.

Major Components of OS/2

The primary purpose of an operating system is to maximize the productivity of a
computer system by operating it in the most efficient manner and minimizing the
amount of human intervention required. An operating system also simplifies the
job of computer programmers, since it includes programs that perform common
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input/output and storage operations and other standard processing functions. If

you have any hands − on experience on a computer you know that the operating
system must be loaded and activated before you can accomplish other tasks. This
emphasizes that operating systems are the most indispensable component of the
software interface between users and the hardware of their computer systems.
An operating system is a collection of programs used to control a computer system.
The operating system is stored permanently in read only memory (ROM). When
the computer is first started it automatically begins to execute a program contained
in the operating system portion of ROM. This program reads part of the operating
system into random access memory (RAM) and the computer begins to execute
this part of the system. The operating system program now controls the computer.

3.2 Functions of an Operating System

We now turn to the functions of an operating system. For the sake of simplicity,
when describing the functions, we will focus on a relatively simple operating
system used in a microcomputer. Even the simplest operating system in a
microcomputer or mainframe performs a number of resource management tasks or
functions. These functions include job management, batch management, on-line
processing, data management, virtual storage and input/output management.
(1) Starting the Computer
In most microcomputers, the BIOS and the diagnostic routines are contained in
ROM. They are permanently available to other programs to check equipment and
perform input/output tasks. In addition, ROM contains a bootstrap loader
program that is used to start the computer. The remainder of the operating system
is contained in secondary memory.
When the computer is turned on, it automatically begins to execute the boot
program. This program first runs diagnostic programs to check the status of RAM
and of each of the attached system devices. The boot program then reads in the
operating system executive program from the disk. The layout of memory (ROM
and RAM) at this stage is shown in the figure. The control of the computer system
is now turned over to the operating system executive program, which displays an
operating system prompt, such as
A:\>

C:\>

This prompt indicates that the operating system is ready to accept a command
from the user.
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Routines to Operate
System Devices

Diagnostic Testing

Boot Program

Screen Memory

Available Memory

Operating System
Executive

System Data Set

During Bootup

The layout of memory immediately after booting the computer

(2) Running Applications Programs

To run an applications program, such as word processing program, the user types
the name of the program after getting the DOS prompt on the screen. For example,
if the name of the word processing program in WS, the user types:
WS
The operating system executive program, which is keeping constant watch over the
keyboard, reads and accepts the line WS as input. It then decodes the line to
determine what action to take. In this case, it decides the WS refers to an
application program. It looks on the disks currently in the disk drives to locate this
program. When it finds the program, it reads the program into RAM, as shown in
the figure.

Routines to Operate System Device

Diagnostic Testing
Boot Program
Screen Memory
Available Memory
Application Program
Operating System Executive
System Data Set During Bootup

The op er at ing sys tem read ing an ap pli ca tions pro gram into RAM in
response to a user's com mand
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When the applications program is in RAM, the operating system executive

program gives control of the computer system to the application program. The
computer then executes the applications program. When the applications
program ends, control is restored to the operating system executive program,
which monitors the keyboard for the user's next command.
While the applications program is running the operating system manages the
allocation of memory. When the user requests that a program be run, the operating
system determines the amount of memory required for the program instructions
and for data. The operating system then allocates the amount of memory to be
released for general use when they are no longer needed by the running program.
Some programs are so large or require so much data that they cannot fit entirely
into RAM. To handle such programs, some operating systems allow the virtual
memory which treats a portion of disk storage as if it were RAM. The program and
data are partially in RAM and partially in virtual memory. As the portions of the
program in memory are required they are retrieved from the disk and executed.

(3) Running Utility Programs

An operating system includes utility programs that give the user control over
various features of the computer system. These utility programs are either resident
or transient. Resident programs are always present in RAM. Transient program
must be read into RAM as they are requested. Utility programs recognize device
names that order to the system devices. Here are some typical names:
− A:, B :, C :, D : (names for floppy disk or hard disk drives)
− CON: (name of key board or console)
− PRN: (name of the printer)
− SCRN: (name of the screen)
Here are some commands using some typical utility programs:
– DISK COPY A: B : (copies the contents of the disk in drive A: onto the disk in
drive B)
− FORMAT B :/1
(4) Managing Files
Information on the disk is organized into files. A file is any collection of bytes.
Some files contain programs; others contain data. A disk usually contains both
program and data files. Each file is given a name. Here are some typical file names.
− BASIC.com (Files ending in .com are program files)
− FORMAT.com (This file contains the program for formatting disks)
− SALES.nov (This data file contains sales figure for November)
− CLAB (This data file contains laboratory data).
Information about each file is contained in a directory on the disk. This
information includes the file name, the number of bytes in the file and the date and
time the file was last altered. Some operating systems allow descriptive file
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attributes in the directory for example, a file may be declared read only, it can be
read but cannot be altered. A file may be declared read/write, it can be both read
and altered. Some operating systems allow hidden files to be created. These do not
show up in the directory and can never be erased. Hidden files are often used for
very important files associated with the operating system. Since the computer
needs such files to operate, they should never be erased from the disk. Hiding them
prevents this from happening.
The operating system provides the utility programs that manage the files. Some
utility programs create the files and the directory and allow the user to copy, erase
and rename files. Other utility programs display the contents of the directory or of
a particular file on the video display. Still others transfer the content of a file to an
output device, such as a printer.
(5) Operating in Batch Mode
Most operating systems allow for operating in batch mode. Batch processing
handles input data items in batches rather than one at a time. Batch mode is
similar, except that it refers to programs rather than data items. In batch mode, the
user can instruct the operating system to execute a list of programs one after the
other. The list of programs is given in a file. The user instructs the operating system
either to perform the commands without further user intervention or to request
certain data as each task is started. Batch mode can greatly simplify execution of
long or complex lists of programs, especially if the same list is run repeatedly.
(6) Providing Services
An operating system provides services that the programmer can use to control the
computer system.
(7) Job Management
Job management software manages the jobs waiting to be processed. It recognizes
the jobs, identifies their priorities, determines whether the appropriate main
memory and secondary storage capability they require is available and schedules
and finally runs each job at the appropriate moment.
(8) Batch Processing
System software is available to support the different methods of processing a job.
With batch processing, the most basic method, data are accumulated and
processed in groups. Payroll applications for example, are often processed this way.
Once in every week, hourly records are grouped and the payroll software is run.
(9) On-line Processing
In on-line processing, data are processed instantaneously.
(10) Data Management
In the process of managing the resources of the computer system, operating system
software also manages the storage and retrieval of data. The system software
handles many of the details associated with this process rather such details are not
a primary concern for users or programmers writing application programs.
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(11) Virtual Storage

Operating systems also manages the allocation of main memory to specific jobs.
Some operating systems have a feature called virtual storage, with this software it is
possible to increase the capacity of main memory without actually increasing its
size. This is accomplished by breaking a job into sequences of instructions, called
pages or segments and keeping only a few of these in main memory at a time. The
remaining are kept on secondary storage devices. As a result, relatively large jobs
can be processed by a CPU that in fact contains a relatively small memory.
(12) Input/Output Management
Operating systems also manage the input to and output from a computer system.
This applies to the flow of data among computers, terminals and other devices such
as printers. Application programs use the operating system extensively to handle
input and output devices as needed.
For large systems, the operating system has greater responsibilities and powers. It
is like a traffic policeman− it makes that different programs and users running at
the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also
responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the
system.
(13) Process Management
Process management module takes care of creation and deletion of processes,
scheduling of system resources to different processes requesting them and
providing mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.
(14) Memory Management
Memory management module takes care of allocation and de-allocation of
memory space to programs in need of this resource.
(15) File Management
File management module takes care of file related activities such as organization,
storage, retrieval, naming, sharing and protection of files.
(16) Security
Security module protects the resources and information of a computer system
against destruction and unauthorized access.
(17) Command Interpretation
Security module protects the resources and information of a computer system
against destruction and unauthorized access.

3.3 Evolution of Operating System

The evolution of operating systems has been driven by technological advances and
by the demands and expectations of the users. An examination of this evolutionary
process helps us to understand the workings of modern systems and to better
appreciate their essential principles.
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The very earliest computers, provided little in the way of support for their users,
switches and lights were the first input and output devices. Programs were entered
by using a set of switches to define a memory address value, then using another set
of switches to specify an instruction word which was then entered into the memory
location. This was repeated for each word of the program. The program was started
by setting the program counter to the first instruction word and pressing a start
button. The first step towards improving and simplifying computer use was to
address the problem of loading the program. Reducing the human involvement in
this process implied preparing the program in some offline form, then transferring
this into the computer memory via an input device such as a card or paper tape
reader.
In order to read from a card or paper tape reader, a loader program had to be
established in the computer memory. In the first place, which prompts the
question− how do you load the loader ! One solution, of course, is simply to enter
the loader manually, as before. However the idea was born of building into the
computer a facility whereby, on startup, the computer automatically read a
primitive loader program written on, for example, a single card. This basic loader
then executed and read in a larger, more extensive, loader program, which could
then load any user program. This arrangement was referred to as boot strapping,
derived from the idea of pulling oneself up by the bootstraps; the technique and the
term survive to the present day, although boot strapping is generally reduced
now-a-days to booting.
In the 1950s, computers were very expensive, certainly in relation to their
throughput measure in today's terms. The early pre-occupation, therefore, was to
get as much use out of them as possible. This drive towards 100% utilization of the
processor has not entirely disappeared today but is now much less important than
usability and peak processing power.
As the hardware steadily improved, the execution time of programs fell. This trend
had very critical consequences, which were to span on rapid development of early
operating systems.
The set up time - i.e. the time between jobs spent loading the next program and data
become disproportionate to the run time of the job.
The input/output devices were seen to be much slower than the processor speed.
The processor spent most of its time idle, waiting for a card to be reader punched or
a character to be printed.
Around 1960, a revolutionary new computer called ATLAS, was designed by a
term from Manchester University and the Ferrants company. This is reputedly the
first computer to be designed with the requirements of an operating system in
mind. Atlas introduced many more features including interrupts and a virtual
memory system. While the idea of virtual memory took some time to make a broad
impart, the interrupt mechanism made an immediate impression in computer and
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operating system design, since it made the job of managing several programs and
peripheral devices simultaneously much easier. It made it possible for the
operating system to oversee the progress of several programs and Input/Output
activities simultaneously. In 1964, IBM produced the system 360 series of
computers, which consequently evolved into system 370 and then the 303 X
machines in use today.
This range of computers has probably been the most significant in computing
history, not so much from a technological point of view, but because it provided a
wide range of computing facilities within a compatible series of machines,
supported by the manufacturer through many revisions and enhancements.
Operating systems have evolved through a number of distinct phases or
generations which corresponds roughly to the decades.
(1) The 1940s - First Generation
The earliest electronic digital computers had no operating systems. Machines of
the time were so primitive that programs were often entered one bit at time on rows
of mechanical switches. Programming languages were unknown. The term
operating systems were unheard in this generation. There were some control
routines defined, known as control programs which provided some functions of
operating system.
(2) 1950's - Second Generation
By the early 1950s the routine had improved somewhat with the introduction of
punch cards. The General Motors Research Laboratories implemented the first
operating systems in early 1950's for their IBM 701.
The system of the 50's generally ran one job at a time. These were called
single-stream batch processing systems because program and data were submitted
in groups or batches. Job Control Language were used to define the statement to
control the execution of jobs as well as to provide instructions to the monitor :
• What compiler to use.
• What data to use.
During this decade Fortran a high level language developed and first generation
control program were written in this language. Fortran Monitor System (FMS) is
considered as a first operating system designed in High level language.
Second generation can be characterized as:
• Punch cards
• Fortran or assembler
• Batch system
• Programs read in from tape
• Two applications
— Scientific
— Data processing
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(3) The 1960's - Third Generation

The systems of the 1960's were also batch processing systems, but they were able to
take better advantage of the computer's resources by running several jobs at once.
So operating systems designers developed the concept of multiprogramming in
which several jobs are in main memory at once, a processor is switched from job to
job as needed to keep several jobs advancing while keeping the peripheral devices
in use.
Features:
• Are the first operating systems.
• The user submit a job to a computer operator.
• The computer operator place a batch of several jobs on an input
device.
A special program, the monitor, manages the execution of each program in the batch.
Monitor (permanently resident)
User Space
(Compilers, programs, data etc.)

The Monitor Resident Systems

Suppose a system with no multiprogramming, when the recent job paused to wait
for other I/O operation to complete, the CPU simply sat idle until the I/O finished.
The solution for this problem, that evolved was to partition memory into several
pieces, with a different job in each partition. While one-job was waiting for I/O to
complete another job could be using the CPU.
Another major feature in third-generation operating-system was the technique
called spooling.
In Spooling
1. a high speed device "like a disk" interposed with a running program.
2. a low speed device involved with the program in I/O.
Instead of writing we can get output directly with the help of printer.
So in a glance in third generation following developments took place
• ICs and Multiprogramming
• System 360 and S/370 family of computers
• Spooling
• Time sharing
• On-line storage for
— System programs
— User programs and data
— Program libraries
• Virtual memory
• Multiprocessor configuration
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• Simultaneous computer access to large community of users.

• Ample computation power and data storage.
• Easy data sharing between users, if desired.
(4) Fourth Generation
With the development of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits, chips operating
system entered in the personal computer and the workstation. Microprocessor
technology evolved to the point that it became possible to build desktop
computers as powerful as the mainframes of the 1970s. Two operating systems
have dominated the personal computer scene:
• MS-DOS written by Microsoft Inc. for the IBM PC and other machines using
the Intel 8088 CPU and its successors.
• UNIX, which is dominant on the large personal computers using the Motorola
6899 CPU family.

(5) Fifth Generation

With personal computers/workstations, designing the smaller than smaller sized
computers is the key focus area for this generation researchers. The operating
systems compatible for such small sized computer systems or computerized
devices like mobile phones, palm computers, pen computers and PDA's are
generally kept in the category of Handled operating systems.
Now we have seen that with the development of computer technology and to meet
the ever growing demands of users, operating systems were evolved. The main
reasons for evolving operating systems are:
• Hardware updates
• Active flexibility
• New services
• Fault fixing
• User friendly
• Less time consuming program
• A control
These are following operating systems evolved:
• Simple Batch systems
• Multi-programmed Batch systems
• Time sharing systems
• Personal computer
• Parallel system
• Distributed systems
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3.4 Batch System

To improve utilization, the concept of batch operating system was developed,
"Jobs with similar needs were batched together and were run through the computer
as a group". Thus, the programmer would leave their program with operator, who
in turn would sort program into batches with similar requirements. Central idea
behind the simple batch processing scheme was the use of a piece of software
known as monitor. With the use of this type of operating system, the user no longer
has direct access to machine. Rather the user submits the job on card to computer
operator, who batches the job together sequentially and places the entire batch on
an Input device for use by monitor.
A batch operating system accepts jobs and places them in a queue to await
execution. This process is often called spooling. Essentially what happens is the
jobs are placed in a queue on a disk unit. An execution time becomes available, the
operating system selects jobs based on priorities from the job queue. Batch jobs
may be executed on a serial basis, where one job is executed at a time or on a
multiprogramming basis, where multiple jobs are executed concurrently. Most
operating systems in personal computers work on a batch serial basis without using
spooling.

3.5 Interactive System

An interactive operating system allows users to interact directly with a computer
from a terminal. In effect, the user can interrupt a low-priority batch job and cause
the computer to perform his high priority work. Interactive operating systems
must be multiprogramming systems. Also, real time systems must be interactive
since real time files must be updated immediately after real world events occur. An
interrupt is required, which is the suspension of the execution of a computer
program, caused by an event external to the program and performed in such a way
that the execution can later be resumed. Examples of each external events would be
a request for data or input of data, from an interactive terminal.

3.6 Real Time Operating System

A real time operating system is used, when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data. These are "often used as a control
device in dedicated applications".
Systems that control scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
control systems are real time systems. Real time systems also include some home
appliance systems, weapon systems, automobile engine fuil injection systems. Real
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time operating system has well defined, fixed time constraints. Processing must be
done within defined constraint or the system will fail.
Real time system is considered to function correctly only if it is returns results
within any time constraints. While in time sharing system it is desirable to respond
quickly but not mandatory.
There are two kinds of real systems:
(a) Hard real system
(b) Soft real system
(a) Hard real system
This system guarantees that critical tasks complete on time. This goal says that all
delays in the system must be bounded. Such time constraints dictate the facilities
that are available in hard real time system.
Most other advanced operating system features are also absent, since they separate
user from hardware and this separation results in uncertainty about the amount of
time an operation will take.
(b) Soft real system
In this system, a critical real time task gets priority, over other tasks and retain that
priority until it completes. Soft real system or time is an achievable goal that is
amenable to mixing with other types of systems. However, soft real time have more
limited utility than hard real time. Given that lack of deadline support, they are
risky to use for industrial control and robotics. Areas where soft real time can be
used are multimedia, virtual reality and advanced scientific projects. Soft real
system need a advanced operating system. Features can not be supported by hard
real time system, because the soft real system used a expanded form of advanced
operating system.

3.7 Time Sharing System

Back in the days of the "bare" computers without any operating system to speak of,
the programmer had complete access to the machine.

An hardware and software was developed to create monitors, simple and spooling
batch systems and finally multiprogrammed systems. The separation between the
user and the computer became more and more pronounced.

Users and programmers in particular longed to be able to get to the machine

without having to go through the batch process. In the 1970s and especially in the
1980s, this became possible in two different ways.
The first involved time sharing or time slicing. The idea of multiprogramming was
extended to allow for multiple terminals to be connected to the computer with
each in-use terminal being associated with one or more jobs on the computer. The
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operating system is responsible for switching between the jobs now often called
processes in such a way that favored user interaction. If the context-switches
occurred quickly enough, the user had the impression that he or she had direct
access to the computer.
Interactive processes are given a higher priority so that when Input/Output is
requested the associated process is quickly given control of the CPU so that it can
process it. This is usually done through the use of an interrupt that causes the
computer to realize that an Input/Output event has occurred.
It should be mentioned that there are several different types of time sharing
systems. One type is represented by computers like our VAX/VMS computers and
UNIX workstations. In these computers entire processes are in memory and the
computer switches between executing code in each of them. In other types of
systems, such as airline reservation systems a single application may actually do
much of the time sharing between terminals. This way there does not need to be a
different running program associated with each terminal.
In a non-interactive computing environment a user has no contact with his
program during its execution. In such an environment it is natural to use the batch
processing or multiprogramming paradigm. Both these systems provide poor user
service. However, this is inevitable due to the nature of Input/Output devices in
use.
In an interactive computing environment, a user can provide inputs to a program
from the key board and examine its output on the monitor screen. A different
operating system paradigm is used in such environments to provide quick service
to user requests, it creates an illusion that each user has a computer system at his
sole disposal. This paradigm is called time sharing.

3.7.1 User Service

User service is characterized in terms of the time taken to service sub request, i.e.
response time (rt). Benefits of good response times are best seen during program
development. A user engaged in program development compiles and tests a
program repeatedly. A typical request issued by the user concerns compilation of a
statement or an execution of a program on given data. The response consists of a
message from the compiler or results computed by a program. A user issues the next
request after receiving the response to the previous request. Good response times
would lead to an improvement in the productivity of the user. Any application in
which a user has to interact with a computation would derive similar benefits from
good response times.
Emphasis on good response times, rather than on efficient use or through put,
requires use of new design principles and techniques. The notion of a job is no
longer relevant, an interactive user interface has to be designed and new scheduling
and memory management techniques are needed to provide good response times
to a large number of users.
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3.7.2 Scheduling
User service in a time sharing system is characterized by response times to user
requests, so the time sharing kernel must provide good response times to all users.
To realize this goal all users must get an equal opportunity to present their
computational requests and have them serviced. Each user must also receive
reasonable service. Two provisions are made to ensure this:
(1) Programs are not assigned priorities because assignment of priorities may deny
operating system attention to low priority programs. Instead, programs are
executed by turn.
(2) A program is prevented from consuming unreasonable amounts of CPU time
when scheduled to execute. This provision ensures that every request will
receive operating system attention without unreasonable delays.

3.8 Single User Operating System

Single user operating systems allow only one user to run programs at a time. The
most popular example is MS-DOS used on personal computers.

3.9 Multi-User Operating System

Multi-user operating systems allow two or more than two users to run programs at
the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of
concurrent users. UNIX/LINUX Win NT/ME/2000-2003 etc. are widely used
multi-user operating systems.

3.10 Comparison of MS-DOS and UNIX

MS-DOS stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System. Software provides the
instructions that tell the hardware exactly what to do. In general, an operating
system is a program that provides on interface between the user, the application
programs and the computer. It controls input to the computer and output from the
computer. More specifically, a disk operating system is designed to provide an easy
way to use disks for storage. DOS provides a method for organising and using the
information stored on disks, application/system programs and the computer
system itself. DOS also instructs the computer how to read the information that
you have stored on the disk. It also locates the information on the disk or memory
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and also controls other devices. DOS also controls the saving and retrieving of
information on the disk by giving a directory of the files on a disk and we never
need to know the physical location of the data on the disk.
As MS-DOS operations are based on disk, let us start to learn about diskettes, a file,
directories and how to use them. The diskette or the floppy as it is more commonly
called, is the most widely used type of disk storage with microcomputers. It is a
round disk enclosed in a protective covering called the jacket. DOS allows
1 1
information storage on a variety of media, including fixed disks 3 " and 5 "
2 4
floppy disks.
In the history of IBM PC and MS-DOS, the floppy disks have changed
considerably, resulting in a variety of, sometimes incompatible disk FORMATS. A
FORMAT defines the physical layout of the information on a disk. To avoid the
risk of getting too mixed up with bytes and sectors, it is more important to
understand the various disk formats.
UNIX operating systems have more or less same set of procedures and commands.
However, UNIX is more appropriate for bigger machines like large mainframe
systems as compared to other operating system. The UNIX operating system is a
powerful system of programs that allows you to accomplish a full spectrum of tasks
from developing high level assembly language programs to creating, editing and
typesetting documents. The powerful UNIX system requires careful control of its
operations and a regular schedule of maintenance for its smooth running. Today,
the UNIX system is distributed with over two hundred commands and programs.
The UNIX system can be run on a multitude of computer systems, ranging from
small personal computers to large mainframe systems. The number of different
computers that support the UNIX system is very impressive. A programmer or user
can expect the same programming tools and environment on any system that runs
UNIX and can write programs to run without modification on any computer
running UNIX system. A programmer/user can learn one set of procedures and
commands that can be used on any UNIX system.
The UNIX operating system can be divided in three parts:
(a) File System
(b) Scheduler
(c) Shell

3.10.1 File System

A file system is one of the most fundamental elements of the UNIX system. In the
simplest form a file system is a collection of files stored on a disk.
The file is the fundamental unit of the UNIX file system. There are three types of
UNIX files:
(1) Ordinary files
(2) Special device files
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(3) Directory files

(1) Ordinary Files
Ordinary files are documents, program source code or program data. Executable
binary files or complete program are also considered as ordinary files. Each
ordinary file has following attributes:
− a file name.
− a size in byte.
− a time of last change.
− a set of access permissions.
− an owner and a group.
− a unique file system number called an inode number.
(2) Special Device Files
Each physical device on the system such as hard disk, floppy disk, terminal, printer
and system memory is assigned to a "special file". These files are called special
device files.
(3) Directory Files
Directory files are more like file drawers than files. For example, suppose you are
working in a small company and you have to provide services to its own
departments, Marketing and Engineering. You keep all your marketing papers in
your drawer, labelled mkt. and all the engineering papers in another drawer
labelled engg. as shown in figure.

File drawer with labels

Now suppose you start using a computer, you can set up your computer filing
system to match your paper files by creating two subdirectories named mkt. and
engg. You can store the files relating to each department in separate subdirectories.
A directory contains the name and inode members of the files "within it". UNIX
uses inodes internally to organize file systems. Inodes contain information about
files like the file type, the number of links to the file, the size of the file, the file's
access permissions, the identity of the file's owner and group, the last modified file
time and the location of the file on the disk. There is one inode per file.
 C-99

3.10.2 Scheduler
The scheduler is a program that allows more than one user to use the computer at
the same time. It shares the computer resources among all the users, allowing each
a small slice of the computer's processor. This concept is known as time sharing.

3.10.3 Shell
The shell is the UNIX system's command interpreter. It is a program that reads the
lines you type in at the terminal and performs various operations depending on
what you type in. When users log into UNIX system, they communicate with one
of several interpreters. Each invocation of this interpreter is called a shell and each
shell has one function to read and execute commands from its standard input.
Because the shell gives the user a high level language to communicate with the
operating system, UNIX can perform tasks unheard in less sophisticated operating
systems. Commands that would normally have to be written in a traditional
programming language can be written with just a few lines in a shell procedure.

3.11 DOS Commands

A command in simple terms, is the name of a program that you want the computer
to carry out. The command might be the name of one of your own programs or it
might be the name of a program that you have bought or it might be a program
which is a part of DOS. The different kinds of commands are :
(1) Our own program.
(2) Commercial/system program.
(3) DOS's own programs.
(4) DOS's batch programs.
We key-in the name of the command after the DOS prompt and press the
computer's ENTER/RETURN key. DOS takes this information figuring out what
sort of command it is and then finding the program and making the program work.
All we have to do is to enter the command name.
All DOS commands are accepted either in upper or lower case letters and DOS
treats them as the same. Now the question is what kind of programs are they and
where are the programs located?
DOS has internal and external commands. There are programs inherent in DOS
with a number of services or commands available for us to use. We would like to
have these commands services on tap, instantly at all times. But to do this, the
programs that provide these services would have to be resident in memory. It
means that they would be taking up some of our working memory space all the
time, whether we are using them or not. On the other hand, we would like to have
as little as possible of our memory being used by DOS. A handful of the command
 C-100

programs that are small and most useful are made a resident part of DOS. It means
that they are in memory all the time once DOS has been read off the disk and
started up. These are called the INTERNAL/RESIDENT commands. All other
command programs are called EXTERNAL and they are kept in the disk until they
are required.
There is a standard format for asking DOS to carry out commands. The basic
format of a command is :
d : COMMAND-NAME Parameters (if any) Switches (if any)
• d : indicate the device name
• COMMAND-NAME indicate what is to be done
• PARAMETERS indicate what command is to be performed on
• SWITCHES indicate how it is to be done.

3.12 Elementary DOS Commands

3.12.1 Resident/Internal Commands

(a) DATE
(b) TIME
(c) DIR or DIRECTORY
(d) CLS
(e) VOL or VOLUME
(f) VER or VERSION
(g) REN or RENAME
(h) TYPE
(i) COPY
(j) DEL or DELETE
(k) ERASE

(a) The Date Command

The date command displays the current data and allows to change it. To see date
give the following command:
C :\> date ↵
If you don't want to change the date, just press enter otherwise type in the new date
in month-day-year format.
Workout: Give a command to change the date of computer to 9-27-2012
 C-101

Solution: C :\> date ↵

Then type 9-27-2012

Possible Error: Check spelling
Date was not typed in mm : dd : yy format.
Date was not typed as given above.
(b) The Time Command
The time command displays the current time and allows to change it. In order to
see the time give the command:
C :\> time ↵
If you prefer not to change the time then just press enter, otherwise type in the
current time and then press enter key.
Workout: Give the command to change the time to your computer to
10 : 21 : 43 . 39
Solution: C :\> time ↵
10 : 21 : 43 . 39
Possible Errors: Check spelling
Time was not typed in hh : mm : ss : xx format.
Time was not typed as given above.
(c) DIR or DIRECTORY
DIR is a directory listing command. It is designed to tell us the list of files on a disk.
Format: C :\> dir ↵
Example: C :\> dir B ↵
This will tell the computer to list all the files from the disk in drive B. The list will
include the file name, the file name extension, the size of the file in bytes and time
and date when the file was created or last changed.
Example: C :\> dir ↵

directory of c: \ >
dem . bat
Readme . doc
long . dat
short . com

(d) CLS: CLS command clears the screen

Format C:\> clr ↵
(e) VOL: This reports the volume label on a disk i.e. each disk is given a label which
is called volume.
 C-102

Format
C :\> vol ↵
(f) VER: This reports the version number of MS-DOS
Format C:\> ver ↵
(g) REN or RENAME: This command is used to rename a file.
Format
C :\> ren old name new file name ↵
Example:
C :\> ren Ankur.bat Manu.bast
(h) Type: It types the entered file. This command is used for listing a file on the
VDV.
Format
C :\> type File name ↵
C :\> type Ankur.doc ↵
(i) Copy: This is a tool to make copies of disk files. It can also duplicate files from
one disk to another. At the same time we can copy several files using wild cards. It
can also copy a file with a different file name.
Format
C :\> copy ↵
Example:
C :\> copy C : This file B : ↵
C :\ copy B : *. com ↵
C :\ copy B : *. * ↵
C :\ copy B : This File
( j) DEL or DELETE: This is one command but with two different names. DEL for
delete and ERA for erase. Under either name, it will throw a file away. We can also
erase one or more files at a time using wild cards. But one has to be very careful
while using wilds because it will erase all the files as mentioned in the specification.
Example:
C :\> del *. * ↵
dos immediately replies with
ARE YOU SURE (Y/N) ?
and won't delete any file unless we type in a reply Y (yes). But all other file deletion
commands proceed without any waiting.
Example:
B :\ erase command.com ↵
Although DOS does not give any command to recover files that have been erased,
the data from erased files will be still available on the disk which can be recovered
by special utility programs like Personal Computer Tools or Nortons Utilities.
 C-103

3.12.2 External Commands

There are many external commands, which are also sometimes called utilities for
MS-DOS. But there are a few commands which are very useful and important.
For example:
(a) FORMAT
(b) DISK COPY
(c) CHKDSK
(a) FORMAT
The format command is used to do the most basic preparation of a disk for use. It is
the equivalent of drawing guidelines on a blank sheet of paper to make it possible
later to write evenly on the paper. This command also knows how to recognise the
bad patches and puts a safety fence around them. It also reports the size of bad
patches.
The following are the different switches which can be used in format command :
/s
/v
/l
/8
A:/ Format c: ↵
c :→ to format the disk in drive.
/s→ this switch will copy the DOS's files there after formatting the floppy disk.
/ v → is used to tell format command that we want a volume name to be written on
the disk
/ l → to format only one side of disk.
/ 8 → used to format the floppy disk having 8 sectors per track.
Format is one of the most dangerous of all the commands in DOS because it can
wipe out an entire diskette's/disk's worth of data/programs at one go.
(b) DISK COPY
Disk copy is used to make a duplicate copy of a disk. It copies the contents of the
diskette in the source drive to the diskette in the target drive. The target diskette is
formatted if necessary during the copy.
A:/ disk copy d: ↵
d: switch
d: → drive specification
switches used are :
/v → to verify while copying
/l → make a copy of one side.
(c) CHKDSK
The chkdsk command reports disk and memory status by checking the directory
and file allocation table of the designated or current disk. By using the chkdsk
option, you can also repair errors in the directories or file allocation table.
 C-104

B :\ chkdsk File specification switches

Switches used are :
/f → corrects errors found in the directory of file allocation table and
converts them into a file
/v → allows chkdsk to display series of messages indicating its progress
and providing details about each error.

3.13 Common Error Message in DOS

(1) Bad command or file name.

(2) Write protect error writing device x.

Abort, Retry, Ignore ?

(3) Cannot copy a file onto itself.

(4) Duplicate file name or file not found.

(5) File not found.

(6) Format failure.

(7) Insert DOS diskette in drive A and press any key to continue OR insert
COMMAND.COM in drive A and strike any key when ready.

(8) Incorrect DOS version OR invalid COMMAND.COM in drive A.

(9) Insufficient disk space.

(10) Missing file name.

(11) Invalid date.

(12) Invalid time.

(13) Out of paper.

(14) Target diskette write protected, correct and strike any key.

(15) Syntax error.

3.14 Making and Naming a Directory with md Command

DOS has a unique way of organizing files. Instead of using the entire hard disk as a
main hall, it can be partitioned into different rooms, with each room having
specified types of files.
For example, one room may contain SALARY details of employees, another room
may contain the BILL details of the company and so on.
 C-105

In technical terms, each room is called a sub-directory and the main hall is called the
root-directory. Each sub-directory can be further divided into sub-sub-directory.

The directory structure is like a tree but viewed upside down i.e., the root is at the
top and the branches point downwards. It can be compared to the following figure:

Rules for running a directory are the same as for files, but as a convention the
directories are not given the extension.
The md (making directory) command is used to make a directory or a
sub-directory. Type md followed by a space and then the full path where you wish
to create the directory, followed by the directory name. However, you need not
specify the path if it has to be created under the current directory. Let's try to make
the directory structure as shown in above figure.
(1) As per above figure, there are two sub-directories under the root directory
namely, SALARY and BILLS. To create the first sub-directory, i.e. SALARY
sub-directory, type the following command at the DOS prompt (c : \)
c:\> md SALARY ↵
To create the second sub-directory under the root directory (c:\) type the following
command at the Dos prompt (c:\)
c:\> md BILLS ↵
The \(back slash) in both the commands tells DOS that it has to create the
sub-directory under the root-directory.
(2) Now type DIR command and press Enter key of your keyboard.
(3) Let us now make two sub-sub-directories, viz, OFFICERS sub-sub-directory
and CLERKS sub-sub directory under the SALARY sub-directory.
 C-106

In order to make OFFICERS sub-sub-directory, under SALARY sub-directory,

type the following command:
c : \> md \ SALARY \ OFFICERS ↵
In order to make CLERKS sub-sub-directory, under SALARY sub-directory, type
the following command:
c : \> md \ SALARY \ CLERKS ↵
The first command creates OFFICERS sub-sub-directory under the SALARY
sub-directory.
The second command creates a similar directory, i.e. CLERKS sub-sub-directory.
The path \ SALARY \ is given in the two commands to tell DOS about the place
where it has to create the sub-sub directory.
Also in order to make a sub-sub-directory called NORTH under BILLS
sub-directory, type the following command:
c : \> md \ BILLS \ NORTH ↵
And in order to make a sub-sub-directory called SOUTH under BILLS
sub-directory, type the following command:
c : \md \ BILLS \ SOUTH ↵
The above two commands create the sub-sub-directories NORTH and SOUTH
under the BILLS sub-directory. Similarly, let us create sub-sub-directories CASH
and CREDIT under the NORTH sub-sub-directory just as NORTH
sub-sub-directory was created under the BILLS sub-directory.
c : \> md \ BILLS \ NORTH \ CASH ↵
c : \> md \ BILLS \ NORTH \ CREDIT ↵

3.14.1 Making a Directory on a Floppy DISK

This is not very different from creating a directory on C disk. All you have to do is to
change the drive to A and give the md command. If you want a directory named
ANKUR in a disk at A drive then do the following steps:
(1) Insert a disk in the drive.
(2) Now type the following command at the DOS prompt (c : \)
c:\>A: ↵
You will see that the c :\ prompt now changes to A : \ prompt. Now type the
following:
A:\ > md ANKUR ↵
Workout: Create a sub-directory STOCK on c disk.
Solution: c :\> md STOCK ↵
Workout: Give the command to make a directory named MANISHA on A disk.
 C-107

Solution: A:\> md MANISHA ↵

Workout: Give the command to make a sub-directory CASH under the root and a
sub-sub-directory CASH FILE under the newly created directory.
Solution:
c:\ md CASH ↵
c:\md CASH\CASH FILE ↵

3.15 Changing Directory (cd) Command

If you want access to the files of a particular sub-directory, you have to move into
that sub-directory using the cd command. Type in cd, then a space, followed by the
directory where you want to go and press the Enter key (↵).
If your directory is part of another directory, then you must type the entire path to
your directory.
However, you need not specify the path if the directory you want to move into is
under the current directory. For example, if you want to change to the SALARY
sub-directory under ROOT directory (c:\>) disk, the command will be as follows:
c :\>cd SALARY ↵
Before issuing the above command you were in the root directory. After issuing the
command you will find yourself in SALARY sub-directory and your DOS prompt
will look like:
c:\ SALARY >
If you want to access the files of the OFFICERS sub-sub-directory under SALARY
sub- directory, the command will be as follows:
c :\ SALARY > cd OFFICERS ↵
Now your prompt will change to:
c :\ SALARY \ OFFICERS >
Workout: Give the command to move to the NORTH sub-sub-directory under
the BILLS sub-directory as shown in above figure, assuming you are in the root
directory.
Solution:
c:\>cd\BILLS \NORTH ↵

3.15.1 Going Back to Root (Direct Jump)

If you are in the OFFICERS sub-sub-directory and you wish to go back to the root
directory, type the following command
Step 1:
c :\ SALARY \ OFFICERS \ cd ↵
 C-108

Step 2:
c:\ SALARY >
Step 3:
c :\ SALARY > cd ↵
Step 4:
c:\>

3.16 Removing Directory with (RD or rd) Command

If you may wish to remove some sub-directories from the hard disk or the floppy
disk, then the rd command of DOS removes a sub-directory. Some homework has
to be done before you give the rd command, as per the following steps:
(1) Make sure that all the files in the sub-directory are deleted, i.e. there should be
no files or sub-sub-directories inside it.
(2) You should be out of the sub-directory which you wish to delete.
The following example will make things easier to understand.
Suppose you want to delete CASH sub-sub-sub-directory and you are currently in
the root directory, i.e. prompt is
c:\>
Then do the following :
(1) c :\> cd \ BILLS \ NORTH \ CASH ↵
The above step takes you to the CASH sub-sub-sub-directory.
Now type the following at the prompt
c :\ BILLS \ NORTH \ CASH > del * . * ↵
As soon as you type the above command and press the Enter key, screen displays a
warning message and also asks you whether you are sure to carry out this operation.
All files in directory will be deleted?
Are you sure (Y/N) ? N
When DOS asks you to confirm if you wish to delete all files, press Y for yes. Press Y
to confirm and then press the Enter key.
The above command deletes all the files in the CASH sub-sub-sub-directory.
(2) Now type the command:
c :\ BILLS \ NORTH \ CASH > cd.. ↵
With this step you move to the parent directory of CASH, i.e. NORTH. Now the
prompt becomes:
c :\ BILLS \ NORTH >
 C-109

(3) Now that you are outside the directory, which is to be deleted, follow the
second step at the DOS prompt:
c:\ BILLS \ NORTH > rd CASH ↵
This step removes the CASH sub-sub-sub-directory.
Workout: Write the steps to delete the CLERKS sub-sub-directory, assuming that
you are in the Root directory.
Solution: c :\> cd \ SALARY \ CLERKS ↵
c:\SALARY \ CLERKS > del * . * ↵
c :\ SALARY \ CLERKS > cd.. ↵
c :\ SALARY \ rd CLERKS ↵

3.17 Path Command

The PATH command is used to tell DOS which directories it should search to find
the required programs. If a directory is listed in the path, you don't have to change
to that directory to use a command or start a program, which is stored under that
directory.
Suppose you are at present in the Root directory and you want to run the d base
program which is in the d base sub-directory.
First, you will have to instruct DOS where it has to look for the d base program
before you can actually run it. This process of directing DOS, where it has to look
for a program is done by giving the PATH command. The following command sets
the path to the d base sub-directory in c drive:
c:\> path = c :\ d base ↵
Now you can run the d base program not only from the root directory (c :\) but also
from anywhere.
You can set path for all the programs you want. For setting the path to two or more
programs, you have to separate them with a semi colon (;), i.e. for setting the path for
more than two programs, you will have to put a semi colon before typing the second
path name.
For example, if you want to set the path for d base and DOS programs in c drive
through one command, issue the following command
c:\> path = c:\ d base; c:\ DOS ↵
To see whether the path has been set or not, key in the following command:
c :\> path ↵
The computer will display. The following message on the monitor, showing the
current setting of the path, i.e. in our case,
c :\ d base; c :\DOS
 C-110

3.18 The DOS Prompt

Once DOS is loaded into the RAM from the disk, it displays a prompt on the
screen, indicating that it is ready to accept instructions from you. This prompt is
your route to the power of DOS. You type all your commands at this prompt. The
most common appearance of the command prompt is as shown in the following
figure :

The first character tells you which disk drive is currently active. DOS normally
refers to the hard disk drive as drive c.
The drive letter is followed by a slash (\) and then a "greater than" character (>). A
cursor flashes after this prompt.
Sometimes your prompt may look different from the above. If you are working in
DOS directory, then prompt will be as follows :
c :\DOS>
If you are working in the floppy drive A, then the prompt would appear as follows:
A:\>

3.19 Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by
Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based
computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected
computers. The newest version is Windows 8 for workstations and Windows
Server 2012 for servers. Windows 7 recently overtook Windows XP as most used
OS.
Microsoft Windows originated in 1985 as an operating environment running on
top of MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel
architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released
which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x
could run real-mode MS-DOS and 16 bits Windows 3.x drivers. Windows ME,
released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all
been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current versions of Windows run on
IA-32 and x86-64microprocessors, although Windows 8 support ARM
architecture. In the past, Windows NT supported non-Intel architectures.
 C-111

3.20 Features of Windows

Some of the main features of windows are :
− Do DOS's house keeping tasks like creating, renaming and deleting directories,
copying, moving, renaming, deleting files, formatting disks etc.
− Run different programs in multiple windows.
− Interchange data between different applications through a facility called
clipboard. This is perhaps the singular greatest feature through which different
applications can exchange and share data e.g. you can copy numbers from an
excel spreadsheet into a word report or put a paint brush drawing into a Power
Point presentation and so on.

− Do many miscellaneous operations like sending a fax, creating a drawing.

Network, line up to an outside information service company. Create, modify
and print simple documents, play games etc.
− Applications running under windows generally share a common look and feel
and hence make it easier for users to learn new software more easily.
− Windows is considered more user friendly than its counterpart MS-DOS. It can
support long file names as compared to the eight letter file names supported by
DOS. Windows files could have names up to 255 characters long.
− A web-browser called with internet explorer comes as part of windows. It offers
you to access a vast collection of world knowledge through a world-wide
conglomerate of numerous computer networks.
 C-112

− Windows has another important feature called outlook express. With outlook
express, you can send and receive electronic mail messages. Outlook express
also provides facility for managing these messages.
− Windows provided internet collaboration through its yet another feature called
Net-Meeting. It helps you in working together, sharing information and
exchanging files and documents during conference using data, audio and video.
− Windows provides with security zones feature. This feature helps you to assign
security option to websites. Your approval would be a must before opening a file
or running a programme from the internet. This feature restricts you to explore
different sites by selecting the desired security level.

3.20.1 Installing or Removing Programs

This option has three major functions:

(1) Installing and uninstalling additional software programs.

(2) Installing and uninstalling specific components or sub-components of windows
itself.
(3) Creating a rescue disk. This start up disk can be used to boot your computer in
case something seriously goes wrong with windows installed on your hard disk.
To install or remove programs :

(A) Click once on start button to get the main menu.

(B) Choose control panel command from settings option.
(C) Select Add/Remove programs option by double clicking on it.
 C-113

3.20.2 Install/Uninstall Additional Software Programs

To install and uninstall additional software programs click on the Add New
Program button:
(A) By clicking once on CD or Floppy button you can install a new program from
either a CD or a floppy.
(B) You can choose Windows Update to add new windows features or system
updates over the internet.

3.20.3 Windows Setup–Adding or Removing Windows Components

For installing and uninstalling specific components or sub-components of
Windows itself click on the Add/Remove Windows components button :
 C-114

(1) Choose Add/Remove Programs option from the control panel.

(2) Click once the Add/Remove windows components button.
(3) Select the required component by clicking once on it.
To select components or sub-components :

(A) Click on Details button. It provides you with details of the selected component.
You can add or remove individual sub-components contained in the selected
component group.
(B) Click on Next button to install the component.

3.20.4 Date and Time

Inside your computer there is a small component called a Real Time clock. This
Real Time Clock or RTC and CMOS setup powered by a buttery cell ensures that
the basic settings of your computer are not lost when you switch off your computer.
RTC stores the current date and time in your computer and passes on this
information to put a date and time stamp on all file operations. The date and time
option lets you adjust the system's date and time to correct settings. It is important
that your computer works on the correct clock and calendar timings, so that your
computer uses current date and time information to create and update your files.
As you may recall from your DOS action, when you display a directory, the
computer shows you not only the names and size of all files, but also the date and
time of last updation of each file. This information is very useful in keeping track of
which files you created and when. Also, when you insert the current date and time in
any of MS-office packages, the information is picked up from here.
 C-115

Through windows you can also use the Date/Time option from control panel to
identify when files are created or modified. It also helps to find or sort files on
that basis. You can also change the current date and time from here :

(1) Click once on the Date and Time folio.

(2) Click on the month roll-down list to change the month.
(3) Click on this button to change the year.
(4) Click on any of the dates to change the date.
(5) Click on this window to change the time.
(6) Click on Apply button to apply the changes you have made.
(7) Click on Ok button to continue.

3.20.5 Time Zone

This option determines which time zone you are in. Especially, for laptop users
who zip across many countries frequently. This is a great boon and helps them
maintain the computer date and time as per the local settings. For India the time
zone is GMT + 05 : 30 Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, New Delhi. To choose time
zone :
(1) Select Date and Time option from panel. Click once on Time Zone folio.
(2) Choose the time zone you want to change to by scrolling up or down in the list
displayed here.
 C-116

(3) Click on Apply button to apply the changes you have made.
(4) Click on Ok button to continue.

3.20.6 Background
Desktop wallpapers do exactly what your room wallpaper does – decorates your
surrounding and adds more colour and fun to your life. Use this option to modify
and apply different pictures and images as your desktop wallpapers. You can also
use repetitive designs called patterns to get a woven fabric or block printed look on
your desktop.
 C-117

To choose Display option from Control Panel :

(1) Click once on Background folio/tab. Background lists the available wallpapers
you can use to decorate your desktop. When you click on a wallpaper in this
list, a preview of how the wallpaper will look appears on the monitor shown
above.
(2) Click on the wallpaper or HTML document from the list given that you would
like on your desktop.
(3) Click on the display box to choose how you want the wallpaper to be displayed
whether tiled or centered.
(4) Click on Apply button to apply the settings that you have changed.
(5) Click on Ok button to continue.
 C-118

3.20.7 Screen Saver

A screen saver is a moving image or pattern that appears on your monitor when you
have left your computer idle for a specified limit. Screen saver serves four main
functions :
 C-119

(a) Most of them are interesting and provide fun and entertainment.
(b) When the same static image stays on a screen for a long period of time it can
burn the delicate phosphors on the inside surface of the picture of your
monitor. This can leave a permanent ghost of the image on the screen, thereby
damaging your monitor.
(c) Many newer computers have inbuilt power saving option build into them
which powers down the monitor as soon as the screen saver comes into effect,
thereby saving on your electricity bills.
(d) The screen saver also has an optional security feature. Through this option you
can define a password. Once the screen saver is activated, it requires the user
typing in the correct password before you can resume working. This makes sure
that nobody peeps and messes with your computer file while you are away from
your desk.
To choose a screen saver :
(1) Choose Display Option from Control Panel. Click on screen saver folio/tab.
The screen saver lists the available screen savers. A screen saver displays moving
images, which starts automatically if your computer is idle for the specified
amount of time.
(2) Click on the screen saver roll-down list and choose the screen saver that you
want to apply.
(3) Click on the Settings button to change the settings.
(4) Click on the Preview button to preview the screen saver before applying it.
(5) Click here to increase or decrease the time after which the screen saver would
appear.
(6) Click on Apply button to apply the changes made.
(7) Click on Ok button to continue.

3.20.8 Fonts
Fonts are like having different handwritings available on your computer. Fonts are type
faces that you can use to pep up your work and change the appearance of characters on
your screen and on the printed paper. Fonts help you to express your message more
clearly and emphatically. Broadly, there are two types of fonts, serif and sauserif. A serif
is a short stroke at the end of or at an angle to the latter form. An example of serif is
Times New Roman font and sauserif is Arial font. Windows comes bundled with a large
number of fonts, which are automatically installed during the windows setup
installation. You can install additional fonts from other software as and when required.
(A) Choose fonts option from Control Panel.
(B) A list of all the available fonts would be displayed. To look at a sample of a font
double-click the icon for the font.
C-120
 C-121

3.20.9 Modem
A modem, short form for Modulator/Demodulator is an electronic device that
allows you to send and receive any kind of digital data through the normal
telephone line. Since your computer stores data in digital format and your
telephone line transmits only analog data, a modem converts any kind of digital
data into analog data and vice-versa.

You can use the Modem option from control panel to install new modems or to
check the performance and settings of pre-installed modems.
To choose phone and modem options from Control Panel :

(1) Click on the Phone and Modem folio/tab.

(2) Click on the modem to highlight it.
(3) Click on the Add or Remove button to add or remove the modem.
(4) Click on the properties button to configure the modem.
(5) Click on the Apply button to apply the changes made.
(6) Click on Ok button to continue.
 C-122

3.20.10 Mouse
As explained earlier, a mouse is a small hand held device through which you can
quickly and easily navigate the different parts of the screen. You can customise the
various aspects of mouse to make them work the way, you prefer. You can control
the mouse pointer speed, shape, button configuration, double click speed etc. You
can even swap the left and right buttons. If you frequently loose track of where your
mouse pointer is, you can choose to have a mouse trail effect, which will make the
mouse pointer more visible.

Button Configuration:
To customize button configuration follow the following steps :
(1) Click on the Buttons folio/tab.
(2) Click on Right handed radio button of the Button configuration option to
convert your left mouse button into right button and vice-versa.
(3) Drag this button to increase or decrease the clicking speed of the mouse.
(4) Click on Apply button to apply the changes that you have made.
(5) Click on Ok button to continue.
 C-123

Pointer Configuration:
To customize pointer configuration follow the following steps as given below :
(1) Click on Pointers folio/tab.
(2) Click on the pull-down list to choose the scheme that you want to apply.
(3) You can choose a scheme from another location by clicking on the Browse
button.
(4) Click on Apply button to apply the chosen scheme.
(5) Click on the Ok button to continue.
Motion Configuration:
To customize motion configuration follow the following steps as listed below:
(1) Click on the Motion folio/tab.
(2) Click on this button to increase or decrease the pointer speed.
(3) You can also click on the pointer trails radio buttons to make them look long or
short.
(4) Click on Apply button to apply the changes you have made.
(5) Click on Ok button to continue.
 C-124

Comprehensive Exercise

1. What do you mean by operating system?

2. What do you understand by Batch operating system?
3. What do you understand by interactive operating system?
4. What is the difference between Real time system and Time sharing?
5. What do you understand by single user operating system and multi-user
operating system?
6. What do you call that software which activates computer ?
7. What do you mean by operating system? Write down about function and
evolution of operating system.
8. What do you understand by MS-DOS? Define internal command and external
command. Describe any two internal and external DOS commands.
 C-125

9. What do you understand by Real time system ? Describe hard real system and
soft real system in detail.
10. What is an operating system ? What are the functions of an operating system ?
How does windows differ from DOS ?

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. ____ is an operating system.
(a) user management (b) keyboard management
(c) file management (d) modern management
2. Windows is developed by:
(a) Sun Micro System (b) IBM
(c) Microsoft (d) Apple Software
3. Which of the following operating system is fully supported by graphical user
interface?
(a) Linux (b) UNIX
(c) Windows-98 (d) DOS
4. ______ is an operating system.
(a) user management (b) keyboard management
(c) file management (d) modern management

5. DOS is an operating system which provide _________ mode.

(a) CUI (b) GUI
(c) CLI (d) none of the above

6. The dir command in DOS provides:

(a) directory copy (b) directory listing
(c) disk formatting (d) file copy mechanism

7. Windows is developed by:

(a) Sun Micro System (b) IBM
(c) Microsoft (d) Apple software
 C-126

8. Which of the following operating system is fully supported by Graphical user

interface?
(a) Linux (b) UNIX
(c) Windows (d) DOS

9. Which software activates the computer?

(a) commands (b) user interface
(c) operating system (d) utilities

10. Which of the following is not a Graphical user interface component?

(a) ratio button (b) menu
(c) command (d) text box

11. Which type of user interface MS-DOS provide ?

(a) GUI (b) CUI
(c) ABI (d) MGI

12. DOS stands for:

(a) disk operating system (b) direct operating system
(c) disk operate system (d) daily operating system

13. An operating system is the interface between:

(a) hardware and software (b) hardware and user
(c) user and software (d) none of the above

14. MS-DOS stands for:

(a) mini-soft disk operating system
(b) microsoft disk operating system
(c) microsoft disk operate system
(d) microsoft daily operating system

15. Operating system is:

(a) UNIX (b) LINUX
(c) Windows (d) All of the above

16. Date command used for:

(a) only date (b) only current date
(c) see only current date (d) none of the above

17. DOS commands are divided into:

(a) one parts (b) two parts
(c) three parts (d) none of the above
 C-127

18. Functions of an operating system is:

(a) starting the computer (b) running applications programs
(c) (a) and (b) both (d) none of the above

19. Real time systems are divided into two parts:

(a) hard real system and soft real system
(b) hard imaginary system and soft real system
(c) hard imaginary system and soft imaginary system
(d) none of the above
20. ……… command is used for creating a new directory.
(a) cd (b) md
(c) bd (d) none of these
21. ……… command is used for changing a directory.
(a) md (b) bd
(c) cd (d) ed
22. ……… and ……… command is has parts of DOS.
(a) input, output (b) internal, external
(c) incoming, outgoing (d) none of these
23. Operating system is an interface between ……… and ……… .
(a) User and Hardware (b) Hardware and Firmware
(c) Firmware and User (d) User and Application
24. ……… is/are operating system(s).
(a) Window (b) UNIX
(c) LINUX (d) all of these
25. DOS stands for :
(a) Direct Operating System (b) Disk Operating System
(c) Disk Output System (d) Direct Output System
26. In MS-DOS ……… command can be used for viewing the contents of a file
(a) view (b) open
(c) show (d) none of these
27. ……… is a main function of operating system.
(a) Running applications (b) Starting computer
(c) Managing files (d) Data Management
28. A ……… operating system accepts jobs and places them in a queue to await
execution.
(a) Batch (b) Real time
(c) Multi-user (d) Single-user
 C-128

29. An ……… operating system, allows users to interact directly with a

computer from a terminal.
(a) batch (b) interactive
(c) real time (d) single user
30. Real Time Systems are divided into ……… parts.
(a) Three (b) Four
(c) Five (d) Two

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)

6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (b)
26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (d)

¨
 C-129

4
C omputer S oftware and
P rogramming

4.1 Computer Software

computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a job
A desired by us. Hence, it is necessary to specify a sequence of instructions
which a computer must perform to solve a problem. Such a sequence of
instructions is written in a language understood by a computer program. A
program controls a computer’s processing activity and the computer performs
precisely what the program wants it to do. When a computer is using a program to
perform a task, we say, it is running or executing that program.
The term software refers to a set of computer programs, procedures and associated
documents describing the programs and how they are to be used.
A software package is a group of programs that solve a specific problem or perform
a specific type of job.
Software is a general term, which is used to describe the instructions that are given
to a computer. These instructions can either be a single program or a group of
programs.
 C-130

A computer requires both hardware and software for its proper functioning,
without software computers are just a box full of electronic components capable of
doing nothing. So in order to utilize all the hardware provided inside the computer
we need to use a system which assign job to each component so that the overall task
could be achieved. This can be done through a collection of programs which are
nothing but the instruction sets called as software. So we can say that the software
is a collection of programs, whose aim is to enhance the capabilities of the hardware
machine.

4.2 Types of Software

Although the range of softwares available today is vast and varied, most softwares
can be divided into two major categories:
(1) System software
(2) Application software

Application Software
Graphics Personal
Databases Assistance
System Software Education
Spreadsheets
Translators Entertainment
Word Operating
Systems Hardware Utility
Processors Programs Communication
CPU, Disks, Mouse,
Printer, etc.

Types of Software

4.2.1 System Software

This software includes operating system and all utilities that enable the computer
to function.
This consists of all the programs, language and documentation supplied by the
manufacturer of the computer. This type of software is required to use the
computer efficiently and conveniently. These programs allow the application
developer to write and develop their own programs.
System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation
and extend the processing capability of a computer system. In general, a computer
system software performs one or more of the following functions:
 C-131

(1) Supports development of other application softwares.

(2) Supports execution of other application softwares.
(3) Monitors effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals etc.
(4) Communicates with and controls operation of peripheral devices such as
printer, disk, tape, etc.
Hence, system software makes the operation of a computer system more effective
and efficient. It helps the hardware components work together and provides
support for the development and execution of application software. The programs
included in a system software package are called system programs. The
programmers who prepare system software are referred to as system programmers.
Some commonly known types of system softwares are:
(1) Operating Systems
Operating system software takes care of effective and efficient utilization of all the
hardware and software components of a computer system.
(2) Programming Language Translators
Programming language translators transform the instructions prepared by
programmers in a programming language into a form that can be interpreted and
executed by a computer system.
(3) Utility Programs
Utility programs are a set of programs that help users in system maintenance tasks
and in performing tasks of routine nature. Some commonly performed tasks of
utility programs include formatting of hard disks or floppy disks, taking backup of
files stored on hard disk on to a tape or floppy disk, sorting of the records stored in a
file based on some key fields etc.

4.2.2 Application Software

Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific
problem or do a specific task. For example, payroll processing software,
examination results processing software, railway/airline reservation software,
computer games software are all application softwares. Similarly, a program
written by a scientist to solve a research problem is also an application software.
The programs included in an application software package are called application
programs. The programmers who prepare application software are referred to as
application programmers.
There are literally millions of application softwares available for a wide range of
applications. They range from simple applications such as word processing,
inventory management, preparation of tax returns, banking, hospital
administration, insurance, publishing to complex scientific and engineering
applications such as weather forecasting, space shuttle launching, oil and natural
 C-132

gas exploration, design of complex structures like aircrafts, ships, bridges, sky-rise
buildings etc. With so many applications available, it is not possible to categorize
them all and to cover them here. Some commonly known application softwares
are:
(1) Word-Processing Software
Word-processing software enables us to make use of a computer for creating,
editing, viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving and printing documents.
(2) Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheet software is a numeric-data-analysis tool that allows us to create a kind
of computerized ledger. A manual ledger is a book having rows and columns that
accountants use for keeping a record of financial transactions and for preparing
financial statements.
(3) Database Software
A database is a collection of related data stored and treated as a unit for
information retrieval purposes. A database software is a set of programs that
enables us to create a database, maintain it, organize its data in desired fashion,
selectively retrieve useful information from it.
(4) Graphics Software
Graphics software enables us to use a computer system for creating, viewing,
storing, retrieving and printing of designs, drawings, pictures, graphs etc.
(5) Personal Assistance Software
Personal assistance software allows us to use personal computers for storage and
retrieval of our personal information as well as for planning and management of
our schedules, contacts, finances and inventory of important items.
(6) Education Software
Education software allows a computer to be used as a teaching and learning tool. A
few examples of such software include those which are used for teaching
mathematics, grammar or any other subject.
(7) Entertainment Software
Entertainment software allows a computer to be used as an entertaining tool.
Computer video games belong to this category of software.
(8) Communication Software
In a network environment, communication software enables transfer of data and
programs from one computer system to another.

4.3 Programming Language

A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate
instructions to a machine particularly a computer. Programming languages can be
used to create programs that control the behaviour of a machine and/or to express
algorithms.
 C-133

The earliest programming languages preceded for invention of the computer, and
were used to direct the behaviour of machines such as Jacquard looms and player
pianos. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly
in the computer field, and still many are being created every year. Many
programming languages require computation to be specified in an imperative form
(i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform), while other languages utilize other
forms of program specification such as a the declarative form (i.e., the desired
result is specified not how to achieve it).
A program is a set of instructions which are executed by a computer. A
programming language consists of all the symbols, characters and usage rules, that
permit people to communicate with computer programming languages and are
said to be lower or higher depending upon whether they are closer to the language
which the computer itself uses or to the languages that people use.

4.3.1 Low Level Language

In computer science, a low-level programming language is a programming language
that provides little or no abstraction to a computer’s instruction set architecture.
Generally this refers to either machine code or assembly language. The word “low”
refers to the small or non existent amount of abstraction between the language and
machine language; because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as
being “close to the hardware.”
Low-level languages can be converted into machine code without using a compiler
or interpreter, and the resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program
written in a low-level language can be made to run very quickly, and with a very
small memory footprint, whereas an equivalent program in a high-level language
will be more heavy-weighted. Low-level languages are simple, but are considered as
difficult to use, due to the numerous technical details which must be remembered.
By comparison, a high-level programming language isolates the execution
semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, which
simplifies development.
Low-level programming languages are sometimes divided into two categories: first
generation, and second generation.
 C-134

Machine Language
It contains the strings of binary number (0’s and 1’s) and is machine dependent. It
means that the machine language for every processor is different. An instruction
prepared in any machine language has two parts of format, as shown below:

The first part is the operation which tells the computer which function to perform.
Every computer has an operation code or opcode for each of its functions.
The second part of the instruction is the operand and it tells the computer where to
find or store the data or other instructions that are to be manipulated. Thus, each
instruction guides the CPU what to do and the length and the location of the data
fields that are involved in the operation.
Advantages
(i) Very efficient.
(ii) Requires less storage space.
(iii) The processor can execute without any transaction.
Disadvantages
(i) Machine dependent.
(ii) Programming is difficult.
(iii) Error Prone.
(iv) Cost is high.
(v) Writing a program in machine language is very difficult as for every task the
machine language codes are to be searched and remembered.
Assembly Language
In this type of language, we replace the strings of binary numbers with short
acronyms corresponding to the fundamental functions that the computer
processor is able to perform. Each mnemonic of assembly language has a unique
machine code.

Assembly language or symbolic language is a language that uses symbols instead of

numbers. A translator program that translates an assembly code with the
computers machine code is known as assembler. This assembler is a system
program which is supplied by the computer manufacturer. It is written by system
programmers with great care. Assembly language offer several advantages:
(i) They are more standardized and easier to use than machine languages.
(ii) They are very efficient, although not as efficient as the machine language.
(iii) They are easier to debug.
Assembly language code is very simple in comparison to machine language.
 C-135

Advantages
(i) They are time saving and reduce details.
(ii) Fewer errors are made which are easier to find.
(iii) Assembly language programs are easier to modify than the machine language.
(iv) Easier to understand and use.
Disadvantages
(i) The coding of assembly language is time consuming.
(ii) It is also machine oriented as the code for one machine cannot be used by the
other one.
First Generation Programming Language
First-generation programming language is a machine-level programming language.
Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation
language. The first-generation programming instructions were entered through
the front panel switches of the computer system.
A first generation (programming) language (1GL) is a group of programming
languages, machine level languages, that are used to program first-generation
computers. The instructions were given through the front panel switches of these
computers directly to the CPU. There was originally no compiler or assembler to
process the instructions in 1GL.
The instructions in 1GL are made of binary numbers, represented by 1’s and 0’s.
This makes the language suitable for the understanding of the machine but very
much more difficult to interpret and learn by the human programmer.
The main advantage of programming in 1GL is that the code can run very fast and
very efficiently, precisely because the instructions are executed directly by the
CPU. One of the main disadvantages of programming in a low level language is that
when an error occurs, the code is not as easy to fix.
First generation languages are very much adapted to a specific computer and CPU,
and code portability is therefore significantly reduced in comparison to higher
level languages.
Modern day programmers still occasionally use machine level code, especially
when programming lower level functions of the system, such as drivers, interfaces
with firmware and hardware devices. Modern tools, such as native-code compilers
are used to produce machine level language from a higher-level language.
Second Generation Programming Language (2GL)
Second-generation programming language is a generational way to categorize
assembly languages. The term was coined to provide a distinction between higher
level third-generation programing languages (3GL) such as COBOL and earlier
machine code languages. Second-generation programming languages have the
following properties:
 C-136

The code can be read and written by a programmer. To run on a computer it must
be converted into a machine readable form, by a process called assembly.
The language is specific to a particular processor family and environment.
Second-generation languages are sometimes used in kernels and device drivers
(though C is generally employed for this in modern kernels), but more often find
their use in extremely intensive processing such as games, video editing, graphic
manipulation/rendering.
One method for creating such code is by allowing a compiler to generate a
machine-optimized assembly language version of a particular function. This code
is then hand-tuned, gaining both the brute-force insight of the machine optimizing
algorithm and the intuitive abilities of the human optimizer.

4.3.2 High Level Language

To overcome the difficulties of low level language, the high level language was
developed. These languages, instead of being machine based, are more oriented
towards solving a problem.
In computer science, a high-level programming language is a programming
language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In comparison
to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements. It is
easier to use, or may automate (or even hide entirely) significant areas of
computing systems (e.g. memory management), making the process of developing
a program simpler and more understandable relative to a lower-level language. The
amount of abstraction provided defines how “high-level” a programming language
is. Examples of high-level programming languages include Java, Lisp, R, Python
and Ruby.
..
The first high-level programming language designed for computers was Plankalkul,
created by Konrad Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time, and his
original contributions were largely isolated from other developments (it
influenced Heinz Rutishauser’s language “Superplan”).
In the 1960s, high-level programming languages using a compliler were commonly
called autocodes. Examples of autocodes are COBOL and Fortran.
A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal enables a programmer to
write programs that are more or less independent from a particular type of
computer. Such languages are considered as high-level because they are closer to
human languages and farther from machine languages. In contrast, assembly
languages are considered as low-level because they are very close to machine
languages.
The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they
are easier to read, write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level
language must be translated into machine language by a compiler or interpreter.
 C-137

The first high-level programming languages were designed in the 1950s. Examples
of early high level languages are ALGOL, COBOL, FORTRAN and Ada. These
programs could run on different machines so they were machine-independent. As
new, more abstract languages have been developed, however, the concept of high
and low level languages have become rather relative. Many of the early “high level”
languages are now considered relatively low level in comparison to languages such
as Python, Ruby, and Common Lisp.
“High-level language” refers to the higher level of abstraction from the machine
language. Rather than dealing with registers, memory addresses and call stacks,
high-level languages deal with variables, arrays, objects, complex arithmetic or
boolean expressions, subroutines and functions, loops, threads, locks, and other
abstract computer science concepts, with a focus on usability over optimal
program efficiency. Unlike low-level assembly languages, high-level languages
have few, if any, language elements that translate directly into a machine’s native
opcodes. Other features, such as string handling routines, object-oriented
language features, and file input/output, may also be present.
Advantages
(i) These are easier to learn than Low Level Language.
(ii) It requires less time to write.
(iii) They provide better documentation.
(iv) Easier to maintain.
(v) They are not machine oriented.
Third Generation Programming Language (3GL)
Third-generation programming language (3GL) is a refinement of a
second-generation programming language. The second generation of
programming languages brought logical structure to software. The third
generation brought refinements to make the languages more
programmer-friendly. This includes features like improved support for aggregate
data types, and expressing concepts in a way that favors the programmer, not the
computer (e.g. no longer need to state the length of multi-character (string) literals
in Fortran). A third generation language improves over a second generation
language, by having the computer take care of non-essential details, not the
programmer. Third Generation Languages feature more abstraction than previous
implementations of those languages, and thus can be considered higher level
languages then their first and second generation counterparts.
First introduced in the late 1950s, Fortran, ALGOL and COBOL are early
examples of this sort of language.
Most popular general-purpose languages today such as C, C++, C#, Java, BASIC
and Pascal are also third-generation languages. Although C++, Java and C#
follow a completely different path as they are object-oriented in nature. Third
 C-138

generation focused on structured and had no meaning for the object encapsulation
concepts.
Most 3GLs support structured programming.

4.3.3 Comparison of High Level Language, Assembly Language

and Machine Language
High Level Lan- Assembly Language Machine Language
guage

1. These are eas ily Less understandable than high Programs are less
understandable. level language but more than understandable.
machine language.

2. Programs are Not portable to processor to Not portable only processor of

portable. same interpreter only. same architecture.

3. Debugging is Debugging is more complex Not good as high level lan-

easier. than in high level language. guage and assembly lan-
guage.

4.4 Programming Environment

Programming Environment is a group of processes and implements for developing,
testing and debugging an application or a program. It has server tiers known as
development, staging and production. It is used in software development as a set of
procedures and implements that develop a source code or a program.
C is actually a free format language. This means that there are no rules about how it
must be typed, when to start new lines, where to place brackets or whatever. This
has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that the user is free to
choose a style which best suits him or her and there is freedom in the way in which a
program can be structured.
The disadvantage is that unless a strict style is adopted, it can result in a very sloppy
program.
C program has to be created in two stages:
I. The program is written in the form of a number to text files using a screen
editor. The form of this program is called the source program. It is not
possible to execute this file directly.
II. The complete source file is passed to a compiler. A program generates a new
file containing a machine code, translation of the source text, this file is
called an object file or executable file. The executable file is said to be
compiled from the source text.
 C-139

The reasons for choosing a well structured style are:

(i) Long programs are manageable only if the programs are properly organized.
(ii) Programs are only understandable if care is taken in choosing the names of
variables and functions.

Comprehensive Exercise

1. Differentiate between System software and Application software.

2. What do you understand by computer software? Write about types of
software.
3. What do you understand by computer software?
4. Describe types of software.

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. Software is a:
(a) super set program (b) subset of program
(c) set of programs (d) none of these

2. The ____ is a sequence of instructions that tells the computer how to process
the data.
(a) data (b) program
(c) controls (d) instructions
3. How are software packages categorized?
(a) hardware and software
(b) word processing and spreadsheets
(c) system software and application software
(d) none of the above
4. The software can be divided into:
(a) system software and application software
(b) general purpose software and special purpose software
(c) operating system and application software
(d) none of the above
 C-140

5. The software required to run the computer is:

(a) application software (b) microsoft word
(c) programs (d) operating system
6. ____ is known as the first woman programmer.
(a) Charles Babbage (b) Lady Lovelace
(c) Abacus (d) none of these
7. ……… is a collection of instructions.
(a) Program (b) Software
(c) Hardware (d) Command
8. Computer machine accepts ……… level language
(a) high (b) low
(c) machine (d) none of these
9. ……… is used to remove the error of the program.
(a) Hardware (b) Computer
(c) Software (d) Firmware

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (d)

6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b)

¨
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C omputer N etworks

5.1 Computer Networks

computer network is a collection of computers and peripheral devices
A connected by communication links that allow the network components to
work together. The network components may be located at many remote
locations or within the same office. In any case, data communication is the glue
that holds the network together.
Networking serves five important purpose:
(1) It allows departments to share hardware. Companies often want peripheral
devices that are affordable only if they are shared by several computers.
(2) It allows information to be shared. Some files may be used constantly
throughout a company.
(3) It allows for the electronic transfer of text. Organizations, often transfer textual
data from one place to another. Through a network, an electronic mail system
may be used to distribute copies of memos or reports. Each user of the
 C-142

electronic mail system has a "mailbox" located in the memory of his or her own
computer. The electronic mail system distributes messages by storing them in
the appropriate mail boxes. The user can check the mail box for messages. If
there is a message, it is displayed on the screen. The user can then use the
electronic mail system to send a response.
(4) It allows for decentralization of various data processing functions. As micro
computer use spreads throughout an organization, some data processing and
analysis functions that had been performed by the data processing department
become decentralized and are performed locally within other departments. To
perform these functions it is crucial that the local computers have access to data
from the mainframe computer. A network can provide such access.
(5) It allows for communication between organizations. Various organizations
cooperating in performing certain tasks can link their computers in a network in
order to share information. This allows for sharing of data and software and for
rapid communication among the various network members.
A network can be defined as the interconnection of two or more systems. The
minimum number of systems required to make a network is two. Computer
systems connected in a network can exchange information between themselves
and share the use of hardware devices connected such as the printer etc.
A system with one main controlling unit known as the master and many slave
terminals is not a network.
Computer networks are of three types:
(1) Local Area Network (LAN)
(2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
(3) Wide Area Network (WAN)

5.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

Networks that connect computers lying within a small distance from each other
are called local area network (LAN).
Example: a room, a building
Local area networks normally use coaxial cables to connect the computers
together. Two or more computers connected together can share, besides data, their
peripherals such as printers, modem etc. This cuts down a lot on the hardware
equipment lost.
Besides coaxial cables, a plug-in card is also required for each computer. The coaxial
cables connect the plug-in cards of the computers to form a network. A special
software is also required for the network to operate.
All local area networks transfer data in digital form at a high speed and have a low
implementation cost.
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Local Area Network

Some applications performed by a LAN are as follows:
(1) File transfer and access
(2) Accessing the internet
(3) Providing Management information system.
LAN connects two or more computers within a very small range.

5.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network uses the distributed queue dual bus. The
metropolitan area network is larger than a LAN and it may cover areas as large as a
city. The distributed queue dual bus system consists of two buses connected to all
the computers.
The figure below depicts the two buses connecting three nodes.
The dual bus helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
Data going up uses bus A and data going down uses Bus B.

Metropolitan Area Network

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Suppose information has to be passed from terminal 3 to 1, it will use Bus-A and if a
reply has to be sent back it will use Bus B.

5.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network connects computers which are very remotely placed. It may
connect across the countries or continents or the entire globe. Wide Area
Networks are also referred to as Long Haul Networks.
Wide area networks can either be point-to-point type or broadcast type. In a point-
to-point type network, the source and the destination machines are connected to
each

The Complete Network

other via several intermediate routers. The point to point type network may be
separated into two parts– the hosts and the subnet. The machines between which
communication is to be established are called hosts. The hosts are connected to
each other by what is known as the subnet. The subnet consists of the transmission
lines and the intermediate switching elements are also called "routers". The main
function of a router is to receive the transmitted data and then select an
appropriate-channel to forward it to the destination host or to another router.
When a data packet arrives at a router it is stored in the router until the output
transmission line is free and is then transmitted or forwarded to destination host.
The broadcast type wide area network use a satellite or ground radio system. All or
some routers have antennas through which they can receive the incoming signals
from the satellite. When a ground radio system is being used the routers can
communicate between each other. It may also be possible that in a network, while
some routers receive their outputs through their antennas, others are point to
point type.
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5.5 Internet
Internet is the name for a vast, worldwide system consisting of people information
and computers. It is so huge and complex that it is beyond the comprehension of a
single human being.
The roots of the internet lie in a project called the ARPANET, which was sponsored
by the united states department of defence–Advanced Research Project Agency
(ARPA). The department of defence was interested in building a network that
could maintain itself under adverse conditions.
The project was started in 1968 and soon evolved into a more general goal of
developing techniques to build a large scale network. ARPANET continued for
years and was gradually phased out after having been officially declared
completed. By then the technology to connect computers reliably and
economically had been developed and today the ARPANET's spiritual
descendants form the global backbone of what we call, INTERNET.
Internet is a computer network formed by connecting millions of computers
together. These computers are interconnected by using phone lines, fibre optics
cables and satellite transmission. With the help of web browser it became possible
for even the common man to use the internet. Web browser is a tool to view the large
information contents stored on different computers worldwide. Its use has enabled
the gathering of information about any topic on the internet. No one pays for
internet usage but one thing must be remembered that nothing comes free of cost.
Users pay to internet service providers for getting an access to the internet and they
also pay for using the phone line.
Internet provides various types of services such as web pages, e-mail, conferencing
etc. There are many characteristics of internet. Some of them are:
• Hyper linking from one server to another.
• Point-to-point communication.
• Ability to search large amount of data.
• Instant and interactive.
There are many Indian networks connected to the internet are :
• INDONET
• NICNET
• ERNET
• SOFTNET
• GIAS
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5.5.1 Working of Internet

Computer networking allows the sharing of resources and to share the resource we
need the address of destination and a safe method to move the information from
one place to another. There is a protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission control
protocol/ internet protocol) in which TCP can divide the data into small data
packets and IP put the address of destination on these packets. It is not necessary
that all the packets follow the same path from source to destination. Paths are
decided by routers or gateways.

5.5.2 Connecting to Internet

To connect with internet first we need an internet account, user name (must be
unique) and password from the security point of view. The process of connecting to
serve by giving the user name and password is called logging in, we can connect to
internet in different manners such as :
• TCP/IP link
• Dial-up connection
• Host terminal section
• ISDN
• Dedicated line connections
• VSAT technology
• Leased line connections
• Cable modem.

5.5.3 Tools and Services on Internet

Tools and services which are related to internet are:
• E-mail
• Use net and News group
• Transferring files with FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Mailing lists on internet
• Telnet

5.5.4 Browsing the Internet

The process of searching anything on internet is called browsing and the
components which are helpful in browsing are called browser. Browser provides
the ability to perform new searches. Gopher and w.w.w. are the two most popular
examples of browser.
 C-147

5.5.5 World Wide Web (w.w.w.)

It is an important method of browsing. It is hypertext based tool. Through the
hyper link between different documents, one can easily jump from one document
to another. Documents may contain text, sounds, videos, animation and images.
The information in world wide web is presented in the form of web pages.

5.5.6 E-mail
It is the off line way of communication between different internet users. It is the
most important reason to use the internet. E-mail allows to send a message to a
specific person or group of persons at a time. A message typed into the computer
travels instantly over the network to the recipient of the message. Service providers
deliver e-mail connectivity by linking together all those who wish to send or
exchange messages.
How to Send and Receive E-mail :
You may send and receive e-mail by using outlook express. Outlook express
organise the mail items into different folders such as inbox, outbox, sent item,
deleted items and drafts. It is user friendly.

5.6 Network Topology

There are several different ways to organize the computers to form a network.
These organizations of the computers in a network are referred to an network
topology.
In the computer network each computer is known as nodes and how these nodes
are connected with each other is called the network topology. Nodes are connected
in different topologies.
The different network topologies possible are:
(1) Star topology
(2) Ring topology
(3) Bus topology
(4) Mesh topology
(5) Tree topology
We shall discuss each of these in detail.

5.6.1 Star Topology

The star topology consists of a central computer to which all other computer
terminals are connected. Two computers in this type of network cannot have direct
 C-148

communication. They can only communicate via the central computer. In case the
central computer breaks down, the network becomes redundant.
One very important advantage of this type of network topology is that in case any
one node is faulty or is having problems, it can be isolated from the network
without affecting any other terminal.
The star topology is the most commonly used network topology in data
communication today. The performance of the system is good for moderate load.
However, when traffic is high, the system may have some problems.
A disadvantage of star topology is that two terminals can't interact directly i.e. they
have to go via the central computer. This leads to no privacy in the network.
Another disadvantage is the network's dependence on the main computer. If the
central computer breaks down the entire network stops functioning.
The star topology requires that each and every terminal be connected using a
different cable. This leads to a somewhat increased cost for the cable as well as the
installation of the cables.

Block diagram depicting a network in star topology

All communications first goes through the centralized computer allowing it to

control the operation, work load and resource allocation of the other computers in
the network.
The advantage is that it is relatively simple.

5.6.2 Ring Topology

In this network there is no centralized computer as in star topology besides in it the
computers are connected to each other in the ring form. A ring may be
unidirectional and bi-directional.
 C-149

In unidirectional data can move only in one direction where as in bi-directional

data can move in both the directions (clockwise or anticlockwise).

Bi-directional Uni-directional
Ring Topology

In the ring topology, the different computers are connected to each other forming a
closed loop. The data is passed from one computer to the other in series until it
reaches its desired destination.
There is no concept of the central computer in this case. The data is divided into
packets when transmitted and each packet contains the address of the node that it
is destined for. Unlike the star topology, this type of network requires lesser
amount of cable and there are not much of installation problems either.
The biggest disadvantage of this type of topology is that the failure of one node may
lead to the failure of the entire network. Since data from the source node passes
through a series of nodes before reaching the destined node, the failure of even one
node may lead to the network failure. However, the use of a bidirectional ring
topology can temporarily solve this problem by choosing a path that does not
contain the faulty node. Unlike the star topology, it is relatively difficult to
diagnose the faulty node in the ring network.
If the star topology provides less privacy, the ring topology provides zero privacy.
However, the ring topology provides a better performance under heavy traffic as
well.
It is also easy to add or remove terminals in a ring network which is not as easy in
the case of a star network as only a certain specified terminals can be inserted into
the central computer.

5.6.3 Bus Topology

The bus topology is also referred to as the multipoint topology. All nodes are
connected to a bus that runs through the networks.
 C-150

Block diagram depicting a network in Bus Topology

Each node is given a unique address. Information containing the address of the
destined node is available at all the nodes but only the node with the specific
address responds. The bus can transmit data in both directions.
If one node of the network goes faulty, the network can still remain working.
However, the fault diagnosis of such a system is very difficult as each and every
node has to be tested to find the faulty one. Once the fault has been found, the
computer node having the fault is usually not disconnected from the network, but
repaired on the spot.
The bus network topology is easy to extend as only new nodes have to be added
along the bus. However, for a larger network, signal amplifiers known as repeaters
may be used to strengthen the signal. The cable length and the installation do not
pose much of a problem as the cable length required is short as compared to other
topologies.

5.6.4 Mesh Topology

The mesh topology requires that every terminal be connected to every other
terminal in the network.

Block diagram depicting a network in Mesh Topology

Hence, all the computers must have adequate number of interfaces for the
connections to be made. Because of this requirement the installation is somewhat
difficult. The length of cable required is also quite high as compared with other
topologies.
 C-151

Data transfer using mesh topology is faster than the earlier discussed topologies.
Mesh networks are also quite fault resistant. If a particular path fails, data can be
routed via alternate paths.
To save on the cost of inter connections and to reduce the complexity of the
system, we can make use of the hybrid mesh network. In this type of network, some
of the main or more frequently used networks are connected to each other like a
mesh topology. The computer terminals are attached to these main terminals.

Diagram depicting a network in Hybrid Mesh Topology

5.6.5 Tree Topology

Tree topology requires the computers to be linked in a hierarchical way. Data
transmission in this topology is relatively slower. The packets carrying the
addresses of the destination nodes should have the complete address, that is, all the
nodes above it in hierarchy also have to be mentioned.

Block diagram depicting a network in Tree Topology

The tree network like the star network is dependent on the main computer. Hence,
the failure of the main computer shall lead to the failure of the entire network.
 C-152

The tree network is very flexible as any number of nodes can be added or removed
easily.

5.7 Intranet
An intranet is a private computer network that uses internet technologies to
securely share any part of an organization's information or operational systems
with its employees. Sometimes the term refers only to the organization's internal
website, but often it is a more extensive part of the organization's computer
infrastructure and private websites are an important component and focal point of
internal communication and collaboration.
An intranet is built from the same concepts and technologies used for the internet,
such as client-server computing and the internet protocol suite. Any of the well
known internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such as HTTP, SMTP and
FTP. Internet technologies are often deployed to provide modern interfaces to
legacy information systems hosting corporate data.
Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms. Intranet user
editorial and technology teams work together to produce inhouse sites. Most
commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO
departments of large organizations or some combination of these.

5.7.1 Benefits of Intranet

(1) Workforce productivity.
(2) Time.
(3) Communication.
(4) Web publishing allows "cumbersome" corporate knowledge to be maintained
and easily accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and web
technologies.
(5) Business operations and management.
(6) Cost-effective.
(7) Promote common corporate culture.
(8) Enhance collaboration.
(9) Cross platform capability.
(10) Built for one audience.
(11) Knowledge of your audience.
(12) Immediate updates.
(13) Supports a distributed computing architecture.
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5.8 Internetworking
Interconnecting two more networks to form a single network is called
internetworking, and resulting network is called an internet work. Therefore, a
WAN of multiple LANs is an internetwork.
Internetworks are often heterogeneous networks composed of several segments
that may differ in topology and protocol. For example, let an internetwork have
multiple LANs. Some of these LANs may have multi-access bus topology while
others may have ring topology. Some of them may be using Ethernet technology
while others may be using token ring technology. Some segments of the network
may be using the IP suite while others may be using IBM's SNA protocol suite.
Internetworking allows these relatively unrelated networks to evolve into a single
working network. That is, the goal of internetworking is to interconnect different
physical networks and to hide their details, enabling the internetwork to function
as a single co-ordinated unit.
A collection of different networks connected together or a collection of hosts
connected together by a subnet is called an internetwork. The hosts may be further
connected to other terminals through a LAN or a WAN. An internetwork can be as
large as you can imagine.

Internetwork

The internet is a very large internetwork that is available world-wide. The internet
is the largest network in the world. It provides the worldwide web service
implement.
The internetworking tools commonly used to interconnect two or more networks to
form a single network are:
(i) Bridges (ii) Repeaters (iii) Routers
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5.8.1 Bridges
Bridges operate at the bottom two layers of the OSI model (physical and data link).
Therefore, they are used to connect networks using the same communication
protocols above datalink layer, but may or may not use the same protocols at
physical and data-link layers.
A bridge is a device that is used to connect two networks so that they are able to
perform as one. A bridge can also be used to connect two networks that use the
same topology, such as the Ethernet network and the Token Ring network. One of
the main functions of the bridge is to partition one large network into two networks
which subsequently increases the performance of the network.

5.8.2 Repeater
A repeater receives the incoming signal, repeats it or amplifies it and retransmits
the transformed signal. After certain distances the signal experiences a loss of
power hence a repeater is required to boost the power of the signal. By using
repeaters the network can be extended but only finite extension is possible due to
physical constraints such as noise. As the signal travels a certain distance, some
form of disturbance is added to it. When the repeater amplifies the signal the noise
also gets amplified, hence over a large distance it may be possible that the signal
becomes unrecognizable.

5.8.3 Routers
Routers operate at network layer of the OSI model. Therefore, routers do not care
what topologies or access-level protocols the interconnected network segments
use. Since routers use the bottom three layers of the OSI model, they are used
usually to interconnect those networks that use same high-level protocols above
network layer.
Unlike bridges, routers do not view an internet work from end to end. That is,
bridges know the ultimate destination of a data, but routers only know which is the
next router for a data being transferred on a network. However, routers are smarter
than bridges because they not only copy a data from one network segment to
another, but they also choose the best route for the data by using information in a
routing table to make this decision. That is, managing traffic congestion is a big
plus of routers, they employ a flow control mechanism to direct traffic on to
alternative less congested paths.
 C-155

Comprehensive Exercise

1. What do you mean by computer Networks?

2. Describe LAN, WAN and MAN with suitable examples.
3. What do you mean by internetworking? What is the difference between bridges
and repeaters?
4. What is the difference between internet and intranet?
5. Describe two types of network topologies.

O bjective T ype Q uestions

Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. A computer Network is
(a) Collection of hardware components and computers
(b) Interconnected by communication channels
(c) Sharing of resources and information
(d) All of the above
2. What is the use of Bridge in Network?
(a) to connect LANs
(b) to separate LANs
(c) to control Network Speed
(d) All of the above
3. Router operates in which layer of OSI Reference Model?
(a) Layer 1 (Physical Layer)
(b) Layer 3 (Network Layer)
(c) Layer 4 (Transport Layer)
(d) Layer 7 (Application Layer)
4. Each IP packet must contain
(a) Only Source address
(b) Only Destination address
(c) Source and Destination address
(d) Source or Destination address
 C-156

5. Bridge works in which layer of the OSI Model?

(a) Application layer (b) Transport layer
(c) Network layer (d) Datalink layer
6. ………… provides a connection-oriented reliable service for sending messages
(a) TCP (b) IP
(c) UDP (d) All of the above
7. What does Router do in a network?
(a) Forwards a packet to all outgoing links
(b) Forwards a packet to the next free outgoing link
(c) Determines on which outgoing link a packet is to be forwarded
(d) Forwards a packet to all outgoing links except the originated link
8. What does protocol defines?
(a) Protocol defines what data is communicated.
(b) Protocol defines how data is communicated.
(c) Protocol defines when data is communicated.
(d) All of above
9. Repeater operates in which layer of the OSI model?
(a) Physical layer (b) Data link layer
(c) Network layer (d) Transport layer
10. What is the benefit of the Networking?
(a) File Sharing (b) Easier access to Resources
(c) Easier Backups (d) All of the above
11. Which of the following is not the Networking Devices?
(a) Gateways (b) Linux
(c) Routers (d) Firewalls
12. Routing tables of a router keeps track of
(a) MAC Address Assignments
(b) Port Assignments to network devices
(c) Distribute IP address to network devices
(d) Routes to use for forwarding data to its destination
13. Computer networks can be classified into ……… types.
(a) Four (b) Three
(c) Two (d) Five
14. LAN is a :
(a) Land Area Network (b) Line Area Network
(c) Local Area Network (d) Link Area Network
15. LAN is ……… than WAN.
(a) larger (b) smaller
(c) equal to (d) none of these
 C-157

16. ……… topology is better than bus topology.

(a) ring (b) mesh
(c) tree (d) star
17. What is a firewall in Computer Network?
(a) The physical boundary of Network
(b) An operating System of Computer Network
(c) A system designed to prevent unauthorized access
(d) A web browsing Software
18. How many layers does OSI Reference Model has?
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 7
19. DHCP is the abbreviation of :
(a) Dynamic Host Control Protocol
(b) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(c) Dynamic Hyper Control Protocol
(d) Dynamic Hyper Configuration Protocol
20. IPV4 Address is :
(a) 8 bit (b) 16 bit
(c) 32 bit (d) 64 bit
21. DNS is the abbreviation of :
(a) Dynamic Name System (b) Dynamic Network System
(c) Domain Name System (d) Domain Network Service
22. What is the meaning of Bandwidth in Network?
(a) Transmission capacity of a communication channel
(b) Connected Computers in the Network
(c) Class of IP used in Network
(d) None of above
23. ADSL is the abbreviation of :
(a) Asymmetric Dual Subscriber Line
(b) Asymmetric Digital System Line
(c) Asymmetric Dual System Line
(d) Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
24. Which layers of the OSI model are host-to-host layers ?
(a) Transport, Session, Presentation, Application
(b) Network, Transport, Session, Presentation
(c) Datalink, Network, Transport, Session
(d) Physical, Datalink, Network, Transport
 C-158

25. Which of the following IP address class is Multicast ?

(a) Class A (b) Class B
(c) Class C (d) Class D
26. Which of the following is correct regarding Class B Address of IP address ?
(a) Network bit-14, Host bit-16
(b) Network bit-16, Host bit-14
(c) Network bit-18, Host bit-16
(d) Network bit-12, Host bit-14
27. The last address of IP address represents :
(a) Unicast address (b) Network address
(c) Broadcast address (d) None of above
28. How many bits are there in the Ethernet address?
(a) 64 bits (b) 48 bits
(c) 32 bits (d) 16 bits
29. How many layers are in the TCP/IP model?
(a) 4 layers (b) 5 layers
(c) 6 layers (d) 7 layers
30. Which of the following layers of OSI model is also called end-to-end layer?
(a) Presentation layer (b) Network layer
(c) Session layer (d) Transport layer

A nswers

Multiple Choice Questions

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d)

6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (b)
16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (d)
26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)