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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

ACCOUNTING PROCESS

Steps in the Accounting Cycle – There are 9 basic steps in the accounting cycle, which includes 2
phases known as recording and summarizing.

RECORDING PHASE
1. Analyzing the transaction (business document)- This is where the accountant gathers
information from source documents and determines the impact of the transaction on the financial
position as represented by the equation “assets equals liabilities plus equity”.
2. Journalizing – This is the process of recording the transactions in the appropriate journals. A
journal is a chronological record of transactions also known as the book of original entry.
Although all transactions could be recorded in the general journal, it is more efficient to use
special journals in recording a large number of like transactions. Special journals that enterprises
usually use are:
1. Sales Journal – Only sales of merchandise on account are recorded.
2. Cash receipts journal – All types of cash receipts are recorded.
3. Purchase journal – Used to record all purchases on account (merchandise, equipment
and supplies).
4. Cash disbursement journal – All payments of cash for any purpose are recorded.
Type of journal entries according to form:
1. Simple journal entry – One which contains a single debit and a single credit element.
2. Compound journal entry – One which has two or more elements and often representing
two or more transactions.
Accounts are the storage units of accounting information and used to summarize changes in
assets, liabilities and equity including income and expenses. The following are a broad
classification of kinds of accounts:

1. Real account – Statement of financial position or so called permanent accounts. These

accounts are not closed and carryover to the next accounting period. (ex. Cash, AR and
PPE)
2. Nominal account – Income statement or temporary capital accounts. These accounts are
closed at the end of the accounting period. (ex. Sales and expenses)
3. Mixed account – A combination of real and nominal accounts. (ex. Prepaid expenses)
4. Clearing account – Holds temporarily certain information pending transfer to other ledger
accounts.
5. Controlling account – The general ledger account that summarizes the detailed information
in a subsidiary ledger.
6. Suspense account – Is an account that holds temporarily certain information pending for
disposition.
7. Reciprocal account – Has a counterpart in another book with in the entity or in another
ledger or another entity.
8. Principal account – An account that is independent or can stand alone.
9. Auxiliary account – An account that cannot stand alone and are technically neither assets,
liabilities nor income and expenses.
10. Summary account
3. Posting - It is the process of transferring data from the journal to the appropriate accounts in the
general ledger and subsidiary ledger. This process classifies all accounts that were recorded in
the journals.
Kinds of ledgers
1. General ledger – Includes all the accounts appearing on the financial statements.
2. Subsidiary ledgers – Affords additional detail in support of certain general ledger accounts.

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SUMMARIZING PHASE
4. Preparing the unadjusted trial balance – A list of general ledger accounts with their respective
debit or credit balance. The purpose of the unadjusted trial balance is to provide evidence that
the total debits in the general ledger equal the total credits and prepares the accounts for
adjustments.

5. Preparing adjusting entries – To take up accruals, expiration of prepayments and deferrals,

estimations and other events often not signaled by new source documents. Adjusting entries are
made at the end of each accounting period. The concepts involved behind adjusting entries are
ACCRUAL, MATCHING OF COSTS AGAINST REVENUE and ACCOUNTING PERIOD.

Typical Adjusting Entries classified according to timing of cash flow.

1. Prepayments and Deferrals – The cash flow precedes the revenue or the expense
recognition.

Prepaid Expenses
Asset Method Expense Method

Prepaid expense (asset) xx Expense xx

Cash xx Cash xx

Adjustment:
Expense xx Prepaid expense (asset) xx
Prepaid expense xx Expense xx

Deferred or Unearned Revenue

Liability Method Income Method

Cash xx Cash xx
Unearned Income (liab.) xx Income xx

Adjustment:
Unearned Income xx Income xx
Income xx Unearned Income (liab.) xx

2. Accruals – Income or expense recognition precedes the cash flow.

a. Accrued Income – Income earned but not yet received. A receivable is always debited
and income is recognized (credited)
b. Accrued expenses – Expenses incurred but not yet paid. An expense is recognized
(debited) and a liability is always credited.
3. Estimates – Adjusting entries that do not involve cash flows.
a. Doubtful accounts – The expense to be matched against credit sales.
b. Depreciation - Allocation of the cost of fixed assets as expense over its useful life
4. Ending inventory - An adjustment to set up the year-end physical count of the inventory.
This only applies if the PERIODIC INVENTORY SYSTEM IS USED.
6. Preparing the financial statements – The most important part of the summarizing phase, this is
where the processed information is communicated to external users.
Basic financial statements
a. Statement of financial position
b. Income statement or a statement of comprehensive income
c. Statement of changes in equity
d. Statement of cash flows
e. Notes and disclosures

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7. Preparing the closing entries – Recorded and posted for the purpose of closing all nominal or
temporary accounts to the income summary account and the resulting net income or loss is
afterwards closed to the capital or retained earnings account.
8. Preparing the post closing trial balance – A listing of general ledger accounts and their
balances after closing entries have been made. The post closing trial balance is the same with
the year-end statement of financial position, the only difference is that valuation accounts like
allowances for assets are found in the credit side instead of being deducted from the related
asset account.
9. Preparing reversing entries – The last and optional step in the accounting cycle. Reversing
entries are made at the beginning of the new accounting period to reverse certain adjusting
entries from the succeeding accounting period.
The purpose of reversing entries is a matter of convenience for accruals and consistency for the
adjustments in the following year for prepaid expenses and deferred income when the income
statement method was used to record the cash flow.
Once again, reversing entries will only apply to the following but remember that they are not
necessary and only optional:

1. Accrued income
2. Accrued expense
3. Prepaid expense, only if the expense method was used in recording the payment
4. Unearned income, only if the income method was used in recording the collection

Accrued Income Prepaid expense (Exp. Method)

12 mos. rental at 100 per month beginning 18 mos. rental at 100 per month beginning
Nov. 1, 2016. Nov. 1, 2016
12/31/16 Adjustment: 11/1/2016
Rent Receivable 200 Rent Expense 1,800
Rent Income 200 Cash 1,800

1/1/2017 Reversing entry: 12/31/2016 Adjustment:

Rent Income 200 Prepaid Rent 1,600

Rent Receivable 200 Rent Expense 1,600
After the reversal, the rent receivable account The adjustment under the expense method will
will have a balance of ZERO and the rent be for the unused portion or the prepayment of
income account will have a DEBIT balance of 1,600. If the asset method was used, the
200. Hence the collection of 1,200 will be adjustment would have been for 200 or the
recorded as follows: portion for the expense.
10/31/2017 1/1/2017 Reversing entry:
Cash 1,200 Rent Expense 1,600
Rent Income 1,200 Prepaid Rent 1,600
After the reversing entry, the 1600 is once
again expensed and the 12/31/2017 adjusting
entry will be as follows:
Prepaid rent 400
Rent Expense 400
If the reversing entry was not prepared, the
adjustment would have been a debit to Rent
expense and credit to prepaid rent for 1,200
which is the adjustment used if the ASSET
METHOD was used.

END

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting

PURPOSE AND STATUS OF THE FRAMEWORK

The IASB Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements describes the
basic concepts by which financial statements are prepared. The Framework serves as a guide to
the FRSC in developing accounting standards and as a guide to resolving accounting issues that
are not addressed directly in Philippine Accounting Standards or Philippine Financial Reporting
Standards or Interpretations. The purpose of the framework as outlined is to:
a) To assist the Board in the development of future IFRSs and in its review of existing
IFRSs
b) To assist the Board in promoting harmonisation of regulations, accounting standards
and procedures relating to the presentation of financial statements by providing a
basis for reducing the number of alternative accounting treatments permitted by
IFRSs
c) To assist national standard-setting bodies in developing national standards;
d) To assist preparers of financial statements in applying IFRSs and in dealing with
topics that have yet to form the subject of an IFRS
e) To assist auditors in forming an opinion on whether financial statements comply with
IFRSs
f) To assist users of financial statements in interpreting the information contained in
financial statements prepared in compliance with IFRSs
g) To provide those who are interested in the work of the IASB with information about
its approach to the formulation of IFRSs.
This Conceptual Framework is not an IFRS and hence does not define standards for any particular
measurement or disclosure issue.

Scope of the Framework:

 The Objective of general purpose financial reporting;
 Qualitative characteristics of financial information
 Underlying assumption
 The definition, recognition and measurement of the elements of the financial
statements
 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
The Objective of Financial Reporting

 The objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial information about
the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other
creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity. Those decisions
involve buying, selling or holding equity and debt instruments, and providing or settling
loans and other forms of credit.

 General purpose financial reports provide information about the financial position of a
reporting entity, which is information about the entity’s economic resources and the claims
against the reporting entity. Financial reports also provide information about the effects of
transactions and other events that change reporting entity’s economic resources and
claims.

Financial performance reflected by accrual accounting

Accrual accounting depicts the effects of transactions and other events and circumstances on a
reporting entity’s economic resources and claims in the periods in which those effects occur, even
if the resulting cash receipts and payments occur in a different period.

Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial Information

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These characteristics are the attributes that make the information in financial statements
useful to investors, creditors, and others. The Framework identifies “fundamental” and
“enhancing” qualitative characteristics:

Fundamental Characteristics
Relevance - Information in financial statements is relevant when it is capable of making a
difference in the decisions made by the users.

Ingredients of relevance:
 Predictive Value – Information can help users increase the likelihood of correctly predicting
or forecasting the outcome of certain events.
 Feedback Value – Information can help users confirm or correct earlier expectations.

Note that the predictive and confirmatory roles of information are interrelated.
Materiality - Information is material if omitting it or misstating it could influence decisions that users make on the basis of
financial information about a specific reporting entity. In other words, materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance
based on the nature or magnitude, or both, of the items to which the information relates in the context of an individual
entity’s financial report.

Faithful Representation - Financial reports represent economic phenomena in words and

numbers. To be useful, financial information must not only represent relevant phenomena, but it
must also faithfully represent the phenomena that it purports to represent.

Ingredients of Faithful Representation

 Complete - A complete depiction includes all information necessary for a user to
understand the phenomenon being depicted, including all necessary descriptions and
explanations.
 Neutral - A neutral depiction is without bias in the selection or presentation of financial
information. A neutral depiction is not slanted, weighted, emphasised, de-emphasised or
otherwise manipulated to increase the probability that financial information will be received
favourably or unfavourably by users
 Free from error means there are no errors or omissions in the description of the
phenomenon, and the process used to produce the reported information has been selected
and applied with no errors in the process.

Enhancing qualitative characteristics

Comparability, verifiability, timeliness and understandability are qualitative characteristics that

enhance the usefulness of information that is relevant and faithfully represented.

 Comparability is the qualitative characteristic that enables users to identify and understand
similarities in, and differences among, items.

 Verifiability - helps assure users that information faithfully represents the economic
phenomena it purports to represent. Verifiability means that different knowledgeable and
independent observers could reach consensus, although not necessarily complete
agreement, that a particular depiction is a faithful representation.

 Timeliness - means having information available to decision-makers in time to be capable

of influencing their decisions.

 Understandability - Classifying, characterising and presenting information clearly and

concisely makes it understandable.

The cost constraint on useful financial reporting

Cost is a pervasive constraint on the information that can be provided by financial reporting.
Reporting financial information imposes costs, and it is important that those costs are justified by
the benefits of reporting that information. There are several types of costs and benefits to consider.
Underlying Assumptions (Postulates)

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The Framework sets Going Concern as the only underlying assumption meaning, financial
statements presume that an enterprise will continue in operation indefinitely or, if that presumption
is not valid, disclosure and a different basis of reporting are required.

The new FRSC conceptual framework mentions going concern as the only underlying assumption
(previously Accrual was included). However, it is widely believed that inherent traits of the
financial statements are the basic assumptions of:

 Accounting Entity. The business is separate from the owners, managers, and employees
who constitute the business. Therefore transactions of the said individuals should not be
included as transactions of the business.
 Time Period. Financial reports are to be prepared for one year or a period of twelve
months.
 Monetary unit. There are two aspects under this assumption

a. Quantifiability of the peso, meaning that the elements of the financial statements
should be stated under one unit of measure which is the Philippine Peso.

b. Stability of the peso, means that there is still an assumption that the purchasing power
of the peso is stable or constant and that instability is insignificant and therefore
ignored.

The Elements of Financial Statements

Financial statements portray the financial effects of transactions and other events by grouping
them into broad classes according to their economic characteristics. These broad classes are
termed the elements of financial statements.

The elements directly related to financial position and their definition according to the
framework are:

 Asset- A resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of past events and from which
future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise.

 Liability- A present obligation of the enterprise arising from past events, the settlement of
which is expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise of resources embodying
economic benefits.

 Equity- The residual interest in the assets of the enterprise after deducting all its liabilities.

The elements directly related to performance and their definition according to the framework
are:
 Income- Increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows
or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other
than those relating to contributions from equity participants.

 Expense- Decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of
outflows or depletions of assets or incurrence of liabilities that result in decreases in equity,
other than those relating to distributions to equity participants.

Recognition of the Elements of Financial Statements

Recognition is the process of incorporating in the financial statements an item that meets the
definition of an element and satisfies the following criteria for recognition:
 It is probable that any future economic benefit associated with the item will flow to or
from the enterprise; and
 The item's cost or value can be measured with reliability.

Based on these general criteria:

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 An asset is recognized in the statement of financial position when it is probable that the
future economic benefits will flow to the enterprise and the asset has a cost or value that
can be measured reliably.
 A liability is recognized in the statement of financial position when it is probable that an
outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will result from the settlement of a
present obligation and the amount at which the settlement will take place can be measured
reliably.
 Income is recognized in the when an increase in future economic benefits related to an
increase in an asset or a decrease of a liability has arisen that can be measured reliably.
This means, in effect, that recognition of income occurs simultaneously with the recognition
of increases in assets or decreases in liabilities
 Expenses are recognized when a decrease in future economic benefits related to a
decrease in an asset or an increase of a liability has arisen that can be measured reliably.
This means, in effect, that recognition of expenses occurs simultaneously with the
recognition of an increase in liabilities or a decrease in assets.

Measurement of the Elements of Financial Statements

Measurement involves assigning monetary amounts at which the elements of the financial
statements are to be recognized and reported. The Framework acknowledges that a variety of
measurement bases are used today to different degrees and in varying combinations in financial
statements, including:
 Historical cost
 Current cost
 Net realizable (settlement) value
 Present value (discounted)
Historical cost is the measurement basis most commonly used today, but it is usually combined
with other measurement bases. The Framework does not include concepts or principles for
selecting which measurement basis should be used for particular elements of financial statements
or in particular circumstances. The qualitative characteristics do provide some guidance in this
matter.

Concepts of Capital
 Financial concept of capital - capital is synonymous with net assets of the enterprise.
This is the concept of capital adopted by most enterprises. A financial concept of capital,
e.g. invested money or invested purchasing power, means capital is the net assets or
equity of the entity.

 Physical concept of capital – capital is regarded as the productive capacity of the

enterprise based on, for example, units of output per day.

Concepts of Capital Maintenance

 Financial capital maintenance – Under this concept, a profit is earned only if the financial
(or money) amount of the net assets at the end of the of the period exceeds the financial (or
money) amount of the net assets at the beginning of the period, after excluding any
distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period.

 Physical capital maintenance – Under this concept, a profit is earned only if the physical
productive capacity (or operating capability) of the enterprise (or the resources need to
achieve that capacity) at the end of the period exceeds the physical productive capacity at
the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from,
owners during the period.

- - END - -

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Presentation of Financial Statements (PAS 1)

Objective
 Prescribe the basis for presentation of general purpose financial statements, to ensure
comparability both with the entity's financial statements of previous periods and with the
financial statements of other entities.
 Overall framework and responsibilities for the presentation of financial statements.
 Guidelines for their structure and minimum requirements for the content of the financial
statements.
 Standards for recognizing, measuring, and disclosing specific transactions are addressed in
other Standards and Interpretations.

Scope
 Applies to all general purpose financial statements, that are based on Philippine Financial
Reporting Standards.
 General purpose financial statements are those intended to serve users who do not have
the authority to demand financial reports tailored for their own needs.

Purpose of Financial Statements

The objective of general purpose financial statements is to provide information about the financial
position, financial performance, and cash flows of an entity that is useful to a wide range of users in
making economic decisions. To meet that objective, financial statements provide information about
an entity's:

 Assets.
 Liabilities.
 Equity.
 Income and expenses, including gains and losses.
 Other changes in equity.
 Cash flows.

That information, along with other information in the notes, assists users of financial statements in
predicting the entity's future cash flows and, in particular, their timing and certainty.

Components of Financial Statements - A complete set of financial statements comprises:

1) A statement of financial position as at the end of the period
2) A statement of comprehensive income for the period
3) A statement of changes in equity for the period
4) A statement of cash flows for the period
5) Notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory
information
6) A statement of financial position as at the beginning of the earliest comparative period
when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective
restatement of items in its financial statements, or when it reclassifies items in its
financial statements.

Overall Considerations for Statement Presentation

Fair Presentation and Compliance with PFRSs

The financial statements must "present fairly" the financial position, financial performance and cash
flows of an entity. Fair presentation requires the faithful representation of the effects of
transactions, other events, and conditions in accordance with the definitions and recognition
criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in the Framework. The application of
PFRSs, with additional disclosure when necessary, is presumed to result in financial statements
that achieve a fair presentation.

PAS 1 requires that an entity whose financial statements comply with PFRSs make an explicit
and unreserved statement of such compliance in the notes. Financial statements shall not be
described as complying with PFRSs unless they comply with all the requirements of PFRSs.

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Inappropriate accounting policies are not rectified either by disclosure of the accounting policies
used or by notes or explanatory material.

PAS 1 acknowledges that, in extremely rare circumstances, management may conclude that
compliance with an PFRS requirement would be so misleading that it would conflict with the
objective of financial statements set out in the Framework. In such a case, the entity is required to
depart from the PFRS requirement, with detailed disclosure of the nature, reasons, and impact of
the departure.

Going Concern

An entity preparing PFRS financial statements is presumed to be a going concern. If management

has significant concerns about the entity's ability to continue as a going concern, the uncertainties
must be disclosed. If management concludes that the entity is not a going concern, the financial
statements should not be prepared on a going concern basis, in which case PAS 1 requires a
series of disclosures.

Accrual Basis of Accounting

PAS 1 requires that an entity prepare its financial statements, except for cash flow information,
using the accrual basis of accounting.

Consistency of Presentation

The presentation and classification of items in the financial statements shall be retained from one
period to the next unless a change is justified either by a change in circumstances or a
requirement of a new PFRS.

Materiality and Aggregation

Each material class of similar items must be presented separately in the financial statements.
Dissimilar items may be aggregated only if they are individually immaterial.

Offsetting

Assets and liabilities, and income and expenses, may not be offset unless required or permitted
by a Standard or an Interpretation.

Comparative Information

PAS 1 requires that comparative information shall be disclosed in respect of the previous period for
all amounts reported in the financial statements, both face of financial statements and notes,
unless another Standard requires otherwise. If comparative amounts are changed or reclassified,
various disclosures are required.

Frequency of Reporting

There is a presumption that financial statements will be prepared at least annually. If the annual
reporting period changes and financial statements are prepared for a different period, the
enterprise must disclose the reason for the change and a warning about problems of comparability.

Statement of Financial Position

Current/Noncurrent Distinction

An entity must normally present a classified statement of financial position, separating current and
noncurrent assets and liabilities. Only if a presentation based on liquidity provides information that
is reliable and more relevant may the current/noncurrent split be omitted.

Current assets

An entity shall classify an asset as current when:

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(a) It expects to realize the asset, or intends to sell or consume it, in its normal operating cycle
(b) It holds the asset primarily for the purpose of trading
(c) It expects to realize the asset within twelve months after the reporting period
(d) The asset is cash or a cash equivalent (as defined in IAS 7) unless the asset is restricted
from being exchanged or used to settle a liability for at least twelve months after the
reporting period.

An entity shall classify all other assets as non-current.

Normal Operating Cycle – The time between the acquisition of assets for processing and their
realization cash or cash equivalents. When the entity’s normal operating cycle is not clearly
identifiable, its duration is assumed to be twelve months.

Current liabilities

An entity shall classify a liability as current when:

(a) It expects to settle the liability in its normal operating cycle

(b) It holds the liability primarily for the purpose of trading
(c) The liability is due to be settled within twelve months after the reporting period
(d) The entity does not have an unconditional right to defer settlement of the liability for at least
twelve months after the reporting period

An entity shall classify all other liabilities as non-current.

Issues on Refinancing

 An entity classifies its financial liabilities as current when they are due to be settled within
twelve months after the end of the reporting period, even if:

a. The original term was for a period longer than twelve months; and

b. The intention is supported by an agreement to refinance, or reschedule the payments, on

a long-term basis is completed after the end of the reporting period and completed
before the financial statements are authorized for issue.

 If the entity has the discretion to refinance, or to roll over the obligation for at least twelve
months after the end of the reporting period under an existing loan facility, it classifies the
obligation as non-current, even if it would be due with in a shorter period.

Breach of a Loan Covenant

 If a liability has become payable on demand because an entity has breached an undertaking
under a long-term loan agreement on or before the end of the reporting period, the liability is
current, even if the lender has agreed, after the end of the reporting period and before
the authorization of the financial statements for issue, not to demand payment as a
consequence of the breach. However, the liability is classified as non-current if the lender
agreed by the end of the reporting period to provide a period of grace ending at least 12
months after the end of the reporting period, within which the entity can rectify the breach and
during which the lender cannot demand immediate repayment.

Statement of comprehensive income

An entity shall present all items of income and expense recognized in a period:

(a) In a single statement of comprehensive income, or

(b) In two statements: a statement displaying components of profit or loss (separate income
statement) and a second statement beginning with profit or loss and displaying components
of other comprehensive income (statement of comprehensive income).
Components of Comprehensive Income

1. Profit and Loss - Income minus Expenses including Tax expense and any Income or Loss
from Discontinued Operations.

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2. Other Comprehensive income – Items of income and expenses including reclassification

adjustments (RA) that are not included in Profit and Loss as required by a standard or
interpretation. There are two types of OCI items, those that are reclassified to profit or loss
(RA) and those that are reclassified to Retained Earnings (RE). OCI includes the following

 Unrealized gain or loss on equity investments measured at FVOCI (RE)

 Unrealized gain or loss on debt investments measured at FVOCI (RA)
 Unrealized gain or loss from derivative contracts designated as cash flow hedge (RA)
 Revaluation Surplus (RE)
 Remeasurement Gains and losses for defined benefit plans (RE)
 Change in fair value arising from credit risk for financial liabilities measured at FVPL
(RE)
 Translation gains and losses of foreign operations

Information to be presented in the statement of comprehensive income

As a minimum, the statement of comprehensive income shall include line items that present the
following amounts for the period:
(a) Revenue
(b) Finance costs
(c) Share of the profit or loss of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the equity
method
(d) Tax expense
(e) A single amount comprising the total of:
(i) The post-tax profit or loss of discontinued operations and
(ii) The post-tax gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value less costs to sell
or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s) constituting the discontinued
operation
(f) Profit or loss
(g) Each component of other comprehensive income classified by nature
(h) Share of the other comprehensive income of associates and joint ventures accounted for
using the equity method
(i) Total comprehensive income.

An entity shall disclose the following items in the statement of comprehensive income
as allocations of profit or loss for the period:
(a) Profit or loss for the period attributable to:
(i) Minority interest, and
(ii) Owners of the parent.

(b) Total comprehensive income for the period attributable to:

(i) Minority interest, and
(ii) Owners of the parent.

 An entity shall present either an analysis of expenses using a classification based on either
the nature of expenses or their function with in the entity, whichever provides information
that is reliable and more relevant.

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a. Nature of expense method – Expenses are aggregated in the income statement
according to their nature and are not reallocated among various functions within the
entity.

Revenue X
Other income X
Changes in inventories of finished goods and work in
progress X
Raw materials and consumables used X
Employee benefit costs X
Depreciation and amortization X
Other expense X
Total expense (X)
Profit X

b. Function of expense or cost of sales method – Classifies expenses according to their

function as part of cost of sales or, for example, the cost of distribution or administrative
activities.

Revenue X
Cost of sales (X)
Gross profit X
Other income X
Distribution costs (X)
Administrative expenses (X)
Other expenses (X)
Income before tax X
Income tax expense (X)
Net income X

 An entity shall not present any items of income and expense as extraordinary items,
either on the face of the income statement or in the notes

Statement of Changes in Equity

An entity shall present a statement of changes in equity showing in the statement:

(a) Total comprehensive income for the period, showing separately the total amounts
attributable to owners of the parent and to minority interest
(b) For each component of equity, the effects of retrospective application or retrospective
restatement recognized in accordance with PAS 8
(c) The amounts of transactions with owners in their capacity as owners, showing separately
contributions by and distributions to owners
(d) For each component of equity, reconciliation between the carrying amount at the
beginning and the end of the period, separately disclosing each change.

An entity shall present, either in the statement of changes in equity or in the notes, the amount of
dividends recognized as distributions to owners during the period, and the related amount per
share.

Statement of Cash Flows

Cash flow information provides users of financial statements with a basis to assess the ability of
the entity to generate cash and cash equivalents and the needs of the entity to utilize those cash
flows.

Notes to the Financial Statements

The notes must:

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a. Present information about the basis of preparation of the financial statements and the
specific accounting policies used;
b. Disclose any information required by PFRSs that is not presented on the face of the
statement of financial position, income statement, statement of changes in equity, or
statement of cash flows
c. Provide additional information that is not presented on the face of the statement of financial
position, income statement, statement of changes in equity, or statement of cash flows that
is deemed relevant to an understanding of any of them.

Notes should be cross-referenced from the face of the financial statements to the relevant note.
The notes should normally be presented in the following order:

a. A statement of compliance with PFRSs

b. A summary of significant accounting policies applied, including:

a. The measurement basis (or bases) used in preparing the financial statements; and
b. The other accounting policies used that are relevant to an understanding of the financial
statements.

c. Supporting information for items presented on the face of the statement of financial
position, income statement, statement of changes in equity, and statement of ash flows, in
the order in which each statement and each line item is presented.

d. Other disclosures, including:

a. Contingent liabilities and unrecognized contractual commitments

b. Non-financial disclosures, such as the entity's financial risk management objectives and
policies.

Disclosure of judgments - an entity must disclose, in the summary of significant accounting

policies or other notes, the judgments, apart from those involving estimations, that management
has made in the process of applying the entity's accounting policies that have the most significant
effect on the amounts recognized in the financial statements.

- - END - -

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 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

ACCOUNTING POLICIES,
CHANGES IN ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES AND ERRORS

1. Accounting Policies

 Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules and practices
applied by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements.

 An entity shall select and apply its accounting policies consistently for similar
transactions, other events and conditions, unless a Standard or an Interpretation
specifically requires or permits categorization of items for which different policies may
be appropriate.
 If a Standard or an Interpretation requires or permits such categorization, an
appropriate accounting policy shall be selected and applied consistently to each
category.

. Change in Accounting Policy – A change from one acceptable accounting policy to another
acceptable accounting policy. If the change is from an unacceptable accounting policy it shall
be treated as a correction of an error.

 Cases or circumstances to change accounting policy:

a. Is required by a standard or interpretation; or

b. Results in the financial statements providing reliable and more relevant information
about the effects of transactions, other events or conditions on the entity's financial
position, financial performance, or cash flows.

c. Note that changes in accounting policies do not include applying an accounting policy
to a kind of transaction or event that did not exist in the past. Neither is a change from
a accounting principle that is not acceptable to one that is acceptable a change in
accounting policy.

 Treatment of Changes in Accounting Policies

By applying the transitional provision if the change is either required by a standard

or interpretation or Retrospective Application

Retrospective application means adjusting the opening balance of each affected

component of equity for the earliest prior period presented and the other comparative
amounts disclosed for each prior period presented as if the new accounting policy had
always been applied.

 However, if it is impracticable to determine either the period, specific effects or the

cumulative effect of the change for one or more prior periods presented, the entity shall
apply the new accounting policy to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities as at
the beginning of the earliest period for which retrospective application is practicable,
which may be the current period, and shall make a corresponding adjustment to the
opening balance of each affected component of equity for that period.

 Also, if it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the

current period, of applying a new accounting policy to all prior periods, the entity shall
adjust the comparative information to apply the new accounting policy prospectively
from the earliest date practicable.

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2. Changes in Accounting Estimate

 A change in accounting estimate is an adjustment of the carrying amount of an asset or

liability, or related expense, resulting from reassessing the expected future benefits and
obligations associated with that asset or liability.

 Accounting estimates result from uncertainties inherent in business activities that many
items cannot be measured with accuracy but can only be estimated. Examples of which
are bad debts rate, factors used in computing for depreciation and warranty obligations.
 Changes in accounting estimates are normal and recurring changes that is necessary if
changes occur in the circumstances on which the estimate was based or as a result of new
information or more experience.
 The effect of a change in an accounting estimate shall be recognized prospectively by
including it in profit or loss in:
 The period of the change, if the change affects that period only; or
 The period of the change and future periods, if the change affects both.
 However, to the extent that a change in an accounting estimate gives rise to changes in
assets and liabilities, or relates to an item of equity, it is recognized by adjusting the
carrying amount of the related asset, liability, or equity item in the period of the change.
 When it is difficult to distinguish the change is in accounting policy from a change in
accounting estimate, the change is treated as a change in accounting estimate.

3. Errors
 Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in, an entity's financial
statements for one or more prior periods arising from a failure to use, or misuse of, reliable
information that was available and could reasonably be expected to have been obtained
and taken into account in preparing those statements. Such errors result from mathematical
mistakes, mistakes in applying accounting policies, oversights or misinterpretations of facts,
and fraud.
 The general principle in PAS 8 is that an entity must correct all material prior period errors
retrospectively in the first set of financial statements authorized for issue after their
discovery by:
 Restating the comparative amounts for the prior period(s) presented in which the error
occurred; or
 If the error occurred before the earliest prior period presented, restating the opening
balances of assets, liabilities and equity for the earliest prior period presented.
 However, if it is impracticable to determine the period-specific effects of an error on
comparative information for one or more prior periods presented, the entity must restate
the opening balances of assets, liabilities, and equity for the earliest period for which
retrospective restatement is practicable (which may be the current period).
 Further, if it is impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of the
current period, of an error on all prior periods, the entity must restate the comparative
information to correct the error prospectively from the earliest date practicable.

Disclosures Relating to Prior Period Errors

 Disclosures relating to prior period errors include:
 The nature of the prior period error
 For each prior period presented, to the extent practicable, the amount of the correction:
 For each financial statement line item affected
 For basic and diluted earnings per share (only if the entity is applying PAS 33)
 The amount of the correction at the beginning of the earliest prior period presented
 If retrospective restatement is impracticable, an explanation and description of how the
error has been corrected.
 Financial statements of subsequent periods need not repeat these disclosures.

- - END - -

10/16-8
 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

OPERATING SEGMENTS

Scope
PFRS 8 applies to the separate or individual financial statements of an entity (and to the
consolidated financial statements of a group with a parent):

 Whose debt or equity instruments are traded in a public market

 That files, or is in the process of filing, its (consolidated) financial statements with a
securities commission or other regulatory organization for the purpose of issuing any class
of instruments in a public market.

However, when both separate and consolidated financial statements for the parent are presented
in a single financial report, segment information need be presented only on the basis of the
consolidated financial statements.

Identifying an Operating Segment

 An operating segment must be a component of an entity, meaning, its operations and

cash flows that can be clearly distinguished, operationally and for financial reporting
purposes, from the rest of the entity.

 It engages in business activities from which it may earn revenues and incur expenses
(including revenues and expenses relating to transactions with other components of the
same entity)

 Whose operating results are regularly reviewed by the entity’s chief operating decision
maker to make decisions about resources to be allocated to the segment and assess its
performance

 For which discrete financial information is available.

An operating segment may engage in business activities for which it has yet to earn revenues, for
example, start-up operations may be operating segments before earning revenues.

The term ‘chief operating decision maker’ identifies a function, not necessarily a manager with a
specific title. That function is to allocate resources to and assess the performance of the operating
segments of an entity.

Reportable Segment – An operating Segment for which segment information is required to be

disclosed

QUANTITATIVE THRESHOLDS

An entity shall report separately information about an operating segment that meets any or at
least one of the following quantitative thresholds:

a) Its reported revenue, including both sales to external customers and intersegment sales or
transfers, is 10 percent or more of the combined revenue, internal and external, of all
operating segments.

b) The absolute amount of its reported profit or loss is 10 percent or more of the greater, in
absolute amount, of (i) the combined reported profit of all operating segments that did not
report a loss and (ii) the combined reported loss of all operating segments that reported a
loss.

c) Its assets are 10 percent or more of the combined assets of all operating segments.

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Operating segments that do not meet any of the quantitative thresholds may be considered
reportable, and separately disclosed, if management believes that information about the
segment would be useful to users of the financial statements.

OVERALL SIZE TEST

 If total external revenue attributable to reportable segments identified using the 10%
quantitative thresholds is less than 75% of the total consolidated or enterprise revenue
(external revenue), additional segments should be identified as reportable segments, even
if they do not meet the 10 % requirement. Until at least 75% of total consolidated or
enterprise revenue is included in reportable segments.

 In other words, the quantitative thresholds will not be necessary in determining additional
reportable segments in order to meet the 75% requirement.

DISCLOSURES REQUIRED FOR REPORTABLE SEGMENTS

An entity shall disclose information to enable users of its financial statements to evaluate the
nature and financial effects of the business activities in which it engages and the economic
environments in which it operates. Disclosures will include

a) General information - Factors used to identify the entity’s reportable segments, including
the basis of organization and types of products and services from which each reportable
segment derives its revenues.

b) Information about reported segment profit or loss

c) Reconciliations of the totals of segment revenues, reported segment profit or loss, segment
assets, segment liabilities and other material segment items to corresponding entity
amounts

ENTITY WIDE DISCLOSURES:

a) Information about products and services

b) Information about geographical areas

c) Information about major customers - If revenues from transactions with a single

external customer amount to 10 per cent or more of an entity’s revenues, the entity shall
disclose that fact and disclose the following:

a. The total amount of revenues from each such customer

b. The identity of the segment or segments reporting the revenues.

- - END - -

10/16-10
 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INTERIM REPORTING

Key Definitions

Interim Period – Is a financial reporting period shorter than a full financial year.

Interim financial report – A financial report containing either a complete set of financial
statements or a set of condensed financial statements for an interim period.

Minimum Components of an Interim Financial Report

a. Condensed statement of financial position

b. Condensed income statement
c. Condensed statement showing either (i) all changes in equity or (ii) changes in equity other
than those arising from capital transactions with owners and distributions to owners
d. Condensed statement of cash flows
e. Selected explanatory notes

Required information in Condensed Statements

a. Headings and subtotals included in most recent annual financial statements

b. Selected minimum explanatory notes - explaining events and transactions significant to an
understanding of the changes in financial position/performance since last annual reporting
date
c. Selected line items or notes if their omission would make the condensed financial
statements misleading
d. Basic and diluted earnings per share (if applicable) on the face of statement of
comprehensive income.

General Guidelines of Interim Financial Reporting

a. Revenues from products sold or services rendered are generally recognized for interim
reports on the same basis as for the annual period.

b. Expenses associated directly with revenue are matched against revenue in those
interim periods in which the related revenue is recognized.

c. Expenses not associated with revenue are recognized in the interim periods as incurred
or allocated over the interim periods benefited.

d. Inventories are measured for interim financial reporting by the same principles as at
financial year-end (LCNRV). However full inventory taking may not be required at interim
dates although it must be done at financial year-end. It may be sufficient to make
estimates at interim dates based on sales margin.

e. Inventory losses from permanent market declines are recognized in the interim period in
which the decline occurs. Recoveries of such losses on the same inventory in later interim
period should be recognized as gains in later interim periods.

f. Temporary market declines on inventories and recoveries at a later interim period are now
recognized for interim purposes.

g. Interim period income tax expense should reflect the same general principles of income
tax accounting applicable to annual reporting.

10/16-11
 PAGE 2
h. Gains or losses from, disposal of property, gains or losses from sale of discontinued
operations and other gains and losses should not be allocated over the interim periods.

Other Guidelines
Accounting Policies

 Principles for recognizing assets, liabilities, income and expenses are same as in the most
recent annual financial statements, unless there is a change in an accounting policy that is
to be reflected in the next annual financial statements.

 Tax recognised based on weighted average annual income tax rate expected for the full
year

 Tax rate changes during the year are adjusted in the subsequent interim period during the
year.

USE OF ESTIMATES - Interim reports require a greater use of estimates than annual reports.

COSTS INCURRED UNEVENLY - Anticipated or deferred only if it would be possible to defer or

anticipate at yearend.

SEASONAL, CYCLICAL OR OCCASIONAL REVENUE

 Revenue received during the year should not be anticipated or deferred where anticipation
would not be appropriate at year end

 Recognized as it occurs.

Periods to be presented

 Statement of financial position as at the end of the current interim period (e.g. 30 Sept.
2016) and as of the end of the immediate preceding financial year (e.g. 31 December 2015)

 Statements of comprehensive income for the current interim period (e.g. July – Sept. 2016)
and cumulatively for the current financial year (Jan. – Sept. 2016) (which will be the same
for half year ends), with comparatives for the interim period of the preceding financial year
(Jan. – Sept. 2015)

 Statements of changes in equity for the current financial year to date, with comparatives for
the year to date of the immediately preceding financial year

 Statements of cash flows for the current financial year to date, with comparatives for the
year to date of the immediately preceding financial year.

- - END - -

10/16-11
 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

EVENTS AFTER THE REPORTING PERIOD

Key Definitions

Events after the reporting period: An event, which could be favorable or unfavorable, that occurs
between the reporting period and the date that the financial statements are authorized for issue.

Adjusting event: An event after the reporting period that provides further evidence of conditions
that existed at the end of the reporting period, including an event that indicates that the going
concern assumption in relation to the whole or part of the enterprise is not appropriate.

Non-adjusting event: An event after the reporting period that is indicative of a condition that arose
after the reporting period.

Adjusting event Non-adjusting event

Examples: Examples:

 Events that indicate that the going  Major business combinations or disposal
concern assumption in relation to the of a subsidiary
whole or part of the entity is not
appropriate  Major purchase or disposal of assets,
classification of assets as held for sale
 Settlement after reporting date of or expropriation of major assets by
court cases that confirm the entity government
had a present obligation at reporting
date  Destruction of a major production plant
by fire after reporting date
 Bankruptcy of a customer that occurs
after reporting date that confirms a  Announcing a plan to discontinue
loss existed at reporting date on operations
trade receivables
 Announcing a major restructuring after
 Sales of inventories after reporting reporting date
date that give evidence about their
net realisable value at reporting date  Major ordinary share transactions

 Determination after reporting date of  Abnormal large changes after the

cost of assets purchased or proceeds reporting period in assets prices or
from assets sold, before reporting foreign exchange rates
date
 Changes in tax rates or tax law
 Discovery of fraud or errors that show
the financial statements are incorrect.  Entering into major commitments such
as guarantees

 Commencing major litigation arising

solely out of events that occurred after
the reporting period.

Accounting

 Adjust financial statements for adjusting events – events after the reporting period that
provide further evidence of conditions that existed at the end of the reporting period,
including events that indicate that the going concern assumption in relation to the whole or
part of the enterprise is not appropriate.
 Do not adjust for non-adjusting events – events or conditions that arose after the
reporting period.

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 PAGE 2
 If an entity declares dividends after the reporting period, the entity shall not recognize those
dividends as a liability at the reporting period. That is a non-adjusting event.

Going Concern Issues Arising After Reporting period

An entity shall not prepare its financial statements on a going concern basis if management
determines after the reporting period either that it intends to liquidate the entity or to cease trading,
or that it has no realistic alternative but to do so.

Disclosure
 Non-adjusting events should be disclosed if they are of such importance that non-disclosure
would affect the ability of users to make proper evaluations and decisions. The required
disclosure is (a) the nature of the event and (b) an estimate of its financial effect or a
statement that a reasonable estimate of the effect cannot be made.

 A company should update disclosures that relate to conditions that existed at the reporting
period to reflect any new information that it receives after the reporting period about those
conditions.
 Companies must disclose the date when the financial statements were authorized for issue
and who gave that authorization. If the enterprise's owners or others have the power to
amend the financial statements after issuance, the enterprise must disclose that fact.

- - END - -

10/16-12
 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

RELATED PARTY DISCLOSURES

Objective of PAS 24

The objective of PAS 24 is to ensure that an entity's financial statements contain the
disclosures necessary to draw attention to the possibility that its financial position and
profit or loss may have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions
and outstanding balances with such parties.

Related Parties

Parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to control the other party or to
exercise significant influence or joint control over the other party in making financial and
operating decisions. A party is related to an entity if:

(a) Directly, or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, the party:

(i) Controls, is controlled by, or is under common control with, the entity (this includes
parents, subsidiaries and fellow subsidiaries)
(ii) Has an interest in the entity that gives it significant influence over the entity
(iii) Has joint control over the entity

(b) The party is an associate of the entity

(c) The party is a joint venture in which the entity is a venturer

(d) The party is a member of the key management personnel of the entity or its parent;

(e) The party is a close member of the family of any individual referred to in (a) or (d).
They may include

a. The individual’s domestic partner and children

b. Children of the individual’s domestic partner
c. Dependants of the individual or the individual’s domestic partner

(f) The party is an entity that is controlled, jointly controlled or significantly influenced by or
for which significant voting power in such entity resides with, directly or indirectly, any
individual referred to in (d) or (e)
(g) The party is a post-employment benefit plan for the benefit of employees of the entity, or
of any entity that is a related party of the entity.

The following are not necessarily related parties

 Two enterprises simply because they have a director or key manager in common

 Two venturers who share joint control over a joint venture

 Providers of finance, trade unions, public utilities, government departments and agencies
in the course of their normal dealings with an enterprise

 A single customer, supplier, franchiser, distributor, or general agent with whom an

enterprise transacts a significant volume of business merely by virtue of the resulting
economic dependence.

Related Party Transactions - Is a transfer of resources, services, or obligations between related

parties, regardless of whether a price is charged.

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 PAGE 2

Disclosures

Relationships between parents and subsidiaries

 Regardless of whether there have been transactions between a parent and a subsidiary,
an entity must disclose the name of its parent and, if different, the ultimate controlling
party.
 If neither the entity's parent nor the ultimate controlling party produces financial
statements available for public use, the name of the next most senior parent that does so
must also be disclosed.

Management Compensation - Disclose key management personnel compensation in total and

for each of the following categories:
 Short-term employee benefits
 Post-employment benefits
 Other long-term benefits
 Termination benefits
 Equity compensation benefits.

Key management personnel are those persons having authority and responsibility for planning,
directing, and controlling the activities of the entity, directly or indirectly, including all directors
(whether executive or otherwise).

Related party transactions - If there have been transactions between related parties, disclose the
nature of the related party relationship as well as information about the transactions and
outstanding balances necessary for an understanding of the potential effect of the relationship on
the financial statements. These disclosures would be made separately for each category of related
parties and would include:

 The amount of the transactions.

 The amount of outstanding balances, including terms and conditions and guarantees.

 Provisions for doubtful debts related to the amount of outstanding balances.

 Expense recognized during the period in respect of bad or doubtful debts due from
related parties.

Examples of the Kinds of Transactions that Are Disclosed If They Are with a Related Party

 Purchases or sales of goods.

 Purchases or sales of property and other assets.

 Rendering or receiving of services.

 Leases.

 Transfers of research and development.

 Transfers under license agreements.

 Transfers under finance arrangements (including loans and equity contributions in cash
or in kind).

 Provision of guarantees or collateral.

 Settlement of liabilities on behalf of the entity or by the entity on behalf of another party

A statement that related party transactions were made on terms equivalent to those that prevail in
arm's length transactions should be made only if such terms can be substantiated.

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 PAGE 3
- - END - -

10/16-13
 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS

CASH – In accounting, cash includes money in the form of currency and coins, negotiable
instruments in the form of checks and money orders acceptable by the bank for immediate credit
and bank deposits whether in a savings or current account.

CASH EQUIVALENTS – Under PAS 7, cash equivalents are short-term and highly liquid
investment that are readily convertible into cash and so near their maturity that they present
insignificant risk in changes in value because of changes in interest rates.

BANK RECONCILIATION - A statement that that settles the difference between the bank
statement balance and the cash balance per book which is the current balance in the checkbook of
the depositor.

BOOK RECONCILING ITEMS – Includes credit memos, debit memos and errors that need to be
corrected or adjusted by the depositor in order for the balance per book to reconcile with the
adjusted balance.

BANK RECONCILING ITEMS – Includes deposits in transit, outstanding checks and errors.

CERTIFIED CHECKS – Checks that have been accepted by the bank and where the drawer’s
account has been debited but the money has yet to be withdrawn by the payee. The funds are
now held by the bank on behalf of the payee and the check is no longer outstanding.

PETTY CASH FUND – Money set aside to pay small and recurring expenses where it will be
inefficient to settle such payments by issuing checks. Accounting for petty cash involves an
Imprest Fund System that is more commonly used due to its efficiency and convenience rather
than the Fluctuating Fund System that requires each disbursement to be recorded.

IMPREST CONTROL SYSTEM – Implemented as a control system where all cash receipts is
including checks to be deposited intact and all cash disbursements be made by the issuance of a
check. Although a petty cash fund will also be used to settle small expenses.

Cash includes the following items plus adjustments:

 Undeposited currency and coins

 Checks and money orders held unless the checks are post-dated, defective or stale. Such
items shall still be included as receivables.

 Unrestricted bank deposits, however checks that have been recorded as payments that
have not been delivered or post-dated must be restored back to the bank deposits’ balance
with a corresponding liability for the payment that was made.

 Funds on hand and deposits that are for current use and have been restricted for a liability
that is classified as “current”. This includes petty cash fund, payroll fund and funds for
taxes and dividends as mentioned in PAS 1.

Special Items of Cash

A. Bank Overdraft – A credit or negative balance in the bank account of the depositor
resulting from an issuance of a check that exceeds the amount of the deposit.

 As a rule an overdraft shall be classified as a current liability and not offset against
current accounts with a positive or debit balance.
 As an exception, if the overdraft is in a bank where there are other accounts that
have a positive balance and those accounts are sufficient to cover the overdraft, the
total cash shall be shown net of the overdraft.

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 PAGE 2
B. Compensating Balance Agreement – Part of or deposits that a bank can use to offset an
existing loan. However, compensating balances can also describe a minimum amount of
the deposit that a depositor agrees to maintain in order to guarantee future credit
availability.

 In the case of deposits that a bank can use to offset a loan, the assumption is that
this amount is legally restricted to withdrawal and therefore excluded from cash,
however in cases that it still remains to be unrestricted, the compensating balance
shall be part of cash. If the compensating balance is legally restricted the following
rules shall be followed:

a) The related loan is short-term: The compensating balance shall be part of

current assets but separately from cash.
b) The related loan is long-term: The compensating balance is part of
noncurrent assets as an investment.

 An informal agreement to maintain a minimum amount of deposit will not be legally

restricted and therefore included in cash.

C. Time Deposits – Bank savings account that earns interest but not subject to immediate
withdrawal or check issuance. A notice must be submitted by the depositor for the
withdrawal of funds and interest earned shall be forfeited.

 Time deposits are excluded from cash because of their restriction on availability as
funds and are classified as investments and shall follow these specific
classifications:
a. Cash equivalents if the original term is 3 months or less.
b. Short term investments if the original term is more than 3 months to 1 year
c. Long-term investments if the original term is more than 1 year.

Cash Equivalents – The three important characteristics for cash equivalents as mentioned in PAS
7 are short-term, highly liquid and near maturity. In other words, short-term debt instruments with
low risk (also low yield) and acquired 3 months or less from maturity date shall be considered as
cash equivalents.

Examples include Treasury Bills, Bonds and Notes, Time Deposits, Certificate of deposits and
Bankers Acceptances and Commercial Papers.

Example of Adjusted Balance Reconciliation

Bank Book
Unadjusted Balance X Unadjusted Balance X
Deposit in transit + Credit memo* +
Outstanding checks (-) Debit memo** (-)
Errors +/(-) Errors +/(-)
Adjusted balance X Adjusted balance X

*Credit memos include collections by the bank; interest credited by the bank and matured time
deposits transferred to the current account.

**Debit memos include NSF checks, bank service charges and authorized bank debits.

END

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 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

RECEIVABLES

A receivable is the right to receive cash, another asset (goods) or services

Receivables may be current or noncurrent and trade or nontrade

 The rules on current and noncurrent classification are discussed in detail under PAS 1 and
are also based on the receivable as either trade or nontrade

 Trade receivables arise from the sale of goods or services to customers and in the form
of accounts receivable or notes receivable while nontrade receivables are receivables from
all other types of transactions like advances to officers and employees and advances to
other entities.

Accounts receivable arise from credit sales. The amount to be recorded as accounts receivable
from sales on account shall be the “Invoice Price” which is the amount after deducting trade
discounts from the List Selling Price. Take note that trade discounts are not accounted for and are
ignored for recording purposes.

Example: An item is sold to a credit customer under terms of 2/15 and net 30, FOB shipping point
terms with a list selling price of P2,000,000 with trade discounts of 20% and 10%. The Invoice
price is computed as follows:

List selling price 2,000,000

Less: 20% trade discount 400,000
Net 1,600,000
Less: 10% trade discount 160,000
Invoice price 1,440,000

As mentioned the entry will not include the total trade discount of P560,000 (400,000 + 160,000)
but instead only the P1,440,000 amount will be recorded as follows:

Accounts Receivable 1,440,000

Sales 1,440,000

The following transactions also affect accounts receivable in computing for the ending balance:

ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE
+ Credit Sales (-) Sales returns and allowances
+ Recovery of accounts written off (-) Sales discounts
(-) Collections including recovery
(-) Write off
(-) Factored accounts

The write off for accounts receivable under the allowance method is recorded by:

Allowance for doubtful accounts xx

Accounts Receivable xx

So therefore the recovery or the collection on an accounts receivable that already has been
written off cannot be recorded by simply debiting cash and crediting accounts receivable. The
entry for the write off must be reversed and before recording the collection with the following two
entries:

Accounts Receivable xx
Allowance for doubtful accounts xx

Allowance for doubtful accounts xx

Accounts Receivable xx

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 PAGE 2
Combining the two entries will be more efficient by:

Cash xx
Allowance for doubtful accounts xx

The ending balance of accounts receivable shall be presented as part of current assets under the
heading of “trade and other receivables” at the Net Realizable Value (expected cash value) or
“amortized cost”

The net realizable shall be computed after deducting an allowance for the following:

 Sales returns – Value of merchandise expected to be returned by customers as a result in

error of deliveries and defects

 Sales discounts – Value of price savings to customers expected to pay within the discount
period and take advantage of the cash discount.

 Freight charges – Amount of freight charges collected by the shipper from the buyer even
though the shipment was under FOB destination terms. This amount shall not be remitted
by the buyer hence deducted from the receivable.

 Doubtful accounts – Allowance for expected uncollectability that is an inherent risk from
selling on credit.

Allowance Method vs. Direct Write-off Method

Allowance Direct Write-off

Application Generally Accepted Non-GAAP

Expense and Increase
Accounts considered doubtful Not accounted for
the Allowance
Debit expense and
Write-off Debit Allowance and Credit AR
Credit AR
Debit AR and
Recovery Debit AR and credit Allowance
credit expense

The computation for the doubtful accounts expense which is an adjusting entry and the allowance
for doubtful accounts will be as follows:

Beginning balance X
Write off (X)
Recovery X
Balance before adjustment X
Doubtful accounts expense X
Ending balance X

There are 3 methods in estimating doubtful accounts:

1) The percentage of net credit sales method which will provide the amount of doubtful
accounts expense for the year and therefore is a method that emphasizes proper matching
of doubtful accounts against sales. This amount will then be added to the balance before
adjustment, the total of the two will then be the amount of allowance at yearend or after
adjustment.
2) The percentage of accounts receivable method will provide the amount of required
allowance for doubtful accounts and just like its counterpart the “Aging Method”, the amount
of doubtful accounts expense will be worked back as an adjustment to the amount of
required allowance.
3) The Aging of accounts receivable method that is arguably the most accurate of all three
methods since an analysis is made and each classification of accounts receivable is
multiplied by a specific rate of the estimate of uncollectability. Naturally older accounts
receivable are more likely to be uncollectible compared to newer or more recent sales.

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RECEIVABLE FINANCING

Accelerating the collection of receivables either by using accounts receivable as a loan collateral,
selling the receivables without recourse and discounting of notes receivable.

The use of receivables as a loan collateral can either be an designated as a pledging of accounts
receivable or an assignment of accounts receivables.

Pledging Assignment

 Total or all of the accounts receivable is  A specific portion or specific accounts

used. receivable are used a collateral. Not all
 A disclosure is made of the fact that of the accounts receivable balance.
receivables have been pledged.  A reclassification is made on the
 The accounts receivable is accounted assigned accounts.
for normally but are not reclassified.  Disclosure on the “equity on the
 Accounting for the loan shall be made assigned accounts or of the assignor” is
with respect to the proceed, recording of disclosed in the notes.
interest and payment of the principal.  The equity in the assigned accounts is
the difference between the balance of
the assigned accounts and the balance
of the loan.

 The absolute sale of receivables is known as factoring and can be either a “casual factoring”
transaction or “factoring as a continuing agreement”.

Casual factoring is a sale of the receivables at a discount. This is similar to any type of sale of an
asset in order to generate cash quickly. However the sale is always made below the carrying
amount or the net realizable value of the accounts receivable and therefore a loss shall be
recognized as follows:

Face value of AR X
Less: Service fee or commissions X
Selling price X
Less: Accounts receivable X
Allowances X X
Loss on factoring X

Factoring as a continuing agreement involves the sale of accounts receivable to a financing

entity on a long term basis and where the buyer is committed to buy the receivables before the
actual goods are sold to the customers on credit. In other words, the collection and credit
responsibilities are surrendered to the buyer as soon as goods are delivered to the customers.
The following items shall be deducted from the face value of the receivables:

Face value of AR X
Less: Service fee or commissions X
Interest charges X
Factor’s holdback X X
Proceeds from factoring X

Both the service fee and interest shall be recognized as an expense, meanwhile the factor’s
holdback is a receivable and a value where the factor shall deduct the sales discounts and sales
returns taken by the seller’s customers before finally remitting to the seller the balance when all of
the accounts receivable is collected.

Discounting of notes receivable that is with recourse and on a notification basis shall involve the
following computation:

Face value or principal X

Interest on maturity X
Maturity value X
Less: Discount (MV x DR x remaining term) X
Proceeds from discounting X

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The discount rate shall be determined by the bank buying the note, however if there is no discount
rate provided, the same rate on the note shall be used as the discount rate. The remaining term is
also known as the “discount period”.
The total receivable shall also be computed on the date of the discounting which is the face value
plus the accrued interest from the date of the note. This amount shall then be compared with the
proceeds of the discounting and a “loss” shall be recognized for the difference.
The entry for the discounting shall be as follows:

Cash xx
Loss on discounting xx
Notes receivable discounted xx
Interest income or interest receivable xx

The note receivable discounted account is credited rather than writing off the notes receivable
account because of the contingent liability feature of the discounting transaction. However, this
account shall be a contra-asset account and deducted from the total notes receivable to be
presented in the statement of financial position.

Valuation or the Carrying Amount of Notes Receivable

 Notes receivable shall be presented at its present value or the discounted value of its cash
flows.
 As a rule, if the note is interest bearing and the interest rate is a realistic interest rate, the
face value of the note shall be its present value. An exception to this rule is that noninterest
bearing notes shall not be discounted if they are short term. Although there is still a
difference between the face value and the present value, the discount is deemed to be
immaterial and therefore computing for the present value shall not be necessary.
 Therefore, it shall be for both noninterest bearing and long term notes where it will be
necessary to discount the cash flows in order to present the notes at their present value.
However, even if a note is interest bearing but if the interest rate is unreasonably low, it will
be necessary to compute for the present value of the cash flows which will include the
future interest computed on the low interest rate.
 If the note if a term note, the present value of 1 concept shall be applied, if the note is an
installment note and the installments and intervals are equal, the present value of an
ordinary annuity shall be used.
 The 12 month collection period shall also be applied to determine if it’s a current asset or
non current asset. However, the present value shall be the amount to be presented, hence
the related discount shall be deducted from the face value of the note representing the cash
flow.

Loan Impairment Loss – Both PFRS 9 and US GAAP requires the assessment of the
collectability of a loan receivable and whenever circumstances and present information and events
indicate that it will be probable that any portion of the principal and interest agreed upon will not be
collected an allowance for the present value of cash flows that will not be collected shall be
recognized. The computation corresponding entry shall be as follows:

PV of expected cash flows X

Less: Face value X
Accrued interest X X
Loan impairment loss (X)

Loan impairment loss xx

Interest receivable xx
Allowance for loan impairment xx

The interest receivable shall be written off if interest income already recognized shall not be
realized meanwhile the allowance shall be deducted from the current balance of the notes
receivable.

END

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 PAGE 1

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INVENTORIES

Key Terms and Definitions

 Inventories are assets:

(a) Held for sale in the ordinary course of business;

(b) In the process of production for such sale; or
(c) In the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or
in the rendering of services.

 Net realizable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less
the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale.

 Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled,
between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.

Cost of Inventories

 Costs of purchase
 Costs of conversion
 Other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and
condition.

Costs of Purchase

 The costs of purchase of inventories comprise the purchase price, import duties and other
non recoverable taxes and transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the
acquisition of finished goods, materials and services. Trade discounts, rebates and other
similar items are deducted in determining the costs of purchase.

Costs of Conversion

 Direct labor
 Variable production overhead is allocated to each unit using the actual use of production
facilities.
 Fix production overhead allocated using the normal operating capacity of production
facilities.

Other Costs

 Other costs are included in the cost of inventories only to the extent that they are incurred in
bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. For example, it may be
appropriate to include non-production overheads or the costs of designing products for
specific customers in the cost of inventories.

Inventory cost should exclude:

 Abnormal waste
 Storage costs
 Administrative overheads unrelated to production
 Selling costs
 Foreign exchange differences arising directly on the recent acquisition of inventories
invoiced in a foreign currency
 Interest cost when inventories are purchased with deferred settlement terms.

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Cost Formulas

 The cost of inventories of items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and goods or
services produced and segregated for specific projects shall be assigned by using
specific identification of their individual costs.
 The cost of inventories, other than those that are not ordinarily interchangeable, shall be
assigned by using the first-in, first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost formula. An
entity shall use the same cost formula for all inventories having a similar nature and use to
the entity. For inventories with a different nature or use, different cost formulas may be
justified.

FIFO Perpetual and Periodic Illustrated

Units Unit Cost Total Cost

Jan. 1 Beginning balance 8,000 70.00 560,000
6 Purchase 3,000 81.00 243,000
Feb. 5 Sale 10,000
Mar. 5 Purchase 11,000 73.50 808,500
Mar. 8 Purchase return 800 73.50 58,800
Apr. 10 Sale 7,000
Apr. 30 Sale return 300

 If periodic FIFO is used, the ending inventory will be unit cost from the March 8
purchase and will be deducted from the accumulation of the beginning inventory and
net purchase, known as the total goods available for sale.

Beginning balance (8,000 x 70) 560,000

Feb. 5 Purchase (3,000 x 81) 243,000
Mar. 5 Net Purchase (10,200 x 73.50) 749,700
Total goods available for sale 1,552,700
Less: Ending Inventory* (4,500 x 73.50) 330,750
Cost of goods sold 1,221,950

*Ending inventory in units (21,200 – 16,700) 4,500

 COGS computation under perpetual

Feb. 5 Costs of goods sold:

Jan. 1 Inventory (8,000 x 70) 560,000

Jan. 6 Inventory (2,000 x 81) 162,000
Total 722,000

April 10 Net Costs of goods sold:

Jan.6 Inventory (1,000 x 81) 81,000

Mar. 5 Inventory (5,700 x 73.50) 418,950
Total 499,950

Jan. 1 Inventory 560,000

6 Purchase 243,000
Total 803,000
Feb. 5 COGS (722,000)
Balance 81,000
Mar. 5 Net Purchase 749,700
Total 830,700
Apr. 10 Net COGS (499,950)
Apr. 30 Inventory balance 330,750

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 Periodic Average or Weighted Average

Beginning balance (8,000 x 70) 560,000

Feb. 5 Purchase (3,000 x 81) 243,000
Mar. 5 Net Purchase (10,200 x 73.50) 749,700
Total goods available for sale 1,552,700
Less: Ending Inventory* (4,500 x 73.24**) 329,580
Cost of goods sold 1,223,120

Total cost 1,552,700

Divide by total number of units 21,200
**Weighted average cost per unit 73.24

 Perpetual Average or Moving Average

Jan. 1 Inventory 560,000

6 Purchase 243,000
Total 803,000
Feb. 5 COGS (10,000 x 73.00***) (730,000)
Balance 73,000
Mar. 5 Net Purchase 749,700
Total 822,700
Apr. 10 Net COGS (6,700 * 73.46****) (492,182)
Apr. 30 Inventory balance 330,518

*** Feb 5. Average cost (803,000 / 11,000) 73.00

**** April 10 Average cost (822,700 / 11,200) 73.46

Measurement of Inventories
 Inventories are required to be stated at the lower of cost and net realizable value (NRV).
Inventories are usually written down to net realizable value item by item. In some
circumstances, however, it may be appropriate to group similar or related items.

EXAMPLE:

Cost NRV LCNRV

Product A 200,000 180,000 180,000
Product B 300,000 250,000 250,000
Product C 100,000 130,000 100,000
Total 600,000 560,000 530,000
 The total carrying amount of inventories shall be 530,000, which is the most conservative
amount by applying the LCNRV approach.

Write-Down to Net Realizable Value

 If the ending inventory is recorded outright at 530,000, the writedown shall be immediately
recognized in cost of goods sold. This is the direct or cost of sales method.
 If the ending inventory is recorded first at the cost of 600,000, a loss of 70,000 with a
corresponding credit to an allowance account shall be recognized. This is the
loss/allowance method.
 Any write-down to NRV should be recognized as an expense in the period in which the
write-down occurs.
 Any reversal should be recognized in the income statement in the period in which the
reversal occurs.

Recognition as an Expense
 When inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories shall be recognized as

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an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognized.
 The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realizable value and all losses of
inventories shall be recognized as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs.
 The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventories, arising from an increase in net
realizable value, shall be recognized as a reduction in the amount of inventories recognized
as an expense in the period in which the reversal occurs.
 Some inventories may be allocated to other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as
a component of self-constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to
another asset in this way are recognized as an expense during the useful life of that asset.

Required disclosures:

 Accounting policy for inventories.

 Carrying amount, generally classified as merchandise, supplies, materials, work in

progress, and finished goods. The classifications depend on what is appropriate for the
enterprise.

 Carrying amount of any inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell.
 Amount of any write-down of inventories recognized as an expense in the period.
 Amount of any reversal of a writedown to NRV and the circumstances that led to such
reversal.
 Carrying amount of inventories pledged as security for liabilities.
 Cost of inventories recognized as expense (cost of goods sold).

Inventory Estimation Techniques

 Gross Method – Based on the assumption that the gross profit applied by an entity to its
products remains approximately the same from period to period and therefore the
relationship between cost of goods sold and sales is constant.

Goods available for sale X

Less: Estimated cost of goods sold
Net sales* X
Less: Gross profit X X
Estimated ending inventory X

The cost of goods sold can also be computed if the net sale is multiplied by 1 less the GP
rate if the gross profit rate based on sales or net sales divided by 1 plus the gross profit rate
if the gross profit rate is based on cost.

*Net sales shall be gross sales less “sales returns and allowance” or “sales returns” only in
order for the estimate in ending inventory not to be overstated.

 Retail Method – Employed by retailers dealing with numerous different items for sale with
varying mark up percentages to keep track unit cost.

Goods available for sale at retail X

Less: Net sales X
Employee discounts X
Normal losses X X
Estimated ending inventory X
Multiplied by the cost ratio %
Estimated ending inventory at cost X

 Conservative Cost Ratio = GAS at cost divided by GAS at retail before net markdown
 Average Cost Ratio = GAS at cost divided by GAS at retail (after net markdown)
 FIFO Cost Ratio = Purchases at cost divided by Purchases at retail after net markdown
 Net sales similar to the “gross profit method” of estimation is computed by ignoring the
sales discount and sales allowance if it is separated from sales returns.

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- - END - -

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING
PAS 41 - AGRICULTURE
Objective of PAS 41
The objective of PAS 41 is to establish standards of accounting for agricultural activity -- the
management of the biological transformation of biological assets (living plants and animals) into
agricultural produce (harvested product of the enterprise's biological assets).
Key Definitions:
 Agricultural activity is the management by an entity of the biological transformation of
biological assets for sale, into agricultural produce, or into additional biological assets.
 Agricultural produce is the harvested product of the entity’s biological assets.
 A biological asset is a living animal or plant.
 Biological transformation comprises the processes of growth, degeneration, production,
and procreation that cause qualitative or quantitative changes in a biological asset.
 A group of biological assets is an aggregation of similar living animals or plants.
 Harvest is the detachment of produce from a biological asset or the cessation of a
biological asset’s life processes.
 Bearer plant is a living plant that:
a. Is used in the production process of agricultural produce,
b. Is expected to bear produce for more than one period
c. Has a remote likelihood of being sold (except as part of incidental scrap sales).

Initial Recognition
An enterprise should recognize a biological asset or agriculture produce only when the enterprise
controls the asset as a result of past events, it is probable that future economic benefits will flow to
the enterprise, and the fair value or cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
Measurement
 Biological assets should be measured on initial recognition and at subsequent reporting
dates at fair value less costs of disposal, unless fair value cannot be reliably measured.
 Agricultural produce should be measured at fair value less costs of disposal at the point
of harvest. Because harvested produce is a marketable commodity, there is no
'measurement reliability' exception for produce.
 The gain on initial recognition of biological assets at fair value, and changes in fair value of
biological assets during a period, are reported in net profit or loss.
 A gain on initial recognition of agricultural produce at fair value should be included in net
profit or loss for the period in which it arises.
 All costs related to biological assets that are measured at fair value are recognized as
expenses when incurred, other than costs to purchase biological assets.
 Bearer plants are accounted for under PAS 16 using the cost model, or the revaluation
model. Before bearer plants are able to bear agricultural produce (i.e. before maturity), they
are accounted for as self-constructed items of property, plant and equipment. The
agricultural produce of the bearer plant remains within the scope of PAS 41 and is therefore
accounted for at fair value.
 PAS 41 presumes that fair value can be reliably measured for most biological assets.
However, that presumption can be rebutted for a biological asset that, at the time it is
initially recognized in financial statements. In such a case,
 The asset is measured at cost less accumulated depreciation and impairment losses if the
asset does not have a quoted market price in an active market and for which other methods
of reasonably estimating fair value are determined to be clearly inappropriate or
unworkable.

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 But the enterprise must still measure all of its other biological assets at fair value. If
circumstances change and fair value becomes reliably measurable, a switch to fair value
less disposal costs is required.
Measurement of fair value
 A quoted market price in an active market for a biological asset or agricultural produce is
the most reliable basis for determining the fair value of that asset. If an active market does
not exist, PAS 41 provides guidance for choosing another measurement basis. First choice
would be a market-determined price such as the most recent market price for that type of
asset, or market prices for similar or related assets; if reliable market-based prices are not
available, the present value of expected net cash flows from the asset should be use,
discounted at a current market-determined pre-tax rate.
 In limited circumstances, cost is an indicator of fair value, where little biological
transformation has taken place or the impact of biological transformation on price is not
expected to be material.
 The fair value of a biological asset is based on current quoted market prices and is not
adjusted to reflect the actual price in a binding sale contract that provides for delivery at a
future date.
Other Issues
a. The change in fair value of biological assets is part physical change (growth, etc.) and
part unit price change. Separate disclosure of the two components is encouraged, not
required.
b. Fair value measurement stops at harvest. PAS 2, Inventories, applies after harvest.
c. Agricultural land is accounted for under PAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment. However,
biological assets that are physically attached to land are measured as biological assets
separate from the land.
d. Intangible assets relating to agricultural activity (for example, milk quotas) are accounted
for under PAS 38, Intangible Assets.
e. Unconditional government grants received in respect of biological assets measured at fair
value are reported as income when the grant becomes receivable.

Disclosure requirements in PAS 41 include:

 Carrying amount of biological assets
 Description of an enterprise's biological assets, by broad group
 Change in fair value during the period
 Fair value of agricultural produce harvested during the period
 Description of the nature of an enterprise's activities with each group of biological assets
and non-financial measures or estimates of physical quantities of output during the period
and assets on hand at the end of the period
 Information about biological assets whose title is restricted or that are pledged as security
 Commitments for development or acquisition of biological assets
 Financial risk management strategies
 Methods and assumptions for determining fair value
 Reconciliation of changes in the carrying amount of biological assets, showing separately
changes in value, purchases, sales, harvesting, business combinations, and foreign
exchange differences
Disclosure of a quantified description of each group of biological assets, distinguishing between
consumable and bearer assets or between mature and immature assets, is encouraged but not
required. If fair value cannot be measured reliably, additional required disclosures include:
 Description of the assets
 An explanation of the circumstances
 If possible, a range within which fair value is highly likely to fall
 Gain or loss recognized on disposal
 Depreciation method
 Useful lives or depreciation rates
 Gross carrying amount and the accumulated depreciation, beginning and ending
If the fair value of biological assets previously measured at cost now becomes available, certain
additional disclosures are required.
Disclosures relating to government grants include the nature and extent of grants, unfulfilled
conditions, and significant decreases in the expected level of grants.

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INVESTMENTS IN ASSOCIATES
Key Definitions
 Associate- Is an entity, including an unincorporated entity such as a partnership, over which the
investor has significant influence and that is neither a subsidiary nor an interest in a joint venture.
 Significant influence - Is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions
of the investee but is not control or joint control over those policies.
 Equity method - Is a method of accounting whereby the investment is initially recognized at cost
and adjusted thereafter for the post acquisition change in the investor’s share of net assets of the
investee. The profit or loss of the investor includes the investor's share of the profit or loss of the
investee.
Identification of Associates
 A holding of 20% or more of the voting power (directly or through subsidiaries) will indicate
significant influence unless it can be clearly demonstrated otherwise.
 If the holding is less than 20%, the investor will be presumed not to have significant influence
unless such influence can be clearly demonstrated.
 The existence of significant influence by an investor is usually evidenced in one or more of the
following ways:
a) Representation on the board of directors or equivalent governing body of the investee;
b) Participation in the policy-making process;
c) Material transactions between the investor and the investee;
d) Interchange of managerial personnel; or
e) Provision of essential technical information.
Accounting for Associates
 In its consolidated financial statements, an investor should use the equity method of
accounting for investments in associates, unless:
a. An investment in an associate that is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its disposal
within 12 months from acquisition should be accounted for as held for trading under PFRS 9
(FVPL).
b. A parent that is exempted from preparing consolidated financial statements by PAS 27 may
prepare separate financial statements as its primary financial statements. Use cost method or
PFRS 9.
c. An investor need not use the equity method if all of the following four conditions are met:
1. The investor is itself a wholly owned subsidiary, or is a partially-owned subsidiary of
another entity and its other owners, including those not otherwise entitled to vote, have
been informed about, and do not object to, the investor not applying the equity method;
2. The investor's debt or equity instruments are not traded in a public market;
3. The investor did not file, nor is it in the process of filing, its financial statements with a
securities commission or other regulatory organization for the purpose of issuing any class
of instruments in a public market; and
4. The ultimate or any intermediate parent of the investor produces consolidated financial
statements available for public use that comply with PFRS.
Applying the Equity Method of Accounting
1. Basic principle – The equity investment is initially recorded at cost and is subsequently
adjusted to reflect the investor's share of the net profit or loss of the associate.
2. Distributions and other adjustments to carrying amount - Distributions received from the
investee reduce the carrying amount of the investment. Adjustments to the carrying amount may
also be required arising from OTHER changes in the investee's equity (revaluation surplus and
translation gains and losses.
3. An associate with outstanding preference shares
a. The investor computes its share of profits or losses after adjusting for the dividends on such
shares, whether or not the dividends have been declared on cumulative preference
shares.
b. However if the preference shares is non-cumulative, adjustments for dividends are made
only if there is a declaration.

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4. Implicit goodwill and fair value adjustments - On acquisition of the investment any difference
between the cost of the investment and the investor’s share of the net fair value of the
associate’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities is accounted for in accordance
with PFRS 3 Business Combinations. Therefore:
(a) Goodwill relating to an associate is included in the carrying amount of the investment.
However, amortization of that goodwill is not permitted and is therefore not included in the
determination of the investor’s share of the associate’s profits or losses.
(b) Any excess of the investor’s share of the net fair value of the associate’s identifiable assets,
liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the investment
 Is excluded from the carrying amount of the investment
 Included as income in the determination of the investor’s share of the associate’s
profit or loss in the period in which the investment is acquired.
 This is more commonly known as “negative goodwill” or the “gain on bargain purchase”
5. Appropriate adjustments to the investor's share of the profits or losses after acquisition are
made to account for additional depreciation of the associate's depreciable assets based on the
excess of their fair values over their carrying amounts at the time the investment was acquired.
This rule also applies to inventories since this will have an effect in the associate’s reported net
income.
6. Transactions with associates
 Unrealized profits and losses resulting from upstream (associate to investor) and downstream
(investor to associate) transactions should be eliminated to the extent of the investor's interest
in the associate if the asset sold between the associate and investor has not yet been sold to
an unrelated party.
 However, realized profits and losses shall be recognized once the asset is sold to an
unrelated party or if the asset is being consumed through depreciation.
7. Discontinuing the equity method - Use of the equity method should cease from the date that
significant influence ceases.
 The difference between the selling price and carrying amount of the investment sold shall be
recognized in profit or loss.
 The “retained investment” shall be accounted for under PFRS 9 and shall be remeasured to
fair value on the date significant influence ceases and recognized in profit or loss.
8. Application of the equity method achieved in stages
 The previously held interest that was accounted for under the cost or fair value method shall
be remeasured to fair value on the date the investor gains significant influence.
 The difference between the fair value and the carrying amount of the previously held
investment shall be recognized in profit or loss.
 The total of the fair value of the previously held investment and the new acquisition cost shall
be regarded as the total cost of the investment classified as “associate”.
 If the FVOCI was used to account for the previously held investment, any cumulative
unrealized gain or loss as OCI shall be reclassified to retained earnings.
9. Date of associate's financial statements
 The investor should use the financial statements of the associate as of the same date as the
financial statements of the investor unless it is impracticable to do so.
 If it impracticable, the most recent available financial statements of the associate should be
used, with adjustments made for the effects of any significant transactions or events occurring
between the accounting period ends.
 However, the difference between the reporting date of the associate and that of the investor
cannot be longer than three months.
9. Losses in excess of investment
 The investor’s share in the associates losses cannot exceed the “interest in the associate”
and shall discontinue the application of the equity method is this is the case.
 After the investor's interest is reduced to zero, additional losses are recognized by a provision
(liability) only to the extent that the investor has incurred legal or constructive obligations or
made payments on behalf of the associate.
 If the associate subsequently reports profits, the investor resumes recognizing its share of
those profits only after its share of the profits equals the share of losses not recognized.

- - END - -

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INVESTMENT PROPERTY

Definition of Investment Property

Investment property Land or a building or part of a building or both held by the owner or by the lessee
under a finance lease to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both.

Examples of investment property:

a. Land held for long-term capital appreciation

b. Land held for undecided future use
c. Building leased out under an operating lease
d. Vacant building held to be leased out under an operating lease
e. Property under construction as investment property

The following are not investment property and, therefore, are outside the scope of PAS 40:

a. Property held for use in the production or supply of goods or services or for administrative
purposes (Property, plant and equipment)
b. Property held for sale in the ordinary course of business or in the process of construction of
development for such sale (Inventories)
c. Property being constructed or developed on behalf of third parties (Construction Contracts)
d. Owner-occupied property (Property, Plant and Equipment), including property held for future use
as owner-occupied property, property held for future development and subsequent use as owner-
occupied property, property occupied by employees and owner-occupied property awaiting
disposal
e. Property leased to another entity under a finance lease.

Other Classification Issues

Property held under an operating lease

A property interest that is held by a lessee under an operating lease may be classified and accounted
for as investment property provided that:

 The rest of the definition of investment property is met

 The operating lease is accounted for as if it were a finance lease in accordance with PAS 17
Leases
 The lessee uses the fair value model set out in this Standard for the asset recognized.
 An entity may make the foregoing classification on a property-by-property basis.

Partial own use - If the owner uses part of the property for its own use, and part to earn rentals or for
capital appreciation

 If the portions can be sold or leased out separately, they are accounted for separately. Therefore
the part that is rented out is investment property.
 If the portions cannot be sold or leased out separately, the property is investment property only if
the owner-occupied portion is insignificant.

Ancillary services - If the enterprise provides ancillary services to the occupants of a property held by
the enterprise, the appropriateness of classification as investment property is determined by the
significance of the services provided.

 If those services are a relatively insignificant component of the arrangement as a whole (for
instance, the building owner supplies security and maintenance services to the lessees), then the
enterprise may treat the property as investment property.
 Where the services provided are more significant (such as in the case of an owner-managed
hotel), the property should be classified as owner-occupied.

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Intracompany rentals - Property rented to a parent, subsidiary, or fellow subsidiary

 Not investment property in consolidated financial statements that include both the lessor
and the lessee, because the property is owner-occupied from the perspective of the group.
 However, such property could qualify as investment property in the separate financial
statements of the lessor, if the definition of investment property is otherwise met.

Recognition

 Investment property should be recognized as an asset

a. When it is probable that the future economic benefits that are associated with the property will
flow to the enterprise
b. The cost of the property can be reliably measured.

Initial measurement

 Investment property is initially measured at cost, including transaction costs.

 Such cost should not include start-up costs, abnormal waste, or initial operating losses incurred
before the investment property achieves the planned level of occupancy.

Measurement subsequent to initial recognition - After initially recognizing the investment property at
cost, an enterprise may choose between the

 Fair value model

 Cost model
 One method must be adopted for all of an entity's investment property. Change is permitted only
if this results in a more appropriate presentation. PAS 40 notes that this is highly unlikely for a
change from a fair value model to a cost model.

Fair value model

a. Investment property is remeasured at fair value, which is the amount for which the property
could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm's length transaction. Gains
or losses arising from changes in the fair value of investment property must be included in net
profit or loss for the period in which it arises.

b. Fair value should reflect the actual market state and circumstances as of the end of the reporting
period. The best evidence of fair value is normally given by current prices on an active market for
similar property in the same location and condition and subject to similar lease and other
contracts. In the absence of such information, the entity may consider current prices for
properties of a different nature or subject to different conditions, recent prices on less active
markets with adjustments to reflect changes in economic conditions, and discounted cash flow
projections based on reliable estimates of future cash flows.

c. There is a rebuttable presumption that the enterprise will be able to determine the fair value of an
investment property reliably on a continuing basis. However, if, in exceptional circumstances, an
entity follows the fair value model but at acquisition concludes that a property's fair value is not
expected to be reliably measurable on a continuing basis, the property is accounted for in
accordance with the benchmark treatment under PAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment (cost
less accumulated depreciation less accumulated impairment losses).

d. Where a property has previously been measured at fair value, it should continue to be measured
at fair value until disposal, even if comparable market transactions become less frequent or
market prices become less readily available.

Cost Model

a. After initial recognition, investment property is accounted for in accordance with the cost model
as set out in PAS 16, Property, Plant and Equipment – cost less accumulated depreciation and
less accumulated impairment losses.

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Transfers to or from Investment Property Classification

Transfers to, or from, investment property should only be made when there is a change in use,
evidenced by:
 Commencement of owner-occupation (transfer from investment property to owner-occupied
property)
 Commencement of development with a view to sale (transfer from investment property to
inventories)
 End of owner-occupation (transfer from owner-occupied property to investment property);
 Commencement of an operating lease to another party (transfer from inventories to investment
property)
 End of construction or development (transfer from property in the course of
construction/development to investment property.
 When an entity decides to sell an investment property without development, the property is not
reclassified as investment property but is dealt with as investment property until it is disposed of.

Accounting for Transfers

From Transferred Category Treatment

Fair value at the change of use
Investment property carried Owner-occupied property or
is the 'cost' of the property
at fair value inventories
under its new classification
Difference in carrying amount
Investment property carried
Owner-occupied property and fair value as revaluation
at fair value
under PAS 16
Difference in carrying amount
Investment property at fair
Inventories and fair value is recognized in
value
profit or loss.
Difference between the fair
Completed investment value at the date of transfer and
Investment property under
property that will be carried the previous carrying amount
construction or development
at fair value should be recognized in net
profit or loss
Investment property under Owner-occupied property or No change the carrying amount
the cost model inventories of the property transferred
Disposals
 An investment property should be derecognized on disposal or when the investment property is
permanently withdrawn from use and no future economic benefits are expected from its disposal.
 The gain or loss on disposal is the difference between the net disposal proceeds and the carrying
amount of the asset and recognized in profit or loss.
 Compensation from third parties is recognized when it becomes receivable.
Disclosures under the Fair Value Model and Cost Model
a. Whether the fair value or the cost model is used
b. If the fair value model is used, whether property interests held under operating leases are
classified and accounted for as investment property;
c. If classification is difficult, the criteria to distinguish investment property from owner-occupied
property and from property held for sale.
d. The methods and significant assumptions applied in determining the fair value of investment
property.
e. The extent to which the fair value of investment property is based on a valuation by a qualified
independent valuer; if there has been no such valuation, that fact must be disclosed.
f. The amounts recognized in profit or loss for:
 Rental income from investment property;
 Direct operating expenses (including repairs and maintenance) arising from investment
property that generated rental income during the period; and
 Direct operating expenses (including repairs and maintenance) arising from investment
property that did not generate rental income during the period.
g. Restrictions on the realizability of investment property or the remittance of income and proceeds
of disposal.
h. Contractual obligations to purchase, construct, or develop investment property or for repairs,
maintenance or enhancements.
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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

ACOUNTING FOR DIVIDENDS AND STOCK RGHTS

Dividends – Distribution of earnings paid to shareholders based on the number of shares owned. The
most common type of dividend is a cash dividend. Dividends may be issued in other forms such as stock
and property.

Dividends are typically recognized as income by the investor/shareholder, unless it is a liquidating

dividend, the equity method is being applied or the dividends are in the form of shares.

Cash dividends are recognized as income regardless whether the dividends comes from the
cumulative net income after the date of the investment (post acquisition retained earnings) or net income
prior to the acquisition of the investment (pre-acquisition retained earnings). Previously, it was
addressed in a PFRS that dividends from pre-acquisition retained earnings are liquidating dividends.
This treatment has now been superseded by revisions to PAS 27.

Basic rules on dividends

a. Cash dividends – Income recognized at the date of declaration, which is the date the board of
directors announces its intention to pay dividends.
b. Property dividends – Income at fair value.
c. Stock or share dividends – Recorded as a memorandum entry, however two important cases to
take note of:

1. A different class of shares received other than the original investment known as “special
stock dividends” shall be recognized as a new investment, therefore the TOTAL cost of the
investment shall be allocated using the “relative fair value method”. A common accounting
problem considered under these cases will be if only a single fair value is given. In this
instance, the available fair value shall simply be deducted from the total cost and the
difference shall be the value allocated to the remaining investment.

Total cost of 20,000 ordinary share investment 5,000,000

Assume that, 10,000 preference shares are received with a fair value of 60 per share and
the fair value of the 20,000 ordinary shares that originally cost 250 each is 270.

Total Fair Value Fraction / Ratio

Ordinary (20,000 x 270) 5,400,000 5.4/6 (90%)
Preference (10,000 x 60) 600,000 .6/6 (10%)
Total 6,000,000

Although not income and entry shall be recorded at

Investment in preference shares (10% x 5M) 500,000

Investment in ordinary shares 500,000

If the fair value of the ordinary shares is not provided, the preference share investment shall
be recorded at 600,000

2. Stock dividends will also reduce the cost per share as a result of the same or original cost
being allocated to a larger number of shares. This will of course be a factor in subsequent
sale transactions related to the investment.

If an investment of 50,000 shares is acquired at a total cost of 5,000,000 receives a 20%

share dividend distribution or a total of 10,000 additional shares, the before and after cost
per share is computed as follows:

Cost per share before share dividends (5,000,000 divided by 50,000) 100 / share

Cost per share after share dividends (5,000,000 divided by 60,000) 83.33 / share

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When Are Shareholders Entitled to Dividends
As mentioned earlier, dividends are recognized as income at the date of declaration. Meaning, dividends
receivable shall be debited and a corresponding credit to dividend income. But to determine whether the
shareholder should get a dividend, you need to look at two important dates. They are the "record date" or
"date of record" and the "ex-dividend date" or "ex-date."

When a company declares a dividend, it sets a record date when the shareholder must be on the
company's books as a shareholder to receive the dividend. Companies also use this date to determine
who is sent financial reports and other information.

Once the company sets the record date, the ex-dividend date is set based on stock exchange rules. The
ex-dividend date is usually set for stocks two business days before the record date. If a buyer
purchases the stock on its ex-dividend date or after, they will not receive the next dividend payment.
Instead, the seller gets the dividend. If the buyer purchases before the ex-dividend date meaning
“dividend on”, the buyer will get the dividend.

Here is an example:
Declaration Date Ex-Dividend Date Record Date Payable Date

Thursday, 9/1/2016 Tuesday, 10/4/2016 Thursday, 10/6/2016 Tuesday, 10/25/2016

If shares cost the investor 1,000,000 and a dividend receivable of 100,000 is recorded on the declaration
date, selling the shares for example 1,500,000 will result in a gain of only 400,000 if sold between
9/1/2016 and 10/3/2016 because it is “dividend on” and 500,000 if sold between 10/4/2016 and
10/24/2016 since it is “ex-dividend”.

Accounting for Stock Rights

Stock rights are issued to shareholders in order to maintain their proportionate ownership interest in the
corporation when new shares are issued at a discounted price compared to a public offering and for a
limited period only usually several weeks. The ratio is one stock right for every share owned by a
shareholder. However, the number of stock rights to buy one additional share shall not be the same.
There are opposing views in accounting for stock rights and the illustration below will show both.

Let us assume that a shareholder has 50,000 shares with a total cost of 5,000,000 or 100 per share and
is issued 50,000 stock rights to acquire 10,000 shares at 140 each. The fair value of the shares is 160
each and the stock right is 10 each.

Accounted for Separately Not Accounted for Separately

Total Fair Value of SR (50,000 x 10) 500,000 Only a “memo entry” is recorded for the receipt
of the stock rights. And the exercise and
Journal Entry: acquisition of the shares shall only be the
exercise price.
Investment in Stock Rights 500,000
Investment in Stocks 500,000 Exercise price (10,000 x 140) 1,400,000

Exercise price (10,000 x 140) 1,400,000 Journal Entry:

Cost of stock rights exercise 500,000
Total cost of new investment 1,900,000 Investment in Stocks 1,400,000
Cash 1,400,000
Journal Entry:

Investment in Stocks 1,900,000

Cash 1,400,000
Investment in Stocks 500,000

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 Accounting for stock rights separately has been the traditional approach followed for several
decades already although unlike before where the total cost of the investment is multiplied by the
fraction that can be developed by adding the fair value of the share and the stock right (example:
5,000,000 x 10/170) depending whether the shares are quoted “right-on” or “ex-right”. The fair
value is simply used as the value to be allocated as the separate investment of the stock rights
based on the theoretical basis under PFRS 9 that “all investments and contracts on those
instruments must be measured at fair value”

 If stock rights are not accounted for separately, this is in line with another instrument described
in PFRS 9 known as embedded derivatives where the stock rights can be rightfully classified.
Embedded derivatives shall not be separated from the host contract if the host contract is a
financial asset. Of course the investment in stocks is a financial asset.

 That’s why it will be wise to proceed with caution and identify the requirements specifically
mentioned in the problem on how to treat stock rights since both treatments are acceptable under
PFRS 9.

Theoretical Value of Stock Rights

This is a formula that shall be applied to derive the fair value of the stock rights in case it is not
determinable in a specific situation. There are two applications of the formula depending whether the
shares are quoted “right-on” or “ex-right”.

RIGHT-ON EX-RIGHT
Market value of share less Exercise Price Market value of share less Exercise Price
Number of rights to purchase one share + 1 Number of rights to purchase one share

The formulas are identical except for one little detail, the denominator for the “right-on” formula shall
have a plus 1 factor to represent the market value of the stock right that is included in the market value of
the share since it is quoted “right-on”.

Let’s assume that 50,000 shares are acquired for 5,000,0000 and 50,000 rights are issued to purchase
12,500 shares or 4 rights to purchase on share at an exercise price of 100. The shares are quoted at
125 and stock rights shall be accounted for separately.

The market value of the stock rights if “right-on” is 5 (125 – 100) / (4 + 1) and 6.25 is “ex-right” (125 –
100) / 4. The cost of the new investment shall be

RIGHT-ON EX-RIGHT
Exercise price (12,500 x 100) 1,250,000 Exercise price (12,500 x 100) 1,250,000
Cost of stock rights (5 x 50,000) 250,000 Cost of stock rights (6.25 x 50,000) 312,500
Total cost of new investment 1,500,000 Total cost of new investment 1,562,500

Shares in lieu of cash dividends and cash in lieu of stock dividends

Let us assume that 50,000 shares are acquired at a cost of 3,000,000.

Situation 1: A dividend per share of 20 is declared but 5,000 shares with a fair value of 150 each is
issued
Situation 2: A 20% stock dividend is declared but instead cash dividends of 600,000 are received

Under situation 1, shares in lieu of cash, this shall be recognized as a property dividend and be
recorded as income at 750,000 (5,000 x 150), the fair value of the shares received. If the fair value of
the shares is not available, the amount of income shall be 1,000,000 (50,000 x 20)

Under situation number 2, cash in lieu of stock dividends, the “as if sold approach” shall be followed.
Step 1 will be to compute for the new cost per share if the share dividends were received which is 50 per
share (3,000,000 / 50,000 + 10,000 (20% x 50,000)). Then the number of share dividends that would
have been received shall be multiplied by 50 and compared to amount of cash dividends received and a
gain or loss on sale shall be recognized. Therefore the gain is 100,000 (600,000 less (50 x 10,000))

- - END - -
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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

RECLASSIFICATION OF FINANCIAL ASSETS

Conditions for Reclassification of Financial Assets

Under PFRS 9, reclassification of financial assets is required if, and only if, the objective of the entity’s
business model for manages those financial assets changes.

Timing of Reclassification of Financial Assets

If the entity determines that its business model has changed in a way that is significant to its operations,
then it reclassifies all affected assets prospectively from the first day of the next reporting period
(the reclassification date). Prior periods are not restated.

Original Category New Category Accounting Impact

Fair value is measured at

reclassification date. Difference from
Amortized cost FVPL
carrying amount should be recognized
in profit or loss.

Fair value at the reclassification date

FVPL Amortized Cost becomes its new gross carrying
amount

Fair value is measured at

reclassification date. Difference from
amortized cost should be recognized
Amortized cost FVOCI
in OCI. Effective interest rate is not
adjusted as a result of the
reclassification.

Fair value at the reclassification date

becomes its new amortized cost
carrying amount. Cumulative gain or
FVOCI Amortized cost
loss in OCI is adjusted against the fair
value of the financial asset at
reclassification date.

Fair value at reclassification date

FVPL FVOCI
becomes its new carrying amount.

Fair value at reclassification date

becomes carrying amount. Cumulative
FVOCI FVPL
gain or loss on OCI is reclassified to
profit or loss at reclassification date

Let us assume the following amounts for cost, fair value and amortization from 2016 to 2018. All
amounts have no basis for computation and have been simplified for expediency. The original cost of
the financial asset is 4,600,000 with a face value of 5,000,000 and the following information has been
gathered at the end of the year on December 31, 2016, 2017 and 2018.

12/31/16 12/31/17 12/31/18

Fair Value 5,200,000 5,400,000 5,500,000
Amortization on original cost 50,0000 70,000 90,000

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Amortization on 12/31/2016 FV 40,000 60,000
Amortization on 12/31/2017 FV 70,000

KEY OBSERVATIONS
 The financial asset was acquired at a 400,000 discount (5,000,000 – 4,600,000) therefore the
amortization of 50,000, 70,000 and 90,000 shall be added to the carrying amount of the asset if
AC or FVOCI shall be the classification.
 If the fair value on 12/31/2016 and 12/31/17 shall be used in the examples, the amortization of
40,000 and 60,000 for 2017 and 2018, respectively and 70,000 for 2018 shall be deducted from
the carrying amount because the fair value represents a premium.
 Let us assume that the business model changes in 2017, therefore the financial asset shall be
accounted for using the rules for the original classification until 12/31/2017 because the
reclassification date shall be 1/1/2018.
 We will also forego the entry for the nominal interest and the entire effective interest and
journalized the amortization only in the succeeding examples.

AMORTIZED COST TO FVPL FVPL TO AMORTIZED COST

12/31/2016 12/31/2016
FA at AC 50,000 FA at FVPL 600,000
Interest Income 50,000 Unrealized gain 600,000
12/31/2017 12/31/2017
FA at AC 70,000 FA at FVPL 200,000
Interest Income 70,000 Unrealized gain 200,000
1/1/2018 1/1/2018
FA at FVPL 5,400,000 FA at AC 5,400,000
FA at AC 4,720,000 FA at FVPL 5,400,000
Unrealized Gain (P/L) 680,000
12/31/2018
Interest Income 70,000
FA at AC 70,000

AMORTIZED COST TO FVOCI FVOCI TO AMORTIZED COST

12/31/2016 12/31/2016
FA at AC 50,000 FA at FVOCI 50,000
Interest Income 50,000 Interest Income 50,000

FA at FVOCI 550,000
Unrealized gain – OCI 550,000
12/31/2017 12/31/2017
FA at AC 70,000 FA at FVOCI 70,000
Interest Income 70,000 Interest Income 70,000

FA at FVOCI 130,000
Unrealized gain – OCI 130,000
1/1/2018 1/1/2018
FA at FVOCI 5,400,000 FA at AC 5,400,000
FA at AC 4,720,000 FA at FVOCI 5,400,000
Unrealized Gain - OCI 680,000
Unrealized gain - OCI 680,000
12/31/2018 FA at AC 680,000

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Interest Income 70,000
FA at FVOCI 70,000 12/31/2018
FA at FVOCI 170,000 FA at AC 90,000
Unrealized gain - OCI 170,000 Interest Income 90,000
(5,500,000 – (5,400,000 – 70,000) = 170,000

FVPL TO FVOCI FVOCI TO FVPL

12/31/2016 12/31/2016

FA at FVPL 600,000 FA at FVOCI 50,000

Unrealized gain 600,000 Interest Income 50,000

FA at FVOCI 550,000
Unrealized gain – OCI 550,000

12/31/2017 12/31/2017

FA at FVPL 200,000 FA at FVOCI 70,000

Unrealized gain 200,000 Interest Income 70,000

FA at FVOCI 130,000
Unrealized gain – OCI 130,000

1/1/2018 1/1/2018

FA at FVOCI 5,400,000 FA at FVPL 5,400,000

FA at FVPL 5,400,000 FA at FVPL 5,400,000

12/31/2018 Unrealized gain - OCI 680,000

Interest Income 70,000 Gain on FVPL 680,000
FA at AC 70,000
12/31/2018
FA at FVOCI 170,000
Unrealized gain - OCI 170,000 FA at FVPL 100,000
Unrealized gain (P/L) 100,000
(5,500,000 – (5,400,000 – 70,000) = 170,000

- - END - -

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INITIAL MEASUREMENT OF PPE

I. Definitions

Cost Amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other
consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or
construction or, where applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when
initially recognized in accordance with the specific requirements of other PFRS.

Entity-specific value Present value of the cash flows an entity expects to arise from the continuing use
of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its useful life or expects to incur
when settling a liability.

Property, plant and equipment are tangible items that:

(a) Are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for
administrative purposes; and
(b) Are expected to be used during more than one period.

Recognition
Items of property, plant, and equipment should be recognized as assets when it is probable that:
 The future economic benefits associated with the asset will flow to the enterprise; and
 The cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
Measurement at Recognition - An item of property, plant and equipment that qualifies for
recognition, as an asset shall be measured at its cost.
Elements of Cost
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment comprises:
(a) Its purchase price, including import duties and non-refundable purchase taxes, after deducting
trade discounts and rebates.
(b) Any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition necessary for it to
be capable of operating in the manner intended by management.
(c) The initial estimate of the costs of dismantling and removing the item and restoring the site on
which it is located, the obligation for which an entity incurs either when the item is acquired or as a
consequence of having used the item during a particular period for purposes other than to produce
inventories during that period.
Examples of directly attributable costs are:
(a) Costs of employee benefits arising directly from the construction or acquisition of the item of
property, plant and equipment
(b) Costs of site preparation
(c) Initial delivery and handling costs
(d) Installation and assembly costs
(e) Costs of testing whether the asset is functioning properly, after deducting the net proceeds from
selling any items produced while bringing the asset to that location and condition (such as samples
produced when testing equipment)
(f) Professional fees
Examples of costs that are not costs of an item of property, plant and equipment and should be expensed:
(a) Costs of opening a new facility
(b) Costs of introducing a new product or service (including costs of advertising and promotional
activities)
(c) Costs of conducting business in a new location or with a new class of customer (including costs of
staff training)
(d) Administration and other general overhead costs.

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Recognition of costs in the carrying amount of an item of property, plant and equipment ceases when the
item is in the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended
by management. Therefore, costs incurred in using or redeploying an item are not included in the carrying
amount of that item. For example, the following costs are not included in the carrying amount of an item of
property, plant and equipment:

(a) Costs incurred while an item capable of operating in the manner intended by management has yet to
be brought into use or is operated at less than full capacity
(b) Initial operating losses, such as those incurred while demand for the item’s output builds up
(c) Costs of relocating or reorganizing part or all of an entity’s operations.

Measurement of Cost
Measurements with an order of priority to be followed:

Issuance of Shares Issuance of Bonds Exchange Transaction with

difference in Cash Flows
1 st
FV of Asset FV of Bonds FV of Asset Given
2nd FV of Shares FV of Asset FV of Asset Received
3rd Par value of Shares Face value of BP BV of Asset Given

Assets acquired by an exchange transaction shall be adjusted for the amount of cash paid or
received.

Measurements that use the cash price or its equivalent

Acquired though short term credit - Cost should be net of the discount regardless whether taken
or not.
Acquired through long term financing - Present value of the deferred payment or the installments

Measurements at fair value of the asset received only

Asset donated by a shareholder - Recorded at the fair value of the asset. An equity account
“Donated Capital” shall be credited which is part of share
premium. However, cost incurred to transfer the title paid by
the recipient shall not be capitalized, instead debited from
Donated Capital.
Asset from a government grant - Also recorded at fair value. Income shall be credited if there
are no conditions attached and cost incurred to transfer the
title shall be recognized as an expense.

Other measurement considerations

Self Constructed asset - Includes the cost of materials, direct labor and overhead
specifically attributable to the construction. Savings from the
construction, meaning lower total cost compared if the assets
was purchased are not included in the cost and shall not be
recognized as income.
Exchange transactions that lacks This term “lacks commercial substance” applies if an both
commercial substance - assets from the exchange represents a configuration (RISK,
TIMING AND AMOUNT) of cash flows that does not differ
from each other. Therefore the transaction shall be accounted
for in a manner that no exchange occurred and shall be
measured at book value of the asset given with NO “gain or
loss” to be recognized.

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GOVERNMENT GRANTS AND GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE

Definitions

Government assistance Action by government designed to provide an economic benefit specific to an

entity or range of entities qualifying under certain criteria. Government
assistance for the purpose of this Standard does not include benefits provided
only indirectly through action affecting general trading conditions, such as the
provision of infrastructure in development areas or the imposition of trading
constraints on competitors.

Government grants Assistance by government in the form of transfers of resources to an entity in

return for past or future compliance with certain conditions relating to the
operating activities of the entity. They exclude those forms of government
assistance which cannot reasonably have a value placed upon them and
transactions with government which cannot be distinguished from the normal
trading transactions of the entity.

Grants related to assets Government grants whose primary condition is that an entity qualifying for
them should purchase, construct or otherwise acquire long-term assets.
Subsidiary conditions may also be attached restricting the type or location of
the assets or the periods during which they are to be acquired or held.

Grants related to income Government grants OTHER than those related to assets.

Government Grants, including non-monetary grants at fair value, shall not be recognized until there
is reasonable assurance that:
(a) The entity will comply with the conditions attaching to them; and
(b) The grants will be received.

There are four types of significant government grants that will require the following treatment:

1. Grants for the purpose of specific expenses – This should be deferred and recognized as income
in the same period as the relevant expense.

2. Grants related to depreciable assets are usually recognized as income over the periods and in the
proportions in which depreciation on those assets is charged. Either by deducting the grant from the
cost of the asset or as deferred income.

3. Grants related to non-depreciable assets may also require the fulfillment of certain obligations and
would then be recognized as income over the periods which bear the cost of meeting the
obligations. As an example, a grant of land may be conditional upon the erection of a building on
the site and it may be appropriate to recognize it as income over the life of the building.

4. A government grant that becomes receivable as compensation for expenses or losses already
incurred or for the purpose of giving immediate financial support to the entity with no future related
costs shall be recognized as income of the period in which it becomes receivable.

Presentation of Grants Related to Assets

a. Government grants related to assets, including non-monetary grants at fair value, shall be
presented in the statement of financial position either by setting up the grant as deferred
income or by deducting the grant in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset.

b. Two methods of presentation in financial statements of grants (or the appropriate portions of
grants) related to assets are regarded as acceptable alternatives.

c. One method sets up the grant as deferred income which is recognized as income on a systematic
and rational basis over the useful life of the asset.

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d. The other method deducts the grant in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset. The grant is
recognized as income over the life of a depreciable asset by way of a reduced depreciation charge.

e. The purchase of assets and the receipt of related grants can cause major movements in the cash
flow of an entity. For this reason and in order to show the gross investment in assets, such
movements are often disclosed as separate items in the cash flow statement regardless of whether
or not the grant is deducted from the related asset for the purpose of balance sheet presentation.

Presentation of Grants Related to Income

a. Grants related to income are sometimes presented as a credit in the income statement, either
separately or under a general heading such as “Other income”; alternatively, they are deducted in
reporting the related expense.
b. Supporters of the first method claim that it is inappropriate to net income and expense items and
that separation of the grant from the expense facilitates comparison with other expenses not
affected by a grant. For the second method it is argued that the expenses might well not have
been incurred by the entity if the grant had not been available and presentation of the expense
without offsetting the grant may therefore be misleading.
c. Both methods are regarded as acceptable for the presentation of grants related to income.
Disclosure of the grant may be necessary for a proper understanding of the financial statements.
Disclosure of the effect of the grants on any item of income or expense, which is required to be
separately disclosed, is usually appropriate.

Repayment of Government Grant

a. If a grant becomes repayable, it should be treated as a change in estimate.
b. If the grant is recorded as a deferred income, the repayment should be applied first against any
related unamortized deferred income (the balance of the deferred income), and the difference shall
be recognized as expense.
c. Where the original grant related to an asset, the repayment should be treated as increasing the
carrying amount of the asset or reducing the deferred income balance.
d. The cumulative depreciation which would have been charged had the grant not been received
should be charged as depreciation expense.

- - END - -

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

COST OF LAND

a) Purchase price of the land and transaction cost. Transaction cost includes non recoverable taxes
like documentary stamps, land registration and transfer taxes. This will also include legal fees, title
search and title guarantee insurance and survey fee. The purchase price shall be treated in one of
the two following manners in case there is an old building on the land that was purchased BASED
ON A NEW PIC.

 If the OLD BUILDING IS USABLE regardless of the intention to demolish the building. The
purchase price shall be allocated based on the relative fair value of the land and old building.
Once again, inability to determine the fair value of both assets, the land and the building is a
simple hurdle in allocating the purchase price. It simply means that the determinable fair value
shall be deducted from the total purchase price and allocated to the other asset. For example if
Land and a USABLE OLD BUILDING is acquired for 5,000,000 and the FV of the land is
5,400,000 and the building is 600,000.

 4,500,000 shall be capitalized as land (5.4 / 6) and 500,000 shall be capitalized s building
regardless if there is an intention to use the old building or demolish it to construct a new
building as long as it is USABLE.
 If we can only determine the fair value of the building, 600,000 will be the cost of the building
and 4,400,000 (5,000,000 – 600,000) shall be the cost of the land.

 If the OLD BUILDING IS UNUSABLE it is highly probable that the building shall be demolished
right away and any intention to use it is diminished. Therefore, the entire purchase price shall be
recorded as LAND ONLY.

WHAT HAPPENS TO THE COST OF THE OLD USABLE BUILDING WHEN DEMOLISHED?

 The answer will depend on the classification of the land and the new building to be constructed.

Investment
PPE Inventory
Property
COST of OLD BUILDING LOSS/EXPENSE LOSS/EXPENSE CAPITALIZED
CAPITALIZED AS
CAPITALIZED CAPITALIZED
DEMOLITION COST INVESTMENT
AS BUILDING AS INVENTORY
PROPERTY
SALVAGED VALUE DEDUCTED DEDUCTED DEDUCTED

Reasoning behind requirements:

 Cost of OLD BUILDING – PPE and Investment property shall be initially measured at cost
which includes cost that are “directly attributable” to bring the asset to the condition intended
by management (PAS 16 and PAS 40), hence the cost of the old building is not directly
attributable cost. Meanwhile, the cost of inventories shall include “indirect cost such as
indirect labor and overhead” (PAS 2), therefore this loose classification somewhat justifies
the capitalization of the cost of the old building. Unlike for PPE and IP where the
requirement is very strict and specific.
 DEMOLITION COST THAT IS CAPITALIZED - For ages, the demolition cost has been
capitalized as land since this is cost to prepare the land for its intended use, but now the
demolition cost has been likened to site preparation cost for items like machinery and
equipment. This is the basis of the conclusion of the PIC in capitalizing the demolision cost
to the “NEW BUILDING (ACCOUNT)”.

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 However, it the classification is INVESTMENT PROPERTY or INVENTORY, only one

account shall be used and there is no allocation between land and building. Therefore
the demolition cost is capitalized to that single account only.
 REMEMBER THAT THIS WILL ONLY APPLY TO NEW BUILDING THAT IS
DEMOLISHED. AN OLD EXISTING BUILDING AND THE DEMOLITION COST SHALL
ALWAYS BE EXPENSED.

b) Unpaid mortgages and taxes in arrears assumed by the buyer.

c) Special assessment
d) Cost to relocate present occupants from existing operating lease contracts and informal settlers.
e) Option money or the reservation fee for land that is finally acquired. This should not be confused
with earnest money that is a down payment and part of the purchase price.
f) Cost of permanent improvements to the land that are determined to be nondrepreciable. This once
again should be clearly distinguished concrete and metal structures that are naturally temporary an
subject to wear and tear with the potential for replacement. Such items shall still be capitalized as
“land improvement”

BORROWING COSTS
Interest and other costs incurred by an enterprise in connection with the borrowing of
funds. Borrowing cost may include:
a) Interest expense calculated using the effective interest method.
Borrowing Cost
b) Finance charges in respect of finance leases
c) Exchange differences arising from foreign currency borrowings to the extent that
they are regarded as an adjustment to interest costs.
An asset that takes a substantial period of time to get ready for its intended use.
Examples include:
a) Inventories
b) Manufacturing plants
c) Power generation facilities
d) Intangible assets
Qualifying Asset
e) Investment properties.

Financial assets, and inventories that are manufactured, or otherwise produced, over
a short period of time, are not qualifying assets. Assets that are ready for their
intended use or sale when acquired are not qualifying assets.

Accounting Treatment The revised PAS 23 has specifically mentioned that interest on loans applied to
qualifying assets should be capitalized. This eliminates the benchmark and alternative treatment.
Borrowing Costs Eligible for Capitalization
 Specific Borrowings - To the extent that funds are borrowed specifically for the purpose of
obtaining a qualifying asset, the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalization on that asset
shall be determined as the actual borrowing costs incurred on that borrowing during the period
less any investment income on the temporary investment of those borrowings.
 General Borrowings - To the extent that funds are borrowed generally and used for the purpose
of obtaining a qualifying asset, the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalization shall be
determined by applying a capitalization rate to the expenditures on that asset. The capitalization
rate shall be the weighted average of the borrowing costs applicable to the borrowings of the entity
that are outstanding during the period, other than borrowings made specifically for the purpose of
obtaining a qualifying asset. The amount of borrowing costs capitalized during a period shall not
exceed the amount of borrowing costs incurred during that period.

Commencement of Capitalization
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The capitalization of borrowing costs, as part of the cost of a qualifying asset shall commence when:

(a) Expenditures for the asset are being incurred

(b) Borrowing costs are being incurred
(c) Activities that are necessary to prepare the asset for its intended use or sale are in progress.

Suspension of Capitalization

Capitalization of borrowing costs shall be suspended during extended periods in which active
development is interrupted.

Cessation of Capitalization

Capitalization of borrowing costs shall cease when substantially all the activities necessary to prepare
the qualifying asset for its intended use or sale are complete. When the construction of a qualifying
asset is completed in parts and each part is capable of being used while construction continues on other
parts, capitalization of borrowing costs shall cease when substantially all the activities necessary to
prepare that part for its intended use or sale are completed.

Disclosure

The financial statements shall disclose:

(a) The accounting policy adopted for borrowing costs;

(b) The amount of borrowing costs capitalized during the period; and
(c) The capitalization rate used to determine the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalization.

- - END - -

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

DEPRECIATION AND DEPLETION

The amount at which an asset is recognized after deducting any accumulated

Carrying amount
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
The amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other
consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or
Cost
construction or, where applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when
initially recognized in accordance with the specific requirements of other IFRS.
Depreciable amount The cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost, less its residual value.
The systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful
Depreciation
life.
The estimated amount that an entity would currently obtain from disposal of the
Residual value asset, after deducting the estimated costs of disposal, if the asset were already of
the age and in the condition expected at the end of its useful life.

(a) The period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an
entity; or
Useful life
(b) The number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the
asset by an entity.

Depreciation
 Each part of an item of property, plant and equipment with a cost that is significant in relation to the
total cost of the item shall be depreciated separately.
 The depreciation charge for each period shall be recognized in profit or loss unless it is included in
the carrying amount of another asset for example depreciation on factory equipment which shall be
included as overhead and cost of inventories.

Depreciable Amount and Depreciation Period

 The depreciable amount of an asset shall be allocated on a systematic basis over its useful life.
 The residual value and the useful life of an asset shall be reviewed at least at each financial year-
end and, if expectations differ from previous estimates, the change(s) shall be accounted for as a
change in an accounting estimate
 Depreciation is recognized even if the fair value of the asset exceeds its carrying amount; as long as
the asset’s residual value does not exceed its carrying amount. Repair and maintenance of an asset
do not negate the need to depreciate it.
 The residual value of an asset may increase to an amount equal to or greater than the asset’s
carrying amount. If it does, the asset’s depreciation charge is zero unless and until its residual value
subsequently decreases to an amount below the asset’s carrying amount.
 Depreciation of an asset begins when it is available for use. Depreciation of an asset ceases at the
earlier of the date that the asset is classified as held for sale and the date that the asset is
derecognized. Therefore, depreciation does not cease when the asset becomes idle or is retired
from active use unless the asset is fully depreciated. However, under usage methods of
depreciation the depreciation charge can be zero while there is no production.
 Factors are considered in determining the useful life of an asset:
(a) Expected usage of the asset. Usage is assessed by reference to the asset’s expected capacity
or physical output.
(b) Expected physical wear and tear, which depends on operational factors such as the number of
shifts for which the asset is to be used and the repair and maintenance programme, and the care
and maintenance of the asset while idle.
(c) Technical or commercial obsolescence arising from changes or improvements in production, or
from a change in the market demand for the product or service output of the asset.
(d) Legal or similar limits on the use of the asset, such as the expiry dates of related leases.
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Depreciation Method
 The depreciation method used shall reflect the pattern in which the asset’s future economic benefits
are expected to be consumed by the entity.
 The depreciation method applied to an asset shall be reviewed at least at each financial year-end
and, if there has been a significant change in the expected pattern of consumption of the future
economic benefits embodied in the asset, the method shall be changed to reflect the changed
pattern. Such a change shall be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate
 A variety of depreciation methods can be used to allocate the depreciable amount of an asset on a
systematic basis over its useful life. These methods include the straightline method, the
diminishing balance method and the units of production method.

Example: Let us assume an asset acquired for 2,200,000 with a residual value of 400,000 at the end of its
5 year useful life and is expected to produce 100,000 units of output at 15,000 (year 1), 20,000 (Y2), 30,000
(Y3), 25,000 (Y4) and 10,000 (Y5). Depreciation each year shall be computed as follows:

Straight-line SYD Double-Declining Production

DA divided by UL SYD = 1+2+3+4+5 Cost x 2 over Life Rate = DA / Total output
Or DA x SL Rate DA x (RL/SYD) BV x 2 over Life Current output x rate
BV less RV (final year) 1.8M / 100,000 = 18
Y1 1.8M / 5 = 360,000 1.8M x 5/15 = 600,000 2.2M x 40% = 880,000 15,000 x 18 = 270,000
Y2 1.8M / 5 = 360,000 1.8M x 4/15 = 480,000 1.32M x 40% = 528,000 20,000 x 18 = 360,000
Y3 1.8M / 5 = 360,000 1.8M x 3/15 = 360,000 792K x 40% = 316,800 30,000 x 18 = 540,000
Y4 1.8M / 5 = 360,000 1.8M x 2/15 = 240,000 475.2K – .4M = 75,200 25,000 x 18 = 450,000
Y5 1.8M / 5 = 360,000 1.8M x 1/15 = 120,000 No Depreciation 10,000 x 18 = 180,000

KEY OBSERVATIONS

 SL provides uniform depreciation, SYD and Double-declining provides accelerated and declining
depreciation while production provides variable amount of depreciation.

 SL, SYD and Production method uses depreciable amount from beginning to end. Double declining
ignores the residual value in the initial year and depreciates the book value after that, but still
adheres to the depreciation of the depreciable amount only that’s why the depreciation in year 4 is
only the difference between the book value and residual value. Year four is also the final year of
depreciation because at this point the asset is fully depreciated.

 Depreciation for SYD and Double-Declining for a portion of a year is computed by multiplying the
amount of depreciation by the number of month’s outstanding divided by 12. For example
depreciation in the second year of the useful life for 9 months shall be 360,000 (480,000 x 9/12) for
SYD and 396,000 (528,000 x 9/12) for Double-Declining.

WASTING ASSETS are natural resources property in the form of land containing mineral deposits, precious
stones and metals or trees to be harvested as logs and lumber with a limited life and will be subject to
depletion using the production method.

The total cost of the wasting asset shall be:

(a) Acquisition cost - Purchase price of the property.
(b) Exploration cost- Cost incurred to locate the minerals and other resources beneath the
surface of the property.
(c) Development cost - Cost incurred for the actual production or extraction of the minerals and
other resources. Development cost is naturally incurred multiple number
of times during the period of production and will usually cause the
recomputation of the rate. Development cost related to other tangible
assets should not be capitalized as part of the wasting asset rather as
other items of PPE and depreciated separately, like equipment,
machinery and processing facilities.
(d) Restoration cost - Future cost to be paid to restore the property back to its original condition
but recorded as a provision (liability that is estimated) at its present value.

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Example: Land containing iron ore is acquired at 50,000,000 with an expected residual value of
4,000,000 at the end of its useful life of 5 years. Geological estimates after exploration activities expect
that 2,000,000 tons of iron ore can be produced. The following information has been gathered for two
years of mining activities.

Year 1 Year 2
Exploration cost 5,000,000 -
Development cost
related to extraction 7,000,000 3,000,000
Expected restoration cost 3,000,000
PV of restoration cost 1,800,000
Tons produced 300,000 400,000
Tons remaining 1,700,000 1,000,000
Tons sold 100,000 500,000
Development cost
related to equipment 5,000,000
Residual value of equipment 500,000

KEY VARIABLES

 The total cost of the wasting asset is 63,800,000 and the depletable base is 59,800,000. The
equipment shall be recorded as a separate asset and depreciated using specific rules that will be
discussed later. LET US ASSUME THAT THE EQUIPMENT HAS A 10 YEAR LIFE.
 The rate for year 1 is 29.9 per ton (59,800,000 divided by 2,000,000)
 The rate for year 2 is much more complicated to compute. First, the depletion in year 1 shall be
deducted from 59,800,000. Then the additional development cost of 3,000,000 shall be added to
the balance. The total amount will then be divided by the new expected output from the
beginning of the year which is 1,400,000 (400,000 + 1,000,000). There is a change in
accounting estimate in the expected output since the original estimate was 2,000,000 and
300,000 in year 1 and 400,000 in year 2 would indicate that 1,300,000 should still be remaining
after year 2.
 The year 2 rate is:

Year 1 Depletion base 59,800,000

Less: Year 1 depletion (29.90 x 300,000) 8,970,000
Depletion base balance 50,830,000
Year 2 Development cost 3,000,000
Total 53,830,000
Divided by: Estimated output (revised) 1,400,000
Year 2 rate 38.45 per ton

Year 1 Year 2
Total depletion is rate x actual production:
(300,000 x 29.90) and (400,000 x 38.45) 8,970,000 15,380,000
Depletion in cost of sales is rate x units sold:
Year 1 (100,000 x 29.90) 2,990,000
Year 2 (200,000 x 29.90) + (300,000 x 38.45) 17,515,000
WASTING ASSET DOCTRINE: Wasting asset corporations are allowed to declare dividends in excess of
the retained earnings balance but the ceiling or upper limit is the amount of realized depletion or the
depletion already recognized in cost of sales amounting to 20,505,000 (2,990,000 + 17,515,000). If let’s
say that the entity has retained earning amounting to P10,000,000. It may declare dividends up to
30,505,000 otherwise known as maximum dividends.

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DEPRECIATION OF ASSETS USED IN THE WASTING ASSET

 If the depreciable asset has a future use, the asset is depreciated using its own useful life under the
same depreciation methods for similar assets, for example our asset above shall be depreciated at
450,000 annually (5M – 500,000) divided by 10 years.

 If the depreciable asset has no future use, but the useful life is shorter than the life of the asset, the
asset will again be depreciated using its own useful life under the same depreciation methods for
similar assets. Depreciation will be 1,125,000 annually (5M – 500,000) divided by 4 years if we
assume that it is shorter than the 5 year useful life of the wasting asset.

 If the life of the wasting asset, the production method shall be used. Therefore the rate of 2.25 per
ton shall be used (4,500,000 / 2,000,000) and depreciation for the first year shall be 675,000 (2.25 x
300,000).

 A problem shall arise if there is a shutdown because depreciation on an asset shall not cease
because it is idle. Let’s assume that there is a shutdown in the second year but production resumes
in Year 3 and the estimated output is unchanged at 1,700,000 tons and 200,000 tons is extracted in
Year 3. We will also be using the 10 year life originally stated above.

Year 1 depreciation (2.25 x 300,000) 675,000

Year 2 depreciation (4,500,000 – 675,000) / 9 years 425,000

Year 3 rate = (4,500,000 – 675,000 – 425,000) / 1,700,000 2 per ton

Year 3 depreciation (2 x 200,000) 400,000

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

SUBSEQUENT MEASUREMENT – REVALUATION MODEL

COST MODEL Cost less accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses
REVALUATION Revalued amount less SUBSEQUENT accumulated depreciation and
MODEL accumulated impairment losses.
REVALUED AMOUNT Fair value at revaluation date or the depreciated replacement cost.
If there is no market-based evidence of fair value because of the specialized nature of the
DEPRECIATED item of property, plant and equipment and the item is rarely sold, an entity may need to
REPLACEMENT estimate fair value using an income or a depreciated replacement cost approach. This is
COST the replacement cost at the date of revaluation minus the proportional amount of
accumulated depreciation on the original cost. Also known as SOUND VALUE

REVALUATION Difference of the revalued amount and book value recognized in other
SURPLUS comprehensive income rather than “profit or loss”
Revaluation surplus that is transferred to retained earnings when the revalued
REALIZATION OF asset is sold regardless if it is depreciable or nondepreciable. If the asset is
REVALUATION depreciable, the amount transferred to RE is the difference between the
SURPLUS depreciation on the revalued amount and the depreciation on cost or simply the
revaluation surplus balance divided by the remaining life of the asset.
Occurs when:
TAXABLE a) The carrying amount of the asset is higher than the tax base, or
TEMPORARY b) The carrying amount of the liability is lower than the tax base
DIFFERENCE
This will warrant the recognition of a deferred tax liability.
The Revaluation Model

 After recognition as an asset, an item of property, plant and equipment whose fair value can be
measured reliably shall be carried at a revalued amount, being its fair value at the date of the
revaluation less any subsequent accumulated depreciation and subsequent accumulated impairment
losses. Revaluations shall be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the carrying amount does
not differ materially from that which would be determined using fair value at the end of the reporting
period. The frequency of revaluation may be:

a) Annual revaluation for property, plant and equipment that experience significant and volatile
changes in fair value.
b) Every three or five years for property, plant and equipment with only insignificant changes in fair value.

 When an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, any accumulated depreciation at the date
of the revaluation is treated in one of the following ways:

a) Restated proportionately with the change in the gross carrying amount of the asset so that the
carrying amount of the asset after revaluation equals its revalued amount. This method is often
used when an asset is revalued by means of applying an index to its depreciated replacement cost.
b) Eliminated against the gross carrying amount of the asset and the net amount restated to the
revalued amount of the asset. This method is often used for buildings.

 If an item is revalued, the entire class of assets to which that asset belongs should be revalued. This
is to avoid a mixture of costs and revalued amounts with in a class of property, plant and equipments.
The following are examples of separate classes:

(a) Land (c) Machinery (e) Aircraft (g) Furniture and fixtures
(b) Land and buildings (d) Ships (f) Motor vehicles (h) Office equipment

 If a revaluation results in an increase in value, it should be credited to equity under the heading
"revaluation surplus" unless it represents the reversal of a revaluation decrease of the same asset
previously recognized as an expense, in which case it should be recognized as income.
 The revaluation surplus shall be transferred to retained earnings in one of the following ways:

If Sold If NOT Sold

The balance of Revaluation surplus divided by
The Asset is Depreciable
revaluation surplus remaining life
The balance of
The Asset is Non Depreciable NONE
revaluation surplus

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 If an asset’s carrying amount is decreased as a result of a revaluation (meaning impaired), the

decrease shall be recognized in profit or loss. However, the decrease shall be debited directly to
equity under the heading of revaluation surplus to the extent of any credit balance existing in the
revaluation surplus in respect of that asset.

Example: Land with a cost of 5,000,000 and building with a cost of 20,000,000 with a useful life of 6 years and
a residual value of 2,000,000 was acquired 3 years ago and revalued at the start of year 4. The land’s
replacement cost is 7,000,000 while the building’s replacement cost is 30,000,000. The building’s remaining
useful life is expected to be 5 years, meaning the original estimate 3 years ago would have been 8 rather than
6. At the same time, the building’s expected residual value is 4,000,000 rather the original estimate of
2,000,000. The computation for the book value of the building is as follows:

Cost 20,000,000
Less: Accumulated Depreciation (20M – 2M) / 6 x 3 9,000,000
Book value at the date of revaluation 11,000,000

 The ratio of the accumulated depreciation of the asset based on its depreciable amount is 50% (9M
divided by 18M)
 The depreciation on the replacement cost of the building will be also 50% of the revised depreciable
amount of 26,000,000 (30M – 4M) and the Depreciated replacement cost is as follows:

Replacement cost 30,000,000

Less: Accumulated Depreciation (30M – 4M) x 50% 13,000,000
Depreciated replacement cost at the date of revaluation 17,000,000

 Let us determine the differences on cost, accumulated depreciation and carrying amount in order for
the amounts to be recorded under the proportional approach and compare the revised amounts after
revaluation.

Proportional Restatement Elimination Approach

Cost (30M – 20M) 10,000,000 Decrease in Cost and AD (9,000,000)

AD (13M – 9M) ( 4,000,000) Increase in Cost / RS (17M – 11M) 6,000,000
Net CA (17M – 11M) 6,000,000

 The reported values and corresponding accounts by comparison of both methods shall be as follows:

Proportional Restatement Elimination Approach

Gross carrying amount 30,000,000 Gross carrying amount 17,000,000

AD (13,000,000) AD 0
Net CA 17,000,000 Net CA 17,000,000

 The following final computation until the year-end of year 4 shall be:

Land Building Total

Revalued amount 7,000,000 17,000,000 24,000,000
Less: Book value 5,000,000 11,000,000 16,000,000
RS at gross 2,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000
Less: Deferred tax at 30% 600,000 1,800,000 2,400,000
RS at net Beginning 1,400,000 4,200,000 5,600,000
Less: RS to RE ( 4,200,000 / 5) 0 840,000 840,000
RS balance, Ending 1,400,000 3,360,000 4,760,000

 The deferred tax results from the taxable temporary difference which is directly debited from the
revaluation surplus in order to recognize a deferred tax liability. While the revaluation surplus on the
land is not realized to retained earnings until the land is sold.

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IMPAIRMENT OF ASSETS

KEY OBJECTIVES:

1. When to test assets for impairment. Testing for impairment simply means that the recoverable amount
of the asset shall be estimated and compared to the carrying amount.
2. What is the basis of the recoverable amount.
3. When to test cash generating units for impairment rather than single or individual assets and how to
allocate the impairment loss as well as the limitations to the allocation.
4. When to reverse impairment losses, the limitations of the gain to be recognized in profit or loss as
well as how to allocate the gain if the reversal is for a cash generating unit.

DEFINITIONS

Amount at which an asset is recognized after deducting any accumulated

Carrying amount
depreciation (amortization) and accumulated impairment losses thereon
Smallest identifiable group of assets that generates cash inflows that are
Cash-generating unit largely independent of the cash inflows from other assets or groups of
assets.
Incremental costs directly attributable to the disposal of an asset or cash-
Costs of disposal
generating unit, excluding finance costs and income tax expense.
The cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in the financial
Depreciable amount
statements, less its residual value.
Fair value less Amount obtainable from the sale of an asset or cash-generating unit in an
arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing parties, less the
costs to sell costs of disposal.
The higher amount between an asset or a cash-generating unit’s fair value
Recoverable amount
less costs to sell and its value in use.
The present value of the future cash flows expected to be derived from an
Value in use
asset or cash-generating unit.

IMPAIRMENT LOSS is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit
exceeds its recoverable amount.

SCENARIO #1 SCENARIO #2
“Internal and external indicators” of impairment Annual impairment testing
1. Items of property plant and equipment 1. Intangible assets with indefinite lives.
2. Intangible assets with definite useful lives 2. Intangible assets not available for use.
3. Cash generated units that are tested for 3. Cash generating units with allocated goodwill.
impairment due to the unavailability of
estimating the recoverable amount of an
asset that is impaired included in the
CGU.

Indicators of Impairment

External sources Internal sources

 Market value declines  Obsolescence or physical damage
 Negative changes in technology, markets,  Asset is part of a restructuring or
economy, or laws held for disposal
 Increases in market interest rates  Worse economic performance than
 Company stock price is below book value expected

Determining Recoverable Amount

a. If fair value less costs to sell or value in use is more than carrying amount, it is not necessary to
calculate the other amount. The asset is not impaired.
b. If fair value less costs to sell cannot be determined, then recoverable amount is value in use.
c. For assets to be disposed of, recoverable amount is fair value less costs to sell.

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Fair Value Less Costs to Sell

a. If there is a binding sale agreement, use the price under that agreement less costs of disposal.
b. If there is an active market for that type of asset, use market price less costs of disposal. Market price
means current bid price if available, otherwise the price in the most recent transaction.
c. If there is no active market, use the best estimate of the asset's selling price less costs of disposal.
d. Costs of disposal are the direct costs only.

Value in Use

The calculation of value in use should reflect the following elements:

a. An estimate of the future cash flows the entity expects to derive from the asset in an arm's length
transaction
b. Expectations about possible variations in the amount or timing of those future cash flows
c. The time value of money, represented by the current market risk-free rate of interest
d. The price for bearing the uncertainty inherent in the asset
e. Other factors, such as illiquidity, that market participants would reflect in pricing the future cash flows
the entity expects to derive from the asset.

Considerations for Cash Flow Projections

a. Cash flow projections should be based on reasonable and supportable assumptions, the most recent
budgets and forecasts, and extrapolation for periods beyond budgeted projections. presumes that
budgets and forecasts should not go beyond five years; for periods after five years, extrapolate from the
earlier budgets. Management should assess the reasonableness of its assumptions by examining the
causes of differences between past cash flow projections and actual cash flows.

b. Cash flow projections should relate to the asset in its current condition – future restructurings to which
the entity is not committed and expenditures to improve or enhance the asset's performance should not
be anticipated.

c. Estimates of future cash flows should not include cash inflows or outflows from financing activities, or
income tax receipts or payments.

Discount Rate

a. In measuring value in use, the discount rate used should be the pre-tax rate that reflects current
market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the asset.

b. The discount rate should not reflect risks for which future cash flows have been adjusted and should
equal the rate of return that investors would require if they were to choose an investment that would
generate cash flows equivalent to those expected from the asset.

c. For impairment of an individual asset or portfolio of assets, the discount rate is the rate the company
would pay in a current market transaction to borrow money to buy that specific asset or portfolio.

d. If a market-determined asset-specific rate is not available, a surrogate must be used that reflects the
time value of money over the asset's life as well as country risk, currency risk, price risk, and cash flow
risk. The following would normally be considered:
 The enterprise's own weighted average cost of capital
 The enterprise's incremental borrowing rate
 Other market borrowing rates.

Recognition of an Impairment Loss

a. An impairment loss should be recognized whenever recoverable amount is below carrying amount.
b. The impairment loss is an expense in the income statement unless it relates to a revalued
asset where the value changes are recognized directly in equity.
c. Adjust depreciation or amortization charges for future periods.

Cash-Generating Units – As mentioned above for scenario #2, it is widely known that goodwill that arises
from a business combination shall not be amortized but tested for impairment. However, for obvious reasons
goodwill does not have a recoverable amount. Therefore it is the cash generating unit to which goodwill was
allocated that will be impairment tested.

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The other scenario is our common procedure when an asset indicates factors of impairment then the
recoverable amount should be determined for the individual asset. However, if all effort and means have been
exhausted to determine the recoverable amount to no avail, then recoverable amount for the asset's cash-
generating unit (CGU) shall be determined and a larger scope of impairment testing shall be implemented.

PROCEDURES AFTER TESTING THE CGU FOR IMPAIRMENT REGARDLESS WITH OR WITHOUT
GOODWILL

a) If the recoverable amount of the unit exceeds the carrying amount of the unit, the unit and the
goodwill allocated to that unit is not impaired.

b) If the carrying amount of the unit exceeds the recoverable amount of the unit, the entity must
recognize an impairment loss.

c) The impairment loss is allocated to reduce the carrying amount of the assets of the unit (group of units)
in the following order:
 First, reduce the carrying amount of any goodwill allocated to the cash-generating unit (group of
units); and
 Then, reduce the carrying amounts of the other assets of the unit (group of units) pro rata on the
basis OF THEIR BOOK VALUES. However the cash of the CGU shall not be impaired

The carrying amount of an asset should not be reduced below the highest of:
 Its fair value less costs to sell (if determinable)
 Its value in use (if determinable) and
 Zero.

**This is the limitation discussed in number 3 of our key objectives from above**

Reversal of an Impairment Loss

a. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INDICATORS OF REVERSAL ARE IDENTIFIED.

External sources Internal sources

 Significant increase in market value  Changes in way asset is used or
 Changes in technological, market, expected to be used
economic or legal environment  Evidence from internal reporting
 Changes in interest rates indicates that economic
 Market interest rates have decreased. performance of the asset will be
better than expected.

b) Individual asset – The difference of the increased recoverable amount is recognized in profit and loss
unless asset carried at revalued amount.
c) CGUs – Allocated to assets of CGUs on a pro-rata basis.
d) Goodwill – Impairment of goodwill is never reversed.
e) Limitation – The revised carrying amount after reversal should not exceed the carrying amount of the
individual asset and assets within the cash generating unit if impairment loss was not recognized.

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FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Definitions

Intangible asset An identifiable nonmonetary asset without physical substance.

The systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an intangible asset over
Amortization
its useful life.
The amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of other
consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or
Cost construction, or, when applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when
initially recognized in accordance with the specific requirements of other
PFRSs.
The amount for which that asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable,
Fair value
willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.
Money held and assets to be received in fixed or determinable amounts of
Monetary assets
money.
Original and planned investigation undertaken with the prospect of gaining new
Research
scientific or technical knowledge and understanding.
The application of research findings or other knowledge to a plan or design for
the production of new or substantially improved materials, devices, products,
Development
processes, systems or services before the start of commercial production or
use.

Two important aspects of the definition of an Intangible Asset are:

I. Identifiability – Identifiable means

(a) Is separable, it is capable of being separated or divided from the entity and sold,
transferred, licensed, rented or exchanged, either individually or together with a related
contract, asset or liability OR

(b) Arises from contractual or other legal rights, regardless of whether those rights are
transferable or separable from the entity or from other rights and obligations.

II. Inherent characteristics of assets are:

(a) Control - An entity controls an asset if the entity has the power to obtain the future
economic benefits flowing from the underlying resource and to restrict the access of others
to those benefits.

(b) Future Economic Benefits - The future economic benefits flowing from an intangible asset
may include revenue from the sale of products or services, cost savings, or other benefits
resulting from the use of the asset by the entity.

(c) Cost – An asset shall only be recognized if its cost or value can be measured reliably.

KEY OBSERVATIONS

 Identifiability is the major reason why internally generated goodwill is not recognized as an asset.
Aside from lacking control and unmeasurable cost of goodwill.
 Control is the reason why internally generated brands and the skills of employees arising from
training or experience is not an asset. However, cost also plays a major role in its non
recognition.

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Recognition and Initial Measurement

 An enterprise to recognize an intangible asset, whether purchased or self-created AT COST if,

and only if:

 It is probable that the future economic benefits that are attributable to the asset will flow to the
enterprise; and
 The cost of the asset can be measured reliably.

Initial Measurement and Subsequent Expenditures

 Intangible assets are initially measured at cost.

 Subsequent expenditure on an intangible asset after its purchase or completion should be
recognized as an expense when it is incurred
 However in very rare cases that it is probable that this expenditure will enable the asset to
generate future economic benefits in excess of its originally assessed standard of
performance and the expenditure can be measured and attributed to the asset reliably.

Internally Generated Intangible Assets

I. It is sometimes difficult to assess whether an internally generated intangible asset qualifies for
recognition because of problems in

(a) Identifying whether and when there is an identifiable asset that will generate expected
future economic benefits;
(b) Determining the cost of the asset reliably. In some cases, the cost of generating an
intangible asset internally cannot be distinguished from the cost of maintaining or
enhancing the entity’s internally generated goodwill or of running day-to-day operations.

II. To assess whether an internally generated intangible asset meets the criteria for recognition, an
entity classifies the generation of the asset into:

(a) A research phase (b) A development phase

III. If an entity cannot distinguish the research phase from the development phase of an internal
project to create an intangible asset, the entity treats the expenditure on that project as if it were
incurred in the research phase only.

Research Phase

I. No intangible asset arising from research (or from the research phase of an internal project) shall
be recognized. Expenditure on research (or on the research phase of an internal project) shall be
recognized as an expense when it is incurred.

II. In the research phase of an internal project, an entity cannot demonstrate that an intangible asset
exists that will generate probable future economic benefits. Therefore, this expenditure is
recognized as an expense when it is incurred.

III. Examples of research activities are:

(a) Activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge

(b) The search for, evaluation and final selection of, applications of research findings or other
knowledge
(c) The search for alternatives for materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services
(d) The formulation, design, evaluation and final selection of possible alternatives for new or
improved materials, devices, products, processes, systems or services.

Development Phase

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I. An intangible asset arising from development (or from the development phase of an internal
project) shall be recognized if, and only if, an entity can demonstrate all of the following:

(a) The technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset so that it will be available for use or
sale.
(b) Its intention to complete the intangible asset and use or sell it.
(c) Its ability to use or sell the intangible asset.
(d) How the intangible asset will generate probable future economic benefits. Among other
things, the entity can demonstrate the existence of a market for the output of the intangible
asset or the intangible asset itself or, if it is to be used internally, the usefulness of the
intangible asset.
(e) The availability of adequate technical, financial and other resources to complete the
development and to use or sell the intangible asset.
(f) Its ability to measure reliably the expenditure attributable to the intangible asset during its
development.

II. In the development phase of an internal project, an entity can, in some instances, identify an
intangible asset and demonstrate that the asset will generate probable future economic benefits.
This is because the development phase of a project is further advanced than the research phase.

III. Examples of development activities are:

(a) The design, construction and testing of pre-production or pre-use prototypes and models;
(b) The design of tools, jigs, moulds and dies involving new technology;
(c) The design, construction and operation of a pilot plant that is not of a scale economically
feasible for commercial production; and
(d) The design, construction and testing of a chosen alternative for new or improved materials,
devices, products, processes, systems or services.

IV. Internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar
in substance shall not be recognized as intangible assets.

V. Expenditure on internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and
items similar in substance cannot be distinguished from the cost of developing the business as a
whole. Therefore, such items are not recognized as intangible assets.

Measurement Subsequent to Acquisition

Cost model. After initial recognition the benchmark treatment is that intangible assets
should be carried at cost less any amortization and impairment losses.

Revaluation model. Intangible assets may be carried at a revalued amount (based on

fair value) less any subsequent amortization and impairment losses only if fair value
can be determined by reference to an active market. Such active markets are expected
to be uncommon for intangible assets.

Classification of Intangible Assets Based on Useful Life

Intangible assets are classified as:

 Indefinite life: No foreseeable limit to the period over which the asset is expected to
generate net cash inflows for the entity.
 Finite life: A limited period of benefit to the entity.

Measurement Subsequent to Acquisition of Intangible Assets with Finite Lives

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The cost less residual value of an intangible asset with a finite useful life should be amortized
over that life:

 The amortization method should reflect the pattern of benefits.

 If the pattern cannot be determined reliably, amortize by the straight-line method.
 The amortization charge is recognized in profit or loss unless another PFRS requires
that it be included in the cost of another asset.
 The amortization period should be reviewed at least annually.
 The asset should also be assessed for impairment in accordance with PAS 36.

Measurement Subsequent to Acquisition of Intangible Assets with Indefinite Lives

 An intangible asset with an indefinite useful life should not be amortized.

 Its useful life should be reviewed each reporting period to determine whether events and
circumstances continue to support an indefinite useful life assessment for that
asset. If they do not, the change in the useful life assessment from indefinite to finite
should be accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate.
 The asset should also be assessed for impairment in accordance with PAS 36.

Key Principles on Certain Intangible Assets

Patents

 An exclusive right granted by the government to an inventor to control the manufacture, use
or sale of an invention
 Cost – Licensing and registration fees only for APPLIED AND REGISTERED patents and
purchase price and any directly attributable expenditure necessary in preparing the asset for
its intended use for PURCHASED PATENTS.
 Principles on amortization:
 Amortization is based on the useful life or legal life (20 years), which ever is
shorter.
 If a competing patent is acquired to protect an original patent. The cost of the
new patent and the carrying amount of the original patent is amortized over the
remaining life of the original patent.
 If a related patent is acquired to extend the life of an existing patent. The cost of
the new patent and the carrying amount of the original patent is amortized over
the extended period, unless if the remaining life of the new patent is shorter than
the extended period.

Goodwill

 An unidentifiable intangible asset that allows an enterprise to earn above normal income how
 It is only purchased goodwill that is recognized as an asset which is the cost in excess of the fair
value of the net assets acquired in a business combination. This the premium paid in acquiring
another business or ordinary shares when control is achieved. Countless of times goodwill is
referred to as BADWILL because seemingly the purchaser had gotten fleeced in the sale of the
net assets of the seller.
 Internally generated goodwill shall not be recognized as an asset.
 Impairment of goodwill is discussed in Hand Out #22

 Methods of estimating goodwill

 Capitalization of “average excess earnings”

 Capitalization of “average earnings”
 Purchase or multiples of “average excess earnings”
 Present value of “average excess earnings”

EXAMPLE : Lets assume that a buyer is planning to buy the business of a competitor. The cumulative net earnings
for the past 5 years was P18,000,000. The current value of net assets of the seller was 10,000,000 only. Meaning
if the buyer is able to acquire the assets and assume the liabilities at fair value, the purchase price would only be

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10,000,000. But let us say that buyer will account for the past performance of the seller and determine it as a
contributor to additional income in the future from the purchase of the seller’s business. Goodwill is determined by
the following assuming a 20 percent rate of return and a 25% capitalization rate?

Average earnings (18M / 5) 3,600,000

Less: Normal earnings (10M x 20%) 2,000,000
Excess earnings or earnings from goodwill 1,600,000
Capitalized at 25% or divided by 25%
Goodwill 6,400,000

 The purchase price will then be 16,400,000 which is the price at fair
value plus the goodwill added to the fair value.
 A multiplier of let’s say 3 years if the “multiples of excess earnings”
is used or a PV factor of 3.17 if the discount rate is 10% and 4
periods shall be used to compute for goodwill if for example the “PV
of excess earnings” will be used.

Average earnings (18M / 5) 3,600,000

Capitalized at 25% or divided by 25%
Purchase price 14,400,000

 Remember from above that 2M came from the net assets and 1.6M
came from goodwill. That’s why if you add the two together the
3.6M comes from the net assets with the goodwill or simply the
purchase price.

Trademark

 An exclusive right granted by the government that permits the use of distinctive symbols,
labels, and designs associated with the product or the organization.

 Cost – Licensing and registration fees only for developed trademarks Cost of research,
survey, design and development cost is expensed.

 The legal life of a trademark is 10 years however it may be renewed for an additional 10 year
period for an unlimited number of times. Therefore the legal life of a trademark is indefinite
and is not subject to amortization but instead tested for impairment.


Computer Software

 IF the software is an integral part of the hardware for example the operating system of the
PC, the cost of the software shall be included in hardware cost

 Internally developed (whether for use or sale) charge to expense until technological
feasibility is achieved

 Cost to develop the software shall be capitalized once technological feasibility is reached
either from the creation of a “working model or a detailed program design”. Probable future
benefits, intent and ability to use or sell the software, resources to complete the software, and
ability to measure cost are also requirements for capitalization.

 Development activities have concluded and commercial production shall commence once the
final or “beta” version of the software has been produced. In accounting specially in US
GAAP, the final version is known as the “product master”

 The amortization method for computer software should reflect the pattern in which the asset’s
future economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity. If such pattern cannot
be determined reliably, the straight-line method is used.

Leasehold Improvements

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 Permanent upgrading on leased property under an operating lease.

 This is a tangible asset by nature, however classified as an intangible asset because its an asset
where the ownership is not with the lessee who constructed or added the cost to the leased
property but ownership is with the lessor since the improvements cannot be detached or taken by
the lessee at the expiration of the leaseterm. This will be subject to amortization.
 If the lease contract is nonrenewable, the LHI is simply amortized using the shorter period
between the remaining leaseterm and the useful life of the LHI.
 If the lease is renewable, the additional period shall be added to the remaining leaseterm if the
extention option has already been exercise or the intention to renew is certain. This total
period will be the one compared to the life of the LHI.
 As you can imagine, this topic is a source of “changes in accounting estimates”.

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