Operational Amplifers

CHAPTER 4
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain dc
coupled amplifiers with differential inputs. One of the inputs
is called the inverting input (−); the other is called the
noninverting input. Usually there is a single output.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER Most op-amps operate from plus and minus
supply voltages, which may or may not be +V
SEE 2253 shown on the schematic symbol. –

By : PM Dr. Rubita Sudirman, FKE

+
8
1 1
8 8 20
1 1 –V
DIP DIP SMT SMT

Typical Op-Amp The Ideal Op-Amp

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis of op-

amp circuits. Ideally, op-amps have infinite voltage gain, infinite
bandwidth, and infinite input impedance. In addition, the ideal op-
amp has zero output impedance.

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

Zout = 0
Av = ‘

+
 The Practical Op-Amp Block Diagram

Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be treated as

ideal for certain situations, but can never actually attain ideal Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a
characteristics. In addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input voltage amplifier, and a push-pull output: the differential
impedance, they have other limitations. amplifier amplifies the difference in the two inputs.

– +
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
Vin Zin AvVin Vout – input stage gain stage
stage
Zout

Signal modes

Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode.
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode. V in Vin
Common-mode signals are
– –
applied to both sides with the
Vout Vout
same phase on both.
Differential-mode signals are + +
applied either as single-ended
Vin
(one side on ground) or Usually, common-mode –
double-ended (opposite phases –
signals are from unwanted Vout
Vin
on the inputs). Vout
sources, and affect both inputs +
+
in the same way. The result is Vin
that they are essentially Common-mode
Differential signals cancelled at the output. signals
 Internal circuit of operational amplifier
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
+ 6V
R1 R2 R6 R7
The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and Q6
reject common-mode signals is called the common-mode Q3 Q4 Q7
rejection ratio (CMRR). Q8
+ Q1 Q2
Aol R5 R9 Output
CMRR is defined as CMRR = Input
Acm -
Q5
where Adm is the open-loop differential-gain R8
and Acm is the common-mode gain. R3 R4

 Aol  + 6V
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20 log  
 Acm 

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER IDEAL CHARACTERISTIC OF OP-AMP

+VCC 1. High open-loop gain, (AOL= ∞).

V+
2. High input impedance, (Ri = ∞).
Vd VO
3. Low output impedance, (Ro = 0).
V-
Symbol
4. Output saturation voltage, ±Vo(sat) is equal to input supply
-VCC
voltage, ±VCC.
V+
Ri Ro 5. High CMRR (∞).
Vd VO
AOLVd
6. High bandwidth, (BW = ∞).
V-
Equivalent circuit
 CHARACTERISTIC OF PRACTICAL OP-AMP PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL EARTH

1. High open-loop gain, (AOL= 104 - 106 or higher). V+

I+ = 0
Ro
2. High input impedance, (Ri > 1MΩ). Vd Ri VO
AOLVd

3. Low output impedance, (Ro < 100Ω). V- Op-amp equivalent circuit with
I- = 0 Ri = ∞ and Ro = 0
4. Output saturation voltage,Vo = AOLVd = AOL(V+ - V-) CANNOT

Ri = ∞, thus: I+ = I− =0
EXCEED the power supply, typically -VCC ≤VO ≤ +VCC.

Ro = 0, thus:
(
Vo = AOL Vd = AOL V + − V − )
5. High CMRR ( limited, typical value 100 dB).

AOL = ∞, thus: Vo V
6. High bandwidth, (BW = limited). V + −V − = = o =0
AOL ∞

Therefore:
V + =V −

INPUT AND OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

BIASED INPUT CURRENT AND OFFSET INPUT CURRENT

Vo = 0
Typical value of bias current, I+ and I- is between 0.1 pA to 10 µA

Vo = 0 if no input is applied
The bias current for I+ and I- for ideal op-amp is the same.

Biased input current:

VIO Vo = 0

Input offset voltage , VIO, is required so that Vo(ofset) = 0
Offset input current:
+Vcc I+ + I−
I BIAS =

Ideal op-amp has IIO equals zero. 2
Vo = 0
I IO = I + − I −
Offset input
-Vcc
Null method so that Vo(offset) is zero
Rnull
BIASED INPUT CURRENT AND OFFSET INPUT CURRENT SLEW RATE

The unequal biased current will caused to zero output voltage if no

Slew rate is define as the rate of change of the output voltage over time,
input signal is applied. (V/s)

A good op-amp must have a high slew rate.
I+
Vo ≠ 0 ∆V
I- Slew rate = [V s ]
∆t
Output will not be zero due to the biased current Vi
Vo
RF
R1 ∆V
Vi t
Vo t
Vo
RX=R1||RF RX is introduced to overcome the effect of ∆t
biased current to inverting op-amp circuit
Determination of slew rate t

Effect of slew rate on output signal

INVERTING OP-
OP- AMP
Example: INVERTING OP-
OP-AMP
IF RF
@ +ve terminal (Virtual
IF
I1
I1 = I F earth concept):
Vi x − −
VO Vi − V V − Vo
V- = V − =V + = 0
R1 R1 RF
V+
I1
@ -ve terminal:
I1 = I F

Virtual earth concept: V1 − V − V − − Vo
=
R1 RF
Vi V
V − = V + = 0 maka =− o
R1 RF
Vo R Gain, Av = Vo = − RF

Gain of inverting op-amp: AV = =− F V1 R1
Vi R1
∴Output, Vo = − RF V1 = − 250k (1.5V ) = −18.75V
R1 20k
 NON-
NON-INVERTING OP-
OP- AMP
Example: INVERTING OP-
OP-AMP
IF RF
I1 = I F
VO1 (V) I1 x 0 − V − V − − Vo
2 VO =
R1 R1 RF
1
Vi

@ + ve terminal : V + = 0 = V − • Virtual earth concept: V − = V + = Vi maka − Vi Vi − Vo

-1
=
R1 RF
V1 − V − V − − V01
• Gain of inverting op-amp: AV = Vo = 1 + RF
-2
@ - ve terminal : =
1kΩ 2kΩ Vi R1

V01 = −2V1 = 2 sin ωt

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER/ BUFFER

Example: NON-
NON-INVERTING OP-
OP-AMP 4

-2 cos wt (V)
V+
2
Ii V− −
VO
0
Vi V+
V−
-2
I1 IF
-4

V+ = Vi and V−= Vo

Vi − V +
Since V+ = V − , thus Vo = Vi or Av = 1
at the non - inverting terminal (+ ve) : = 0 ==> V + = Vi = V −
0.5kΩ

This circuit is so called because the input and output signal voltage is the

0 −V − −
V − V02 same.
at the inverting terminal (-ve) : =
1kΩ 1kΩ

It can be used as a buffer.

V02 = 2V − = 2Vi = −4 cos ωt (V)

 INVERTING ADDER
RF
Example: INVERTING ADDER
IF
R1 I1 2k
V1 = 4 sin wt (V)
V1 x
V- VO 1k +15V V2 = 2 sin wt (V)
V2 V1
V+ -
V03
R2 I2 V2 Note: The output
1k +
I1 + I 2 + ..... + I n = I F graph is incorrect.
Vn -15V
Rn In V1 − V − V2 − V − V − V − V − − Vo 1k
+ + ..... + n =
R1 R2 Rn RF V + = 0 =V −

• Virtual earth concept: V − = V + = 0 thus, At the inverting terminal,

V1 V2 V V V1 V V V
+ + ..... + n = − o + 2 + 2 = − 03
R1 R2 Rn RF 1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ 2kΩ

 
• Gain of inverting op-amp: Vo = −  RF V1 + RF V2 + ..... + RF Vn  4 sin ωt 2 sin ωt 2 sin ωt
+ +
V
= − 03
 R1 R2 Rn  1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ 2kΩ

V03 = −16 sin ωt (V)

NON-
NON-INVERTING ADDER
Example: NON-
NON-INVERTING ADDER
IF RF
R I V-
y VO
V1 x
+
R1 I V
1
V2
R2 I2
 R 
R2 V1 + R1 V2
At node y: V − =   Vo

At node x: V + =  R + RF 
R1 + R2

 R  R2 V1 + R1 V2
V − = V + maka   Vo =
 R + RF  R1 + R2

Thus: Vo  R   R V + R1 V2 
= 1 + F   2 1 
 R   R1 + R2 
 SUBTRACTOR
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
IF RF
• At node y: V2
R1 I1
V1 A2
y VO I1 = I F
V2 x RB RF
V1 − V − V − − Vo
R2 =
R3 R1 RF R1
VO
IA RA A3
 R3 
• At node x: V + = V2  
R1
RF
R
 2 + R3 RB
R ( RF + R1 )  R 
V + = V − maka Vo = V2  3  − V1  F  A1
R ( R2 + R3 ) 
 1  R1  V1
• If R3 = RF and R2 = R1, hence:
 R   R V + R1 V2 
Vo = 1 + F   2 1 
 R   R1 + R2 

DIFFERENTIATOR
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
i R

V+ = V- for op-amp A2 and A1, thus voltage across RA is: C ic

Vi(t)
VA = V2 − V1 Vo

V A V2 − V1

Current through RA : IA = =
RA RA
−
R  2 RB  • Voltage at the capacitor: VC = Vi (t ) − V = Vi (t )

Overall voltage: Vo = F 1 +  (V1 − V2 )
R1  RA 
dVC (t ) dV (t )
• Current through C: ic = C =C i
dt dt
dVi ( t )
• Output voltage: Vo ( t ) = − RC
dt
Example:DIFFERENTIATOR
DIFFERENTIATOR
CdVi (t) V (t )
= − O4
dt R
dVi (t)
Vo4 (t) = − RC
dt
(5V - (-5V))
from 0 - 10ms : Vo4 = - (10kΩ)(1µF) = - 10V
10ms
(-5V - 5V)
from 10ms - 20ms : Vo4 = - (10kΩ)(1µF) = 10V
10ms

INTEGRATOR

ic C
i = ic
R i Vi ( t ) dVo ( t )
Vi(t) = −C
Vo R dt
dVo (t ) 1
=− Vi (t )
dt R C

1 t1
RC ∫ t0
• Output voltage: Vo ( t ) = − Vi ( t ) dt + Vo ( t0 )
 Example 4 (FE)
(a) (i) List 3 characteristics of an ideal op-amp. [3 marks] (i) List 3 characteristics of an ideal op-amp. (choose any 3)
(ii) Name 2 basic circuit applications for linear and non-linear op-amp [2 marks] High open-loop gain, (AOL= ∞).
(b) Derive the expression for Vo of Figure 4(a) when switch S is: High input impedance, (Ri = ∞).
(i) at position a [2 marks] Low output impedance, (Ro = 0).
(ii) at position b [3 marks]
Output saturation voltage, ±Vo(sat) is equal to input supply voltage,
(iii) Sketch one cycle of Vo in (ii), if R = 50 kΩ, C = 1 mF
and Vi = 0.5 sin wt (V) [3 marks] ±VCC.
High CMRR (∞).
R
a High bandwidth, (BW = ∞).
S
C
b (ii) Name 2 basic circuit applications for linear and non-linear op-amp
R

VO Linear op amp (pick 2) - inverting, noninverting, adder,

Vi subtractor, unity follower, integrator, differentiator

Figure 4(a) Nonlinear op-amp - comparator and Schmitt Trigger

(b) Derive the expression for Vo when switch S is: Example: For an op-amp circuit, voltages Va=Vb= sin ωt (mV) and V1 = V2 = 0.5 + sin ωt
(mV). Determine and sketch the output waveform, VO1 and io.

at position a: V+ = 0 =V− VO (V)

Vi − 0 0 − VO 10
= ∴VO = −Vi
R R
at position b: V+ = 0 =V− 0

Vi dV Vi
= −C O ∴ VO = − ∫ dt -10
R dt RC
a R
S
C

(iii) Sketch one cycle of Vo in (ii), if R = 50 kΩ, R

b

C = 1 µF and Vi = 0.5 sin wt (V) VO

Vi

Vi = 1 = 10 cos wt (V)
VO = − ∫
(50kΩ)(1µF) ∫
dt − 0.5 sin wt dt
RC
 Op-Amp - Non-linear Applications

VOLTAGE COMPARATOR VOLTAGE COMPARATOR

+VCC Vo +VCC
+VCC Vo
V- +VOsat +VOsat
Vo=AOL(V+-V-) Vi
Vd Vo
V+ Vd Vi
Vref Vref
-VOsat -VOsat
-VCC
-VCC -VCC
Voltage comparator circuit Transfer characteristic (a) (b)

(a) Voltage comparator with reference voltage at non-inverting terminal

• If V+ > V− then VO = + VOsat but, (b) Transfer characteristic

• If V+ < V− then VO = −VOsat If V+ > V− (Vref > Vi), VO = + VOsat

• For an ideal op-amp, ±VOsat = ±VCC, but practical ±VOsat If V+ < V− (Vref < Vi), VO = −VOsat

is normally 1 or 2 volts less than ±VCC.

 VOLTAGE COMPARATOR
Effect of Noise on Comparator Circuit
+VCC Vo

Vref +VOsat
Vo
Vi
Vi Vref
-VOsat
-VCC
(a) (b)

(a) Voltage comparator with reference voltage at the inverting terminal

(b) Transfer characteristic

• If Vi > Vref ⇒ VO = + VOsat If V+ > V− (Vi >Vref ), VO = + VOsat

• If Vi < Vref ⇒ VO = - VOsat If V+ < V− (Vi < Vref), VO = −VOsat

SCHMITT TRIGGER SCHMITT TRIGGER

Vi
Vo
V+
Vo
Vref R2 VO R1
V+ = +
R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 +VOsat
R1

Vref Vi

VUT
• When Vi < V+ , then VO = + Vosat -VOsat

• Therefore, at the non-inverting terminal: Relation between VO, Vi and VUT

Vref R2 VOsat R1
V+ = + = VUT
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• VUT - Upper Trigger voltage
 SCHMITT TRIGGER SCHMITT TRIGGER
• When Vi > VLT , then VO = −Vosat • The difference between VUT and VLT is called hysterisis
• Therefore, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal: voltage, VH.
Vref R2 VOsat R1 2 R1 VOsat
V+ = − = VLT VH = VUT − VLT =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R 2

• VLT - Lower Trigger voltage • The complete transfer characteristic to show the relation
between VO and Vi of a Schmitt Trigger:
Vo
Vo
+VOsat
+VOsat

Vi
Vi
VLT VLT
-VOsat VUT
−VOsat
Relation between VO, Vi and VLT
Transfer characteristic of a Schmitt Trigger

S VUTP = 6 V, VLTP = −4 V
Example 1 (FE 2009/2010(2))
O V R
REF 2 O 1
VR
L V+ = R + R + R + R
1 2 1 2

Figure 4(c) (i) and (ii) are the circuit of a Schmitt Trigger and its U
transfer function. Based on these figures, determine VREF and R2. T
VREF R 2 15V(1kΩ) 6(1kΩ + R2 ) − 15
VO(V)
I VUTP = + VREF = R2 1
1kΩ + R 2 1kΩ + R 2
O
VREF R 2 − 4(1kΩ + R2 ) + 15
N VLTP = 1kΩ + R +
− 15V(1kΩ) VREF =
R2
2
2
1kΩ + R 2

1 2 6(1kΩ + R2 ) − 15 − 4(1kΩ + R2 ) + 15
=
R2 R2
10R2 = −4 – 6 +15 + 15
R2 = 2 kΩ

6(1kΩ + 2kΩ) − 15
Subtitute R2 = 2 kΩ into 1 , VREF = = 1.5V
2kΩ
 Example 2 (FE 2009/10(1)) Example 3

Assume Vo initially is in positive saturation (Vo+sat). Sketch the output,

Vo of circuit.

Vref R2 VO R1
V+ = + 10

R1 + R2 R1 + R2 5
R3
0
 R1 
VUTP =  VO -5
 R1 + R2 
 1kΩ  -10 R1 R2
= 15V = 5V
 1kΩ + 2kΩ 

 R1  15
VREF
VLTP =  ( −VO )
 R1 + R2 
 1kΩ 
0

= ( −15V ) = −5V
 1kΩ + 2kΩ 
-15

(c) Find VO2 − VO3 of Figure 4(b) if Vi = [1/3 + 0.5 cos wt ] V.

50 kΩ

10 kΩ −
− VO2
+
VO1
+
40 kΩ
1 kΩ

20 kΩ
Vi
−
VO3
+

13 kΩ

Figure 4(b)