INVESTRIGATORY PROJECT

(Term I )
SESSON 2021-2022

Subject – BIOLOGY

Name - Mohd.Rehan Raza Chishty

Class - 11th ‘B’
Roll No. - 48

Introduction
 The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure. As
a sense organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Human eyes help
provide a three dimensional, moving image, normally colored in
daylight. Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light
perception and vision including color differentiation and the
perception of depth. The human eye can differentiate between
about 10 million colors and is possibly capable of detecting a single
photon.
Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-
image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive
light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil,
regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and
entrainment of the body clock.

Structure
 The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused
two-piece unit, composed of the anterior segment and the posterior
segment. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and
lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved, and is linked to the
larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid
and the outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically
about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter, and 1/2 mm (500 um) in
thickness near its center. The posterior chamber constitutes the
remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24 mm. The
cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus.
The iris is the pigmented circular structure concentrically
surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be
black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light
entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles
Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil
and then through the lens. The lens shape is changed for near focus
(accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary muscle. Photons of
light falling on the light- sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor
cones and rods) are converted into electrical signals that are
transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve and interpreted as sight
and vision.

Eye disease
There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related changes that
may affect the eyes and surrounding structures.
 As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be attributed solely
to the aging process. Most of these anatomic and physiologic
processes follow a gradual decline. With aging, the quality of vision
worsens due to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye.
While there are many changes of significance in the non-diseased
eye, the most functionally important changes seem to be a reduction
in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing capability
(presbyopia). The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that
can reach the retina.

The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age , leading to a substantial
decrease in light received at the retina . In comparison to younger people , it is as though
older persons are constantly wearing med ium-density sunglasses . Therefore, for any
detailed visually guided tasks on which performance va ries with illumination , older
persons require extra l ighting. Certain ocular diseases can come from sexually
transmitted diseases such as herpes and genital wa rts. If contact between the eye and
area of infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted to the eye.

With aging , a pr ominent white ring develops in the periphery of the

cornea called arcus senilis . Aging causes laxity downward shift of eyelid
tissues and atrophy of the orbital fat. These changes contribute to the
etiology of several eyelid is orders such as ectropion , entropion ,
dermatochalasis and ptosis. The vitreous gel undergoes liquefaction
(posterior vitreous detachment or PVD ) and its opacities-visible as
floaters gradually increase in number.

Various eye care professionals, including ophthalmologists, optom etrists,

and opticians, are involved in the treatment and management of ocular
and vision in orders . A Snellen chart is one type of eve chart used to
measure visual acutiy . At the conclusion of a complete eye examination ,the
eye doctor might provide the patient with an eyeglass prescription for
corrective lenses. Some is orders of the eyes for which corrective lenses are
prescribed include myopia (near-sightedness) which affects about one-third
of the human population ,hyperopia (fa- sightedness) which affects about one
quarter of the population, astigmatism and presbyopia (the loss of focusing
range during aging).

Types of Eye Dis-Orders

Visual Impairment, also known as vision impairment or vision
loss, is a decreased ability to see to a deg ree that causes
pr oblems not fixable by usual means, such as glasse. Some also
include those who have a decreased ability to see because they
do not have access to glasses or contact lenses. Visual
impairment is often defined as a best corrected visual acuity of
worse than either 20/ 40 or 20/ 60.The term blindness is used
for complete or nearly complete vision loss .Visual impairment
may cause people d ifficulties with normal daily activities such as
driving, read ing, socializing, and walking.
Amblyopia, also called lazy eye, is a disorder of sight due to the eye
and brain not working well together. It results in decreased vision in
an eye that otherwise typically appears normal. It is the most
common cause of decreased vision in a single eye among children
and younger adults.
The cause of amblyopia can be any cond ition that interferes
with focusing du ring early childhood . This can occur from
poor alignment of the eyes being irregularly shaped such that
focusing is difficult. One eye being more near sighted or far
sighted than the other, or clouding of the lens of an eye. After
the under lying cause is fixed , vision is not fully restored as the
mechanism also involves the brain. Amblyopia can be d ifficult
to detect and therefore vision testing is recommende d for all
children around the ages of four to five.

Many people with amblyopia, especially those who only have

amild form , a renota ware they have the condition until tested at
older ages, since the vision in their stronger eye is normal. People
typically have poor stereo vision, however, since it requires both
eyes. Those with amblyopia further may have, on the affected
eye, poor patt ern recognition, poor visual acuity, and low
sensitivity to contrast and motion.
Amblyopia is characterized abnormalities in spatial vision by
several functional includ ing reductions in visual acuity (VA),
contrast sensitivity function (CSF),and vernier acuity as well as patial
distortion, abnormal patial interactions, and impaired contour
detection .In addition, individuals with amblyopias suffer from
binocular abnormalities such as impaired stereo acuity
(stereoscopicacuity) and abnormal binocular summation. Also, a
crowding phenomenon is present. These deficits are usually specific
to the amblyopic eye. However, subclinical deficits of the "better"
eye have also been demonstrated. Treatment of strabismic or
anisometropic amblyopia consists of correcting the optical
deficit(wearing the necessary spectacle prescription) and often
forcing use of the amblyopic eye, by patching the good eye, or
instilling topical atropine in the good eye, or both.

Presbyopia is a natural occurrence where near vision becomes

blurred, making it hard to focus while doing things like reading, using
mobile phone, or working on the computer. It is not a disease or
illness ,in fact, it is very common with age.

The young people, the eye's lens is of and flexible, readily changing
shape to see images from different distances. As you age, the crystal
line lens in your eye hardens and loses elasticity. With this loss of
flexibility, your eyes are less able to adjust properly to focus near
objects.
Sy mptoms of Pres by Opias
People commonly mistake the symptoms of pres by opia for long
sightedness. However, the two cond itions have different causes:
long sightedness is are result of a misshapen cornea .Where as
pres by opia is due to the loss of flexibility in the lens.
The tell tale symptom of pres by opia is blurred vision while reading,
sewing, using a mobile phone, or doing any thing that requires near
vision.

Treatme nt for Pr es by opia

There are many options for people with presbyopia, including
contact lenses .Recent technologies allow people who are entering
into pres by opia to continue wearing contact lenses, instead of
having to switch to bifocals, or reading glasses.

Common treatments for pres by opia include:-

 Magnifiers,
 Bifocal or varifocal pectacles,
 Reading glasses

Near-sightedness, also known as shortsightedness and my opia, is

a condition of the eye where light focuses in front of, instead of on,
the retina.This causes distant objects to be blurry while close objects
appear normal .Other symptoms may include headaches and eye
strain. Severe near-sightedness increases the risk of retinal
deatachment ,cataracts,and glaucoma.The underlying cause is
believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental
factors.Risk factors include doing work that involves focusing on
close objects,greater times spent in doors, and a family history of
the condition.it is also associated with a high socioeconomic class.
The underlying mechanism involves the length of the eye ball being
too long or less commonly the lens being too strong .It is a type of
refractive error.Diagnosis is by eye examination .There is tentative
evidence that near-sightedness can be prevented by having young
children spend more time out side.This may be related to natural
light exposure. Near-sightedness can be corrected with eye glasses,
contact lenses, or surgery.Eye glasses are the easiest and safest
method of correction.Contact lenses can provide a wider field of
vision however are associated with a risk of infection.Refractive
surgery permanently changes the shape of the cornea.Myopia prese
with blurry distance vision, but generally gives good near vision. In
high my opia , even near vision is affected objects must bee xtremely
close to the eyes to see clearly, and people with my opia can not
read without their glasses presc ribed for distance

Far- sightedness , also known as tongsightedness and

hyperopia, is a condition of the eye in which light is focused
behind,instead of on,the retina.Thiscausescloseobjectstobe
blurry. whilefarobjectsmayappea rnormal. As the
cond ition>;vorsens,objectsatalld istancesmaybeblurred.1Othersy
mptomsmayincludeheadachesandeyestrain .People>;vithhyperopi
acan alsoexperience accommodative dys function.
binocula rdysfunction.amblyopia.andstrabismus.
Thecauseisanimpeifection
intheeye:oftenwhentheeyeballistooshort,orthelenscannotbeco
meroundenough.Itisatypeofrefractiveerror.
Correctionisusuallyachieve dbytheuseofconvexcorrectivelenses.Fo
rnearobjects,theeyehastoaccommodateevenmore.Dependingont
hedeg reeofhyperopiaandtheageoftheperson,i;vhichd irectlyrelate
stotheeye'saccommodativeability,the!).lmpt omscanbed ifferent.
Far-sighted nessprimarilyaffectsyoungchildren.,>;vithratesof
8%at6yearsand 1%at 15years.Thesignsand
!>ymptomsoffar-
sightednessareblurryvision,headaches,andeyestrain..Thecommon
symptom is eye strain.Difficul tyseeingwith botheyes( bin.ocular
vision)mayoccur,as>;veilasdifficulty>;vithdepthperception.Ashyperopi
aistheresultofthevisualimagebeingfocus ed behind theretina,
ithastwomain.causes:
Lol;\1convergingpol;\1erofeyelensbecauseof.,veakactionofciliary
muscles. Abnormalshapeofthecornea.

---·-
Cataractisacloud ingofthelensintheeye1;\1hichleadstoadecreaseinvis
ion.Cataractsoften.developslo1;11lyandcan.affectoneorbotheyes.Sy
mptomsmayin.elude fadedcolors,blurryvision, halos around
light,troublel;j1ithbrightlights,andtroubleseeingatnight.Thismayresul
tin troubledriving, reading, or
recognizingfaces.Poorvision.causedbycataractsmayalso result
in.anin.creasedrisk offalling and depression..Cataracts
arethecauseofhalfofblind ness and 33% of
visualimpairmentl;j1or/dl;\1ide.
Cataractsaremostcommonlyduetoag ingbutmayalsooccurduet
otraumaorradiationexposure,bepresentfrombirth,oroccurfollo
wingeyesurgeryforotherprob lems.Riskfactorsincluded iabetes,
smokingtobacco,pr olongedexposuretosunlight,andalcohol .Eit
herclumpsofproteinoryello'rv-
bro'rvnpigm entmaybedepositedinthelensreducingthetransmis
sionoflighttotheretinaatthebackoftheeye.Diagnosisisbyaneyee
xamination.
Preventionincludes'rvearingsunglassesandnotsmoking .Ea rlyonth
esymptomsmaybeimproved'rvithglasses.Ifthisdoesnothelp,surg er
ytoremovethecloudylensandreplaceitwithanartif iciallensistheonly
effectivetreatment.Surgeryisonlyneededifthecataractsarecausing
pr oblemsandg enerallyresu ltsinanimprovedqualityoflife.Cataracts
urgeryisnotreadilyavailableinmanycountries,'rvhichisespeciallytru
efor1;11omen,thoselivinginruralareas,andthosewhodonotk nowh
o1;11toread.
About20millionpeo pleareblindduetocataracts.Itisthecauseofappr
oximately5%ofblindnessintheUnited
Statesandnearly60%ofblindnessinpartsofAfricaand
SouthAmerica.Blindnessfromcataractsoccursinabout10to40per10
0,000childreninthedeveloping1;11orld,and
1to4per100,000childreninthedevelopedworld .Cataractsbecomem
o recommonwithage.M orethanhalfthepeopleintheUnitedStatesha
dcataractsbytheageof80.

Glaucomaisagroupofeyed iseasesvvhichresultindamagetotheoptic
nerveandvisionloss.Themostcommontypeisopen-
angleglaucoma1tvithlesscommontypesinclud ingclosed-
angleglaucomaandnormal-tensionglaucoma .Open-angleglaucoma
develops
slowlyovertimeandthereisnopain.Sidevisionmaybegintodecreasef
ollo1;11edbycentralvisionresultinginblindness
if not treated. Closed-angle glaucoma can pres ent
gruduullyursuddenl y.Thesuddenpresentutiunrnuyinvolvesever
eeyepain,blurredvision,1nid-
dilatedpupil,rednessoftheeye,andnausea.Visionlossfrom glauco
ma,onceithasoccurred ,ispermanent.
Riskfactorsforglaucomaincludeincreasedpress ure intheeye,
afamilyhistoryofthecondition,migraines,highbloodpressure, and
obesity.Foreyepr essuresavalueof
greaterthan21mm.Hgor2.8kPaisoftenused1;11ithhigherpressuresl
ead ingtoagreaterrisk .Ho1;11ever,somemayhavehigheyepressure
foryearsandneverdevelopdamage.Conversely,opticnervedamage
mayoccurwithnormalpressure,knownasnormal-
tensionglaucoma .Themechanismofopen-
angleg laucomaisbelievedtobeslowexitofaqueoushumorthroughth
etrabecula rmesh1;11orkwhile in closed-angle g laucoma the
iris blocks the
trabecularmesh.,vork.Diagnosisisbyad ilatedeyeexamination.Ofte
ntheopticnervesho1;11sanabnormalamountofcupping .Iftreatedea
rlyitis possibletoslo1;11orstoptheprogressionofd iseasewithmed ic
ation.,lasertreatment,orsurgery.Thegoalofthesetreatmentsistode
creaseeyepressure.Anumberofd ifferentclassesofglaucoma1nedic
ationareavailable.Lasertreatmentsmaybeeffectiveinbothopen-
angle and closed -
angleglaucoma .Anumberoftypesofglaucomasurgeriesmaybeusedi
npeople1;11hodonotrespondsufficientlytoother
measures.Treatmentofclosed-angleglaucoma is
amed icalemergency.
About11to671nillionpeoplehaveglaucomaglobally.Thed isease
affectsabout2mill ionpeople inthe
UnitedStates.Itoccursmorecommonlyamongolder people. Closed -
angleglaucomaismorecommonin1;11omen.Glaucomahasbeencalledt
he"silentthiefofsight "becausethelossofvisionusuallyoccursslo1;11/yo
veralongperiodoftime.World1;11ide,glaucomaisthesecond-
leadingcauseofblindnessaftercataracts.Theword"glaucoma"isfroman
cientGreekglaukos1;11hichmeans
blue,green,orgray.InEnglish,theword1;11asusedasearlyas1587butd id
notbecomecommonlyuseduntilafter1850,1;11henthedevelopmentoft
heophthalmoscopeallo1;11edpeopletoseetheoptic nerve damage.

Diabeti cretinopathy'aLokno>;vnasd iabeticeyedisease,iswhendama

geoccurstotheretinaduetod iabetes.Itcaneventuallylead toblindness.
Itisanocular manifestation of d iabetes, a
systemicd isease,>;vhichaffectsupto80percentofallpatients>;vhohave
haddiabetesfor20yearsormore.Despitetheseintimidatingstatistics,res
earch indicatesthatatleast 90%ofthesenewcasescould hereduced
iftherewerepr operandvig ilanttreatmentandmonitoringof the eyes.
Thelongerapersonhasdiabetes,thehigherhisorherchancesofdevelopin
g d iabetic retinopathy. Each year in
theUnitedStates,d iabeticretinopathyaccounts for12%ofallne1;11case
sofblindness.Itisaothelead ingcauseofblindnessforpeopleaged20to6
4years.D iabeticretinopathyoftenhas no early warning
signs.Evenmacularedema,1;11hichcancauserapidvisionloss,
maynothaveany1;11arningsignsforsometime.Ingeneral,ho1;11ever,a
personwithmacularedemaislikelytohaveblurredvision,makingithardt
odo things like read
ord rive.I nsomecases,thevision1;11illgetbetteror1;11orseduring
theday .

No· ..
rm a l
..b...e..l..le
Din

Macu lardeg eneration,atsok nownasage-

re1atedmaculardegeneration(AM DorARM D),isamed icalcond ition>;
vhichmayresultinblurredornovisioninthecenterofthevisualfield.Earlyo
nthereareoftennosymptoms.Overtime,ho>;vever,somepeople
experienceagradualworseningofvisionthatmayaffectoneor
botheyes.Whileitdoesnotresultincom.pleteblindness.lossofcentralvisi
oncanmak eithardtorecognizefaces,d rive,read,orperformotheractivi
tiesofda ilylife.Visualhallucinationsmayalsooccurbutthesedonotrepre
sentamentalillness.
M acula rdegenerationtypicallyoccursinolderpeople.Genetic
factorsandsmokingaLoplayarole.Itisduetodamagetothemaculaofther
etina.Diagnosis
isbyacompleteeyeexam.Theseverityisd ividedintoearly,intermediate,
andlatetypes.LilThelatetypeisadditionallyd ividedinto"dry"and''>;vet"
fonnsv.1iththed ryformma kingup90%ofcases.
Preventionincludesexercising,eatingwell, and
notsmoking.Antioxidantvitaminsandmineralsd onotappeartobeus
efulforprevention.Thereisnocureortreatmentthatreturnsvisionalre
adylost.I nthev.1etform ,antiVEGFmedicationinjected
intotheeyeorlesscommonly
laser coagulation or photodynamic therapy
mayslowworsening .Supplem ents in those i;vho
al readyhavethediseasemayslo1;11progression.
In2010itaffected23.5millionpeopleglobally .In2013moderateto
severed iseaseaffected13.4mill ionanditisthe fourthmostcommo
ncauseofblindnessaftercataracts.pretermbirth.andglaucoma·It
mostcomm.onlyoccursinpeopleovertheageoffiftyandintheUnit
edStatesisthemostcommoncauseofvisionlossinthisagegroup.A
bout
0.4%ofpeoplebetween50and60havethed isease,whileitoccursin
0.7%ofpeo ple60to70,2.3%ofthose70to80,andnearly12%ofpeo
pleover80yearsold.l
EYEDISO RDERPI ECHART

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BIBLOGRAPHY

••WlKlPEDlA

••GOOGLE

••SCRI BD

••SL!Of.SHARE

••WEBMD

••YOLlTUBE
••WORLDHEALTHORGANISATION

••KlDSHEALTH

••THEHUMANBODYBOOKBYWEBSTER