Control Sytems Engineering

IIT-Jammu

November 8, 2021

Indian Institute of Technology, Jammu, J&K 181221

 2

The Experiments for the Control Systems Laboratory Practicals were designed, fabri-
cated and tested by the following team:
Instructors Contact Department
Suresh Devasahayam [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Subudhi Badri [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Amit Kumar Singh [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Sahil Kalra [email protected] Mechanical Engineering
Vijayan Pallipattu [email protected] Chemical Engineering
Ashutosh Yadav [email protected] Chemical Engineering

Teaching Contact Department

Assistants
Manoj Kumar Panda [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Suchitra Tiwari [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Meghna [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Kumar Vishwajeet [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Deepak Kumar [email protected] Mechanical Engineering
Vivek Joshi [email protected] Mechanical Engineering
Anurag Yadav [email protected] Mechanical Engineering
Bhanupraksh Sahoo [email protected] Mechanical Engineering
Goverdhan Singh [email protected] Chemical Engineering

Technical Staff Contact Department

Vikash Kumar [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Apoorv Agarwal Electrical Engineering

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Contents

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 7

0.1 Introduction to the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2 Introduction to Lab Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.1 Analog and Digital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.2 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.3 Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.2.4 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.3 Systems and Sub-systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.3.2 Characterization of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.4 Questions to test your understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1 Lab 1: First Order Systems 13

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.1 Static and Dynamic Characterization - time domain . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.2 Transfer Function Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Laplace and Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Frequency Response Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 RC network - first order system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Aims of this Practical: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 19

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Temperature sensor system: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 LM35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Aims: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Dynamic characterization of the sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3
Contents 4

3 Lab 3: DC motor control 23

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1 Voltage and Current Control - Voltage Amplifier and Transconduc-
tance Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.2 Motor Angle Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 Lab 4: Feedback Control 29

4.1 Introduction to Feedback Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.1 Operational Amplifier Circuits for Control Systems . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.2 Setting the PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.3 Stability analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5 Lab 5: Second Order Systems 37

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1.1 Step Response of a Second Order System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1.2 Determining the Second Order system parameters from the time
response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1.3 Transfer functions, Bode Plots and Frequency Spectra . . . . . . . 41
5.1.4 Characteristic Equation, the Complex s-plane, pole-zero plots . . . 42
5.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Lab 6: Position Control System 47

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1.1 Plant Model - Geared DC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1.2 Closed Loop Control of Motor Shaft Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

5 Contents

7 Lab 7: Temperature controller 51

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.1 Plant Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.2 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

8 Lab 8: Inverted Pendulum 55

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.1.1 Plant model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.3 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9 Lab 9: Magnetic Levitation Control 59

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.1.1 Plant model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.2 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.3 Experimental Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab
0.1 Introduction to the Lab
• Students will be divided into groups of 2. Both students in each group must
participate fully in doing the lab.

• Please leave your lab table clean and tidy when you finish. Put away all instruments
and components in the correct places.

• Students should read the lab handout for the week before entering the lab.

• All labs have a preliminary report which must be completed before coming for the
lab practical. If you have not completed the preliminary report you will not be
allowed to do the lab.

• After the lab practical is completed the student must complete the final report
which must be submitted by the next week - before the next lab.

0.2 Introduction to Lab Instruments

There are three instruments that are the mainstay of a Test and Measurement laboratory
and you will use them frequently in this course; they are (i) an oscilloscope, (b) a function
generator, and (c) a power supply.
The oscilloscope is used to display time varying signals, the function generator is used
to deliver time-varying signals to a system under test, and the power supply is used to
provide electrical power to electronic circuits, motors, etc.
In addition to these lab instruments you will be given electronic circuits, motors,
sensors, etc., for each lab.
There are two kinds of connections between these instruments: (a) Power Connec-
tions, and (b) Signal Connections. Power connections use banana connectors which are
so-called because of their long cylindrical shape. Positive connections are usually red in
colour, and negative terminals are usually black in colour; when central “ground” con-
nections are used, they are usually green in colour. As far as possible, you must observe
these colour conventions. Signal connections use BNC 1 connectors and coaxial cables.
BNC connectors are bayonet connectors, which means they use a push-twist action for
connecting and disconnecting (push and clockwise twist to connect; counterclockwise
twist and pull to disconnect).
1
BNC is an abbreviation for Bayonet Neill-Concelman named after the two original designers Neill
and Concelman

7
Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 8

0.2.1 Analog and Digital Systems

This course is on continuous-time systems or analog systems. In such systems the value
of a variable exists for all possible values of time, and the magnitude of the measurement
itself has, in principle, infinite resolution. In this Control Systems Lab experiments the
systems used are all analog or continuous-time systems. Therefore, the mathematical
analytical tools learned in mathematics and basic engineering courses are fully applicable
for all the systems used in the lab.
Most modern test and measurement systems use digital electronics. This makes them
versatile, easy to maintain and with modern electronics, also cheaper in price. The
analysis of digital systems is quite different from the analysis of analog system, with an
added layer of analytical tools being required. Since the real-world or the physical-world
may said to exist in continuous-time all real systems necessarily have continuous time
analysis as an essential component. The digital component is a modern addition to make
complex analysis and processing easier and cheaper to implement.
For measurement alone we will use digital devices in the Control Systems Lab. Most
of the time the digital nature of the measurement instruments are transparent and you
need not worry about them. But there are several situations where the digital aspect
cannot be ignored. The two aspects where digital or discrete-systems are fundamentally
different from continuous-time systems is in that not all possible values of time and
magnitude are available - they are available only at finite or discrete instants and values.
In digital systems the finite intervals of time where the magnitude is read is determined
by the sampling rate and the finite values of magnitude is determined by the quantization.
Ignorance of these concepts can result in errors.

0.2.2 Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is an important test instrument that can be used to display, and also
store, time-dependent voltage signals. You should become familiar with the oscilloscope
controls. When using the oscilloscope for accurate measurement we will regard it as the
combination of an ideal voltage measuring instrument and an input impedance across it.
Here is a short list of the main functions of the oscilloscope:

1. The vertical scale, sensitivity or gain

2. The time scale, or “horizontal sweep” or “time-base”

3. The trigger or initiation of the horizontal sweep – there are many accessory controls
for the trigger
a) Auto Trigger Mode is what you will use a lot. In this mode, the horizontal
sweep re-starts automatically, giving a repeated sweep of time from left-to-
right
b) Single Sweep Mode or single-sweep-capture is very important to capture tran-
sient signals. Using this requires good understanding of the trigger functions

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

9 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab

c) Roll Mode is not found in many oscilloscopes. This is convenient for looking
at fairly slow and long-duration phenomena

4. A very big advantage of digital oscilloscope are the data storing and transfer func-
tions; they allow storage of signals in digital form, and then transfer to a computer
for analysis and plotting.

In digital oscilloscopes the sampling rate can be inferred from the samples/screen and
sweep time.
Understand how to make amplitude and time measurements using cursors on the os-
cilloscope.
The signals stored in the oscilloscope can be copied to a USB-pendrive and transferred
to a computer.
Understand the concept of ground in all measurements, and the idea of isolated chan-
nels in the oscilloscopes in our laboratory.
The oscilloscopes in the lab are Tektronix, model number TBS1000 series. The wave-
forms on the screen can be saved and transferred to a USB drive for further analysis.

0.2.3 Function Generator

The function generator in the lab can be used to generate time varying voltage signals.
These signals that mimic the output of transducers and other real-world sources, can be
used to test various sub-systems that comprise the measurement and control system that
we use. The function generator delivers a voltage function, which can be represented as
a Thevenin source, i.e., an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance (resistance).
The value of the series resistance is important in determining whether the signals will
pass undiminished when connected to other circuits.
Understand the selection of waveform shape, waveform amplitude (minimum, maxi-
mum, offset), waveform frequency.
Understand sinusoids, pulses, noise waveforms.
Understand the use of modulation.
Observe how the output amplitude changes when you connect a load resistor across it:
use (i) 1kΩ and (ii) 22Ω. Set the function generator with the following values and see
the waveform on an oscilloscope: Waveshape=sinusoid, frequency=125Hz, peak-to-peak
amplitude=20mV, offset=400mV. Use this example to practice setting the oscilloscope
based on the expected signal frequency and amplitude, rather than randomly flipping
through the knobs.

0.2.4 Power Supply

The laboratory power supply is a versatile source of electrical energy that can be used
for electrical and electronic circuits. It has several independent voltage sources. These
voltage are adjustable. The power supply will also allow you to set a current limit
to prevent damage to devices and circuits. The voltage sources in a power supply are

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 10

regulated so that regardless of the load, the voltage is fixed. Poor quality power supplies
will deviate substantially from this ideal.
The power supplies in the lab have both adjustable voltage and controllable current
limit.
Connect an adjustable resistance (or use several fixed resistors) and understand how
voltage adjustment works with different current settings. Can you set the power supply
to deliver a constant current regardless of the load? What are the conditions?

0.3 Systems and Sub-systems

In control systems or systems analysis terminology a “System” has one or more inputs
and one or more outputs. An input or output is a time-varying physical quantity. In its
simplest and most common form a system will have one input and one output as shown
in Fig.0.3.1.

Figure 0.3.1: Representation of a system with one input and one output

An example of such a system is a public address system, where the input is the time-
varying sound given to a microphone, and the output is the time-varying amplified pres-
sure waves generated by the loudspeakers. This system consists of many sub-systems,
namely, the microphone, the amplifier and the loudspeaker.
It is mathematically convenient to analyze systems in the Laplace or Fourier transform
domain, as the output then becomes the product of the input and the system transfer
function, Y (s) = X(s) · H(s) as represented in Fig.0.3.2

Figure 0.3.2: The system Transfer Function is the ratio of the output to the input in the
Laplace Transform (or Fourier transform) domain

The Fourier transform is obtained by substituting s = jω in the Laplace transform.

The Fourier transform of the system transfer function is also called the Frequency Re-
sponse of the system, and when plotted against the frequency in Hertz gives a graphically
useful representation of the system behaviour.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

11 Introduction to the Control Systems Lab

Bode Plots
The magnitude of the system transfer function plotted against the frequency on a log-log
plot, and the phase plotted against the frequency in a linear-log plot are the Bode plots
of the system. The logarithm of the magnitude is expressed in Bel, and the commonly
used unit is a tenth of a Bel, or deciBel, written dB.
 The value of the output-input ratio
magnitude in dB is calculated as: Gain = 20log10 outputinput
2

0.3.1 Properties
General properties of systems
1. Cascade of systems - Transfer functions can be multiplied

2. Commutative and Distributive

3. Inverse Laplace transform of the transfer function is called the impulse response

Constraints in Real World Physical Systems

1. Physical systems can saturate due to limitations of power supply or dimension.
Therefore, the permissible operating range is important.

2. Cascading and commutation of systems must take into account saturation effects
and offset effects in real systems

0.3.2 Characterization of Systems

In control system design, it is important to know the characteristics of the system to
be controlled. Both theoretical models of the system, and experimentally determined
models of the system can be used. In all the practicals in this lab you will learn to
characterize the system experimentally and as far as possible model it theoretically using
known physical characteristics. Good correspondence between theoretically calculated
models and experimentally determined models provides good validation of the models.

Methods of Dynamic Characterization

There are two main methods of system characterization that are used widely and will
also be used in this lab.

Frequency Response In this method, the response of the system to sinusoidal inputs
of different frequencies is determined. The input-output amplitude gain and phase shift
are measured. This gives us the Fourier transform values, and therefore, the Transfer
Function of the system under test.
2
The gain is the ratio of output power to input power, and since Power ∝ Amplitude2 , the additional
factor of 2 is introduced

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Control Systems Lab 12

Step Response It is not possible to apply sinusoidally varying input signals in many
cases. In such situations it is usually possible to apply a sudden abrupt change in input,
called a step-change of input, or simply step-input. Using the step response, we can
determine the characterstics of the system, by estimating or assuming the order of the
system. The order of the system corresponds to the order of the differential equations
required to describe it.

0.4 Questions to test your understanding

1. What are the common trigger methods in an oscilloscope?

2. Mention 3 advantages of a digital storage oscilloscope over an analog oscilloscope.

What advantage does an analog oscilloscope have over a digital one?

3. If an oscilloscope has a sweep setting of 10ms/div, and 2500 points/sweep, what is

the sampling rate?

4. Using a 25 kHz sinusoidal signal from the function generator, observe it with oscil-
loscope time settings of 100ms/div, 10ms/div, 1ms/div. Determine the apparent
frequency of the signal in each case.

5. If the power supply voltage is set to 30 volts, and the current limit set to 10mA,
then what will be voltage across a resistor that varies from 0 Ohms to 220 Ohms?
What is the current?

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

1 Lab 1: First Order Systems

1.1 Introduction
All the systems we will discuss in this course are linear systems. In simple terms, a linear
system has the same response to a very small signal and to a very large signal.
First order systems are described by a first-order differential equation.

1.1.1 Static and Dynamic Characterization - time domain

Static Calibration
Static calibration determines the input-output relationship without considering time de-
pendence. This is also called steady-state calibration. If the static input-output rela-
tionship is a straight line it is said to be a linear input-output relationship, and can be
algebraically expressed using the equation of a straight line. If the input is a variable x,
and the output is a variable y:
y = c + ax (1.1.1)
The constant a is the sensitivity of the transducer and c is a constant offset. The
sensitivity of a transducer or system is its most important property. It is usually desirable
to have no offset, and we try to make c = 0.
Static calibration is performed by applying different values of input and measuring the
corresponding output.

Non-Linearity
If the input-output relationship is non-linear then it is desirable to linearize it. The
linearization can be done using analog devices or after digitization.
Linearization in a modern digital system can be done either by using transformation
equations or by using look-up tables.

Dynamic Calibration
Dynamic calibration determines the input-output relationship that may be a function of
time. If the input-output relationship does not depend on the rate of change of any of the
quantities, then it is a zero order system, and such a system is completely characterized
by its static calibration. A zero order system has a perfect or ideal time response as the
output function is a purely scaled (and possibly amplitude shifted, or offset) version of
the input.

13
Lab 1: First Order Systems 14

Zero Order System

A zero-order system has no time dependence and contains no time-derivatives. The input-
output relation is given by a linear algebraic equation, for a linear zero-order system. In
the following equation we explicitly indicate that the input variable, x(t), and the output
variable, y(t), are both functions of the independent variable time, t.

y(t) = c + ax(t) (1.1.2)

The values a and c are constants that represent the properties of the system.

First Order System

A system whose input output relationship contains first derivatives is called a first order
system. The input-output relationship can be described by a first order differential
equation. For example, if x(t) is the input and y(t) is the output:

dy(t)
b + y(t) = ax(t) (1.1.3)
dt
Here, a and b, are constants representing properties of the system.

Examples of First Order Systems

Electrical Circuit
dVo (t)
RC + Vo (t) = Vi (t)
dt

Mechanical System
B dx(t) 1
+ x(t) = F (t)
K dt K

1.1.2 Transfer Function Estimation

Direct Estimation of the Frequency Response
Using a sinusoidal input of known frequency and amplitude we can measure the output
and calculate the magnitude of the gain and the phase shift as shown in Fig.1.1.1.

Step Response
For this system, if a step change in input is given at time zero,
(
0 t<0
x(t) = (1.1.4)
1 t≥0
then the output is given by the function:

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

15 Lab 1: First Order Systems

Figure 1.1.1: Response to a sinusoidal input

(
0 t<0
ys (t) =  −t/b
 (1.1.5)
a 1−e t≥0
This describes many commonly used systems like mercury in glass thermometers.
From eq.1.1.5 we can get:

ys (t) = a t→∞
We can next determine the value of b from eq.1.1.5.

Figure 1.1.2: Response of a first-order system to a step input. Time scale=100ms/div

1.2 Laplace and Fourier Transforms

The Laplace transform can be used to solve differential equations and therefore is valuable
in analyzing the dynamic response of first and second order systems. In the Laplace
domain the ratio of the Output to the Input is called the transfer function. The transfer
function is general form of the sensitivity of a system.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 1: First Order Systems 16

In the case of the first order system above, we can take the Laplace transform of
eq.1.1.3 and write the input-output transfer ratio as:

Y (s) a
= (1.2.1)
X(s) 1 + bs
The Laplace transform is a purely mathematical tool and does not have any physical
meaning. A special case of the Laplace transform is the Fourier transform which can
be obtained
√ by replacing the Laplace variable s by the complex frequency jω. Here
j = −1 and ω is the angular frequency in radians/second (ω = 2πf , where f is the
frequency in cycles/second or Hertz). The Fourier transform obtained by substituting
s = jω yields the frequency domain representation of the system. The Laplace transform
(and implicitly the Fourier transform) of the input-output relation is referred to as the
transfer function of the system.
Applying the Fourier transform to a time function or signal, describes the time function
in terms of a set of sinusoids (with a specific set of amplitude and phase values) - this is
the frequency spectrum of the signal.
Applying the Fourier transform to a transfer function describes the frequency re-
sponse of the system (with a frequency dependent gain, and a frequency dependent
phase shift). Taking the Fourier transform of eq.1.2.1 and separating the real and imag-
inary parts using complex algebra, we have:

Y (jω) a abω
= 2 2
−j
X(jω) (1 + b ω ) (1 + b2 ω 2 )
we can now get the magnitude and phase:
   
 Y (jω)  a Y (jω)
 X(jω)  = √1 + b2 ω 2 ,
  ∠ = tan−1 (−bω) (1.2.2)
X(jω)

1.2.1 Frequency Response Plots

The transfer function of a system can be represented graphically by plotting (a) the gain
magnitude and (b) the phase against the frequency. These frequency plots are convenient
ways of describing the system.
The gain magnitude and phase in eq.1.2.2 are usually plotted against frequency in a
log-log scale (gain) and semi-log plot (phase) as shown in Fig.1.2.1. Such Y plots
 are called
Bode plots. The unit used for gain is deciBels (dB), which is 20log10  X , and with dB
as the unit the gain plot is a semi-log plot.
In the above discussion we used a step function as the test signal. Sometimes it is
possible to use sinusoidal signals to test the system, in which case the input-output gain
and input-output phase difference can be directly measured for each sine frequency and
plotted as in Fig.1.2.1. A set of frequencies in the range of interest must be used for such
a test. An advantage of using sinusoidal test signals is that prior assumption about the
order of the system is not required.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

17 Lab 1: First Order Systems

Figure 1.2.1: Magnitude and Phase of the transfer function plotted against frequency as
semi-log plots

1.2.2 RC network - first order system

We will use a resistor-capacitor network shown in Fig.1.2.2 to study the behaviour of
first order systems.

Figure 1.2.2: RC circuit network as first-order system

1.3 Aims of this Practical:

1. To experimentally determine the frequency response of a first-order system using
a sample electrical RC circuit

2. To experimentally determine the step response of a first-order system.

1.4 Experiments
1.4.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 1: First Order Systems 18

3. Power Supply

4. Breadboard, Resistor, Capacitor, wires

1.4.2 Experiments to Perform

1. Using the frequencies, in the range 1Hz to 1000 Hz, determine the voltage gain and
the phase shift of the input-output of the given RC circuit.

2. Using rectangular pulses of duration 500ms and amplitude 1V, obtain the step
response of the system.

1.5 Preliminary Report

1
1. Given the transfer function: G(s) = 1+0.03s draw the Bode plots in the range
0.01 < f < 1000.

2. For the circuit of Fig.1.2.2 write the equation relating the output voltage to the
input voltage in the form of eq.1.1.3

3. For a massless mechanical system comprising a dashpot and spring in parallel, what
is the relation between the force and displacement. Write the differential equation
and the transfer function. Add a mass to the system and write the equation for
force-displacement transfer function.

1.6 Final Report

1. Draw the frequency response of the given system as Bode plots of magnitude and
phase

2. Determine the corner frequency (the frequency where the gain is 3dB less than that
at very low frequencies).

3. From the step response calculate the time constant.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

2 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor

2.1 Introduction

Any sub-system which may be a sensor, actuator or even a mathematical operation can
be characterized in terms of their input-output relation. In this lab practical we will use
an electronic temperature sensor and determine its system characteristics.
LM35 is a single chip integrated circuit temperature sensor. The temperature sen-
sor is a silicon bandgap temperature sensor, in which the forward junction voltage of
a PN junction varies as a function of temperature and current through the junction.
The IC LM35 has additional electronic circuitry to convert the temperature sensitive
semiconductor junction voltage into an output proportional to the temperature in o C.

2.1.1 Temperature sensor system:

The semiconductor temperature sensor is encased in a plastic package for field use. This
casing conducts the temperature on the outside of the casing and the sensor and this
involves a time dependence of the temperature change of the semiconductor sensor.
Fig.2.1.1 shows a representation of the semiconductor sensor inside the plastic casing. In
LM35 used in this lab, 3 electrical leads are provided for connection. Two leads are for
the power supply to bias the electronics. A supply voltage of 5V may be given - be very
careful to observe the polarity of the supply voltage. The centre lead is the output volt-
age, and the output is given by the equation: Vo = 0.01 · T where T is the temperature
in o C.

Figure 2.1.1: Semiconductor temperature sensor embedded in a plastic casing

19
Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 20

Thermal conduction

If the temperature at the surface of the casing is T1 , the temperature of the sensor, T2 ,
depends on the properties and dimensions of the intervening material and is given by the
equation:

dT2 (t) kA
= [T1 (t) − T2 (t)] (2.1.1)
dt mcd

m=sensing element mass (kg)

c=sensing element specific heat (J.K −1 .kg−1 ); for silicon, c = 700 J/o K/kg
k=casing thermal conductivity (W.m−1 .K −1 ); For plastic, k ≈ 0.5 W/m/o K
A=casing surface area (m2 )
d=thickness of casing material (m)
This is the equation of a first-order system, and we should perform dynamic charac-
terization to obtain the transfer function of the sensor.

2.1.2 LM35
Fig.2.1.2 shows the functional block schematic of the temperature sensing IC, LM35.
The supply voltage can be up to 30V. Note that both the supply and the output voltage
are with reference to the terminal labelled Gnd.

Figure 2.1.2: Functional diagram of the sensor LM35

2.2 Aims:
1. To characterize the temperature sensor LM35

2. To determine the transfer function and the order of the system.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

21 Lab 2: Temperature Sensor

2.3 Experimental Procedure

2.3.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Power Supply

3. LM35

2.3.2 Dynamic characterization of the sensor

Applying sinusoidal temperature changes is not possible. Therefore, we will use a step
change in temperature for dynamic characterization. A beaker of water at a temperature
about 20o C above the ambient temperature is used to provide the step change. Connect
the LM35 to a power supply and the output to an oscilloscope. Set the sweep-time
of the oscilloscope to be about 1s/div. With the LM35 in air ensure that the output
corresponds to the ambient air temperature. Immerse the LM35 quickly into the water
and capture the transient voltage change. Use triggered single sweep capture.

Figure 2.3.1: Experimental application of a step change in temperature

The response of the LM35 to the step change in temperature will be a first-order
response based on eq.2.1.1, and as shown in Fig.2.3.2. From this the time constant of the
system response can be determined. Using the time constant and assuming the system to
be a first order system based on the physics given by eq.2.1.1, we can write the transfer
function and draw the frequency response.
You can either make measurements on the oscilloscope itself or you can transfer the
waveform to a computer and perform the calculations.

2.4 Preliminary Report

1. LM35 is in a TO92 package which has a height of 4mm and width of 4mm. Assum-
ing that this is a cylinder, calculate the parameters of the package. Assume that

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 2: Temperature Sensor 22

Figure 2.3.2: Step change in temperature shown in the upper graph results in the response
shown in the lower graph

the sensor inside is made of silicon and has a mass of 5mg. Using eq.2.1.1 calculate
the theoretical time constant of the system.

2. Write the transfer function for this system.

2.5 Final Report

1. Draw the step-response of the sensor measured in the lab. What is the time con-
stant? What is the corner frequency?

2. Draw the Bode plots of the frequency response.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

3 Lab 3: DC motor control
3.1 Introduction
The DC motor is an electromagnetic actuator, and converts electrical energy into me-
chanical work. The torque generated by a DC motor is proportional to the current
through its coil. A controlled voltage is very easy, but with a little effort we can make
circuits to deliver controlled current to a motor.
DC geared motors are used for continuous motion as well as positioning. In this lab
we will use a DC motor with an attached gear-box.

Figure 3.1.1: Schematic of geared DC motor

The torque generated by the motor is proportional to the current through the coil, with
a proportionality constant, km , that depends on the physical parameters of the motor
and the magnet:

Tm (t) = km I(t) (3.1.1)

Vi (t) is the voltage applied across the motor, and L and R are the inductance and
resistance of the coil; the rotating coil develops a back emf, eb = ke φ̇(t) where φ(t) is the
angular displacement and φ̇(t) is the angular velocity of the motor shaft:

Vi (t) = L dI(t)
dt + RI(t) + eb
dI(t) (3.1.2)
= L dt + RI(t) + ke φ̇(t)
The moment of inertia, of the motor is Jm ,and the motor shaft frictional resistance
coefficient is bm . The gears provide a reduction ratio of n, so that the rotation of the
gear-output shaft, θ(t) and the braking torque at the output shaft, To (t) is:
1
θ(t) = n φ(t)
θ(t)To (t) = φ(t)Tm (t) (3.1.3)
To (t) = nTm (t)

23
Lab 3: DC motor control 24

The moment of inertia, of all the gears is Jg ,and the gears total frictional resistance
coefficient is bg ; any load or perturbation on the gear-output
 shaft is, TL . 
The gears and
1
external load referred to the motor shaft is, Tc = n Jg θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + TL . The torque
developed by the motor can be written as:
 
Tm (t) = Jm φ̈(t) + bm φ̇(t) + n1 Jg θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + TL
   
km I(t) = n Jm θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + n1 Jg θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + TL
(3.1.4)
   
nkm I(t) = n2 Jm + θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + Jg θ̈(t) + bm θ̇(t) + TL
n2 Jm + Jg θ̈(t) + n2 bm + bg θ̇(t) + TL



=
= Jo θ̈(t) + bo θ̇(t) + TL

We’ll assume that there is no external load so that TL = 0.

nkm I(t) = Jo θ̈(t) + bo θ̇(t) (3.1.5)

DC motors produce continuous rotation, and therefore, we shall consider the speed of
the motor, ρ(t) = θ̇(t) as the output quantity. Note that from eq.3.1.3 To (t) = nTm (t) =
nkm I(t).

nkm I(t) = Jo ρ̇(t) + bo ρ(t) (3.1.6)

Taking the Laplace transform of eq.3.1.6, we obtain the transfer function:

ρ(s) nkm (nkm /bo )

= = (3.1.7)
I(s) Jo s + bo (Jo /bo ) s + 1

The relation between the motor speed and motor current is a first order system.

3.1.1 Voltage and Current Control - Voltage Amplifier and

Transconductance Amplifier
The current required by a small DC motor can be several amperes and a signal from
a function generator cannot provide such a large current. Therefore we need to have a
controllable voltage or current source that can provide large currents.
The figure here shows a power amplifier that can supply a few amperes of current. The
output is made with a complementary pair of transistors in a push-pull configuration.
Used by itself such a pair of transistors will have a large crossover distortion when the
voltage is near zero. Using a feedback circuit as shown reduces the crossover distortion
and gives a linear control for the output voltage.
If we measure the current at the output of the power amplifier and provide that as the
feedback, we will have a controlled current output. This is a voltage-controlled-current-
source, or a transconductance amplifier. The circuit is shown below.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

25 Lab 3: DC motor control

Figure 3.1.2: Voltage Power Amplifier

Figure 3.1.3: Transconductance Amplfier

3.1.2 Motor Angle Measurement

To measure the motor shaft angle, we can use a rotary potentiometer. A rotary poten-
tiometer is usually prevented from rotating more than about 340o ; we will overcome this
limitation by removing the mechanical stop. However, the potentiometer reads only over
an angle of 360o after which it returns to 0o . This illustrated in the figure below.

3.2 Aims
1. To characterize a geared DC motor

2. To understand the use of power amplifiers and transconductance amplifiers

3.3 Experimental Procedure

Connect the geared DC motor as shown in the figure below.
Use the function generator to give constant current output of (a) 100mA, (b) 200mA,
(c) 500mA, (d) 1A, and measure the angular displacement of the motor on the oscillo-
scope. Calculate the speed of the motor for each case.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 3: DC motor control 26

Figure 3.1.4: Potentiometer as angle sensor

Figure 3.3.1: Experimental arrangement

Apply a sinusoidal current to the motor of amplitude 500mA, and frequency (a) 0.1Hz,
(b) 1Hz, (c) 10Hz. In each case note the angular displacement, θ(t) and calculate the
angular velocity.
Use these data to determine the motor characteristics.

3.3.1 Material Required

1. Power supply

2. Function Generator

3. Oscilloscope

4. Power Amplifier board

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

27 Lab 3: DC motor control

5. Geared DC motor

6. Rotary potentiometer

7. Holder and coupler for motor-potentiometer

3.4 Preliminary Report

Obtain approximate values for the motor parameters from the internet. What are the
units for the moment of inertia, frictional resistance?

3.5 Final Report

Plot the current versus speed curve for the motor.
What is the time constant of the motor?

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

4 Lab 4: Feedback Control

4.1 Introduction to Feedback Systems

A system with known transfer function will not always behave exactly as expected. Small
changes in the system due to environmental conditions like temperature and humidity,
changes in the system due to degradation of components with age, perturbations from
external noise, etc., can result in deviations from the expected behaviour of the system.
The use of feedback, in which the actual output of the system is compared with the
desired output to correct for deviations from the desired behaviour of the system is an
effective way of compensating for such changes in the environment and internal properties
of the system.
Fig.4.1.1 below shows a general block diagram of a feedback control system.

Figure 4.1.1: Feedback control system

The feedback control system works by taking the difference between the input, and
the actual output - this difference is called the error signal. In Fig.4.1.1 the input is
denoted by X(s), the output by Y (s), and the error signal by E(s). The output is
passed through a system H(s) which represents the sensor that measures the output to
provide the feedback.
Combination of system blocks is easier to analyze in the Laplace or Fourier domain
than in the time-domain. We can obtain the overall transfer function of the feedback
control system as follows:

E(s) = X(s) − Y (s)H(s)

Y (s) = E(s)G1 (s)G2 (s)
Y (s) = [X(s) − Y (s)H(s)] G1 (s)G2 (s) (4.1.1)
Y (s) G1 (s)G2 (s)
X(s) = 1+G1 (s)G2 (s)H(s)

29
Lab 4: Feedback Control 30

Feedback Control
A feedback control system as shown in Fig.4.1.1 has many advantages and also some
disadvantages:

1. Feedback control can make the speed of response of a system much faster.

2. A feedback controlled system is more immune to variations in plant characteris-

tics. For example, plant characteristics can vary with age, temperature and other
conditions. Feedback provides dynamic correction for such variations in the plant
characteristics.

3. A feedback controlled system is more immune to external disturbances. If an exter-

nal disturbance is added to the system, then feedback enables dynamic correction
so that the effect of the disturbance is greatly reduced.

4. Feedback control increases the order of a system and therefore can render the system
more unstable. The design of the feedback control should be such that instability
is avoided.

Controller Design
The goal of controller design is to make the overall system faster, more accurate in
producing the desired output and also to avoid instability in the system behaviour.

Building blocks for control systems:

1. Summing block: This generates the error signal by taking the difference between
the desired input and the output as measured by a suitable sensor.

2. Controller: This takes the error signal and provides a driving signal to the sys-
tem that is being controlled. A common type of controller that will be used in
this lab is the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller. The proportional
component provides suitable amplification of the error signal, the derivative com-
ponent provides specific amplification of change in the error signal, and the integral
component provides amplification of long-term or persistent error in the system.

4.1.1 Operational Amplifier Circuits for Control Systems

Operational amplifiers (OpAmps) are generic amplifiers available as a one IC (integrated
circuit) per OpAmp, or more often as 2 or 4 OpAmps in a single IC. OpAmps can be
used in circuits to realize the blocks in the control system shown in Fig.4.1.1.

Summing Block
The summing block, Fig.4.1.2, gives the difference between the input signal and the
feedback from the output.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

31 Lab 4: Feedback Control

Figure 4.1.2: Summing Block

Fig.4.1.3(i), shows a difference amplifier which gives the difference between two signals.
This performs the function of the “summing block” in a control system to estimate the
error between the desired function and the feedback function.
   
R4 (R1 + R2 ) R2
Vo (t) = V1 − V2 (4.1.2)
R1 (R3 + R4 ) R1

Using, R1 = R3 and R2 = R4

R2
Vo (t) = [V1 (t) − V2 (t)] (4.1.3)
R1

The circuit shown in Fig.4.1.3(ii) is an improvement on the summing block - this is

essentially an instrumentation amplifier with high input impedance, differential inputs,
and easy to adjust gain and common-mode rejection.

Figure 4.1.3: Summing Block

PID controller
Fig.4.1.5 shows the block schematic of a Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller. The
input-output relation of this controller is:
Z
dx(t)
y(t) = Kx(t) + KI x(t)dt + KD (4.1.4)
dt
Taking the Laplace Transform, we get:

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 4: Feedback Control 32

Figure 4.1.4: Block schematic of PID controller

 
Y (s) 1
G1 (s) = = KP + KI + KD s (4.1.5)
X(s) s

Fig.4.1.5 shows a circuit to realize the PID controller.

In Fig.4.1.5, the input is first passed through an inverting amplifier with unity gain,
and the output of Uo is −Vi (t). This signal is given to a simple (inverting) amplifier,
an integrator, and a differentiator; each is constructed using an OpAmp. The simple
R
amplifier gives an output proportional to the input, VP = − Rap Vi (t). The integrator
−1
R
gives an output, VI (t) = RC Vi (t)dt; The initial value of the integrator can be set to
zero using the switch “sw”. The differentiator gives and output, VD (t) = −RC dV i
dt . In
the inegrator and differentiator, the values of R & C are selected to make RC = 1. The
output of U1 , U2 , U3 is given to 3 inverting amplifiers, U4 , U5 , U6 with adjustable gain
so that the coefficients of the P-I-D are adjustable using the potentiometers RgP , RgI ,
RgD . Finally, the output of U4 , U5 , U6 is added together using an inverting summing
amplifier with U7 , to yield the final output Vo (t).
 Z 
RP RgP Rf 1 RgI Rf RgD Rf dVi (t)
Vo (t) = + Vi (t)dt + RD CD (4.1.6)
Ra R1 R4 RI CI R2 R5 R3 R6 dt

Figure 4.1.5: PID controller

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

33 Lab 4: Feedback Control

4.1.2 Setting the PID controller

Method I: Manual Tuning
A control system can be adjusted manually as follows:

1. Set all P, I, D gains to zero. Turn the potentiometers fully clockwise.

2. Increase the proportional gain as long as the system remains stable and free of
oscillations.

3. If there is any steady state error in the output, then increase the integral gain to
minize the long-term error.

4. Finally, increase the derivative gain so that the system becomes faster.

5. The values for the P-I-D coefficients can be checked theoretically to ensure that the
overall system transfer function is stable, and has fast response. However, steady
state error is usually due to slight variations in system parameters in practical
implementation - therefore, final tuning often requires experimental adjustment.

Note: If the system-under-control has a time delay, this method of manual tuning will
not

Method II: Ziegler-Nichols Method

A plant with first order characteristics with delay, called a First-Order Plus Dead-Time
(FOPDT) system, has transfer function of the form:

ko e−to s
G2 (s) = (4.1.7)
(1 + τo s)

In such a case, the time delay makes the system more prone to instability. Ziegler-
Nichols proposed a method for tuning a PID controller to control such a system. First,
the values of the time constant, τ , and the time delay, to are measured from the step-
response of the system-under-control, i.e., the plant. Since, the starting point of the
exponential function is difficult to estimate in the curve shown in Fig.4.1.6, the slope is
estimated at the point of maximum steepness.
Using these parameters, ko ,the steady state value, to ,the time delay, and To ,as shown
in Fig. 4.1.6, the Ziegler-Nichols method gives an empirical way of calculating the coeffi-
cients, kP , kI , kD as given in the table. One can choose to use , “P”, a Proportional only
controller, or, “PI”, a Proportional-Integral controller, or a full “PID” controller.
Controller Type kP kI kD
To
P to 0 0
To 3
PI 0.9 to to 0
To 2
PID 1.2 to to 0.5to

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 4: Feedback Control 34

ko 1
Figure 4.1.6: General first order response with time delay. The slope m = To ≈ τ

4.1.3 Stability analysis

In Eq.4.1.1 when the deominator is zero, then the overall transfer function becomes
infinite - this is an undesirable and unstable condition. The denominator represents the
characteristic equation, and must always be greater than zero. There are several methods
for analyzing a feedback system to assess its stability.

4.2 Aims
1. To understand the components of feedback control

2. To use a PID controller to improve the time response of a first order system.

4.3 Experimental Procedure

In this lab practical we will use feedback control to improve the behaviour of a simple
first order system as studied in the first lab. The first order system is an RC circuit with
a time constant, τ = 0.01s. Fig.4.3.1 shows a block schematic of the control system to
be assembled and tested in this lab.
Fig.4.3.2 shows the lab setup to be used. Two PCBs, the summing block and the PID
controller will be given. The internal circuits in these boards is as described above. The
first order system-under-control must be assembled on a breadboard. Using Fig.4.3.2 as
a guide, connect the system. The time constant of the system being controlled, the so-
called “open-loop” system is known to be 0.01s. Adjust the PID controller using Method
I described above. Determine the time-constant of the overall system.

4.3.1 Material Required

1. Summing amplifier board

2. PID controller board

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

35 Lab 4: Feedback Control

Figure 4.3.1: Block schematic of the experimental setup

Figure 4.3.2: Lab arrangement

3. First order plant made with RC circuit

4. Power supply, oscilloscope, arbitrary function generator, and cables and probes

4.4 Preliminary Report

1. If a purely proportional controller is used with KP = 10, KI = 0, KD = 0, write
the overall transfer function. Use H(s) = 1.

2. If H(s) = 0.5, and KP = 20, what is the control system’s overall transfer ?

4.5 Final Report

Describe your laboratory procedure and report your experimental observations.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

5 Lab 5: Second Order Systems

5.1 Introduction
In the first two labs we saw that first order systems are described by a first order differ-
ential equation, and we saw examples of an electrical first order system and a thermal
second order system. Second order systems are described by a second order differential
equation. The discussion in this lab is only about underdamped second order systems
where the damping is between 0 and 1.
With the usual notation, if the system input is x(t) and the output is y(t) a general
second-order system is described by eq.5.1.1, with system parameters g, ωn , and ζ. These
constants represent commonly recognized physical properties called sensitivity, natural
frequency and damping.
2
y(t) + ω2ζn dy(t) + ω12 d dty(t)
2 = gx(t)
 2 dt n
2 gωn2 X(s)

Y (s) ωn + 2ζωn s + s =
Y (s) gωn2
H(s) = X(s) = 2 +2ζω s+s2
(5.1.1)
ωn n
Y (s) g
X(s) = 
2

1+ 2ζs
ω
+ s2
n ωn

Examples of second order systems are electrical resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) cir-

cuits, Fig.5.1.1(i), mechanical mass-damper-spring systems, Fig.5.1.1(ii), and liquid flow
systems in elastic tubes (liquid inertance, tube elasticity and viscous damping).

Figure 5.1.1: Second order systems, (i) electrical and (ii) mechanical

For the electrical circuit, using Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:

Vi (t) = L dI(t)
dt + RI(t) + Vo (t), I(t) = C dVdt
o (t)

2 (5.1.2)
Vi (t) = LC d dt
Vo (t)
2 + RC dVdt
o (t)
+ Vo (t)

37
Lab 5: Second Order Systems 38

Taking the Laplace transform:

Vi (s) = LCs2 Vo (s) + RCsVo (s) + Vo (s)

Vo (s) 1 (5.1.3)
Vi (s) = 1+RCs+LCs2

Comparing eq.5.1.3 with eq.5.1.1, we see that:

p = 1
ωn = √1
LC
q (5.1.4)
R C
ζ = 2 L

For the mechanical system:

2
F (t) = m d dty(t)
2 + B dy(t)
dt + Ky(t)
(5.1.5)

Taking the Laplace transform:

F (s) = ms2 Y (s) + BsY (s) + KY (s)

Y (s) 1
F (s) = ms2 +Bs+K (5.1.6)
1/K
= B
1+ K m 2
s+ K s

Comparing eq.5.1.6 with eq.5.1.1, we see that:

1
p = qK
K
ωn = (5.1.7)
qm
B 1
ζ = 2 Km

Note on Laplace Transforms

With second order systems the Laplace transforms are more elaborate and Table 5.1 can
be used to obtain the inverse Laplace transform for the time functions. Time functions are
what we can see in the physical world or real world, and the Laplace transform domain is
a mathematically useful way of analyzing the functions. Therefore, the Laplace transform
is useful for analysis and the time functions illustrate real world behaviour. The Fourier
transform which may be regarded as a special case of the Laplace transform also gives
us a way of viewing time functions and time characteristics, by separating them into
frequency components.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

39 Lab 5: Second Order Systems

Table 1: Some Laplace Transform pairs

Time Function Laplace Tranform
e −at 1
s+a
1
u(t) s
1
sin(at) s +a2
2
s
cos(at) s2 +a2
 −bt  a
e sin(at) u(t) (s+b)2 +a2
 −bt  s+a
e cos(at) u(t (s+b)2 +a2
1
t s2
The table is obtained by taking the forward Laplace transform of common functions.
While the forward Laplace transform is easily calculated using integration, the inverse
Laplace transform is more difficult to calculate; therefore, the table of Laplace transforms
is used for obtaining the inverse transform.

5.1.1 Step Response of a Second Order System

Most second order systems can be tested with a step change in input:
(
0 t<0
x(t) =
1 t≥0
1
X(s) = s
The time response of a second order system to a step change in input is shown in Fig:

Figure 5.1.2: Second order system step response

Analytical expression for the step response of a second order system

We will now obtain an algebraic expression for the step response of a second order system.
We will only consider the case where 0 < ζ < 1 called the underdamped case as this is
the case most commonly encountered. We will start with the transfer function in the
Laplace domain and then take the inverse Laplace transform.

1
X(s) =
s

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 5: Second Order Systems 40

1

 2
ωn

Y (s) = p s 2 +2ζω s+s2
ωn n
(5.1.8)

Using partial fraction for separation of the terms to have only first order and second
order terms:

1

 ωn2

Y (s) = p s 2 +2ζω s+s2
ωn n
h i
A Bs+C
= p s + (s+ζωn )2 +ωn2 (1−ζ 2 )
" #
A Bs+C
(5.1.9)
= p s +  √
2
2
(s+ζωn ) + ωn (1−ζ 2 )
h i
A Bs+C
= p s + (s+ζωn )2 +ωd2
p
We find: A = 1, B = −1, C = −2ςωn . The term ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 is called the damped
frequency. We also write the denominator as the sum of two squares so that we can use
the Laplace transform table.
Using
h i
1 s+2ζωn
Y (s) = p s − (s+ζω 2 2
  n ) +ω
d 
= p 1
− s+ζωn
− √ζ ωd (5.1.10)
s (s+ζωn )2 +ωd2 1−ζ 2 (s+ζωn )2 +ωd2
=
Taking the inverse Laplace transform using Table 5.1
    
−ζω t ζ
y(t) = p 1−e n cos(ωd t) + √ 2 sin(ωd t) u(t)
1−ζ
 h i (5.1.11)
e−ζωn t
p
= p 1− √ 2
( 1 − ζ 2 )cos(ω t) + (ζ)sin(ω t)
d d u(t)
1−ζ

Note that u(t) represents the unit step function which is equal to one for t ≥ 0 and is
zero for t < 0
The sine and cosine terms can be put in the form: sinAcosB + cosAsinB = sin(A + B),
and we get a convenient closed form:

   √ 
e−ζωn t −1 1−ζ 2
y(t) = p 1− √ sin ωd t + tan ζ u(t)
1−ζ 2
  √  (5.1.12)
e−ζωn t −1 1−ζ 2
=p 1− √ [sin (ωd t + φ)] u(t) where φ = tan ζ
21−ζ

5.1.2 Determining the Second Order system parameters from the time
response
In the step response of Fig.5.1.3, p = ys (t∞ ) = ys (t → ∞).

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

41 Lab 5: Second Order Systems

Figure 5.1.3: Second Order System Step Response

pMaxima of the step response occur when the sine term is -1, i.e., when: ωd t =
1 − ζ 2 ωn t = (4q−1)π/2 where q = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... The period of the damped step response
can be measured as t3 − t1 . Therefore,
2π
ωd = (5.1.13)
(t3 − t1 )
To calculate the damping coefficient we decay of the oscillation. If ∆y(t1 ) = y(t1 ) −
y(t∞ ) and ∆y(t3 ) = y(t3 ) − y(t∞ ), then:
−ζωn t1
e√
∆y(t1 ) =
1−ζ 2
∆y(t3 ) −ζω (t3 −t1 )
= e n
∆y(t1 )  (5.1.14)
∆y(t1 )
ln ∆y(t3 ) = ζωn ω2πd
= 2π √ ζ
1−ζ 2
 
∆y(t1 )
Let α = ln ∆y(t3 ) , then rearranging eq.5.1.14 we calculate

α
ζ=√ (5.1.15)
4π 2 + α2

5.1.3 Transfer functions, Bode Plots and Frequency Spectra

For the second order system discussed above we can take the Fourier transform using
s = jω in eq.5.1.1:

Y (jω) 1
=h i (5.1.16)
X(jω) (jω)2
1 + jω ω2ζn + ωn2

The magnitude of the transfer function:

 
 Y (jω)  1
 X(jω)  = r (5.1.17)
 
2  2
ω2
1− 2
ωn
+ 2ζ ωωn

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 5: Second Order Systems 42

and the phase of the transfer function:

   
Y (jω) −1 −2ζωn ω
∠ = tan (5.1.18)
X(jω) ωn2 − ω 2

Figure 5.1.4: Gain and phase plots of a second order system

5.1.4 Characteristic Equation, the Complex s-plane, pole-zero plots

In general, the transfer function of a system is a ratio of polynomials:

Y (s) bo + b1 s + b2 s2 + ...
=
X(s) ao + a1 s + a2 s2 + ...
For analysis, the polynomials can be factorized in the following form:

Y (s) (s − z1 )(s − z2 )(...)

=
X(s) (s − p1 )(s − p2 )(...)
The values z1 , z2 , ... are called zeros since when s = z1 or s = z2 , etc., the transfer
function becomes zero. The values p1 , p2 , ... are called poles since when s = p1 or s = p2 ,
etc., the transfer function become infinite.
The denominator equated to zero is called the characteristic equation. For the second
order system discussed here, the characterisitic equation can be written from eq.5.1.2:

2ζs s2
1+ + 2 =0 (5.1.19)
ωn ωn
The roots of this quadratic equation are:
p
s = −ζωn ± ωp 2
n ζ −1
= −ζωn ± j 1 − ζ 2 ωn (5.1.20)
= −ζωn ± jωd

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

43 Lab 5: Second Order Systems

In eq.5.1.20 we have used the fact that ζ < 1. When s takes the value of the roots, the
transfer function becomes infinite.
We see that the Laplace variable is necessarily a complex quantity of the form, s =
σ + jω . The transfer function can be plotted in the complex-s plane with the poles and
zeros represented by circles and crosses. For the second order system discussed here, the
transfer function, eq.5.1.2 can be written as:

Y (s) gωn 2

X(s) = (s−p1 )(s−p2 ) (5.1.21)

p1 = −ζωn + jωd , p1 = −ζωn − jωd

Figure 5.1.5: Transfer function in the complex s-plane

From fig.5.1.5 we see that as the damping coefficient,ζ , becomes smaller, the poles
move closer to the imaginary axis. When ζ = 0, the poles lie on the imaginary axis. We
know that replacing s = jω in the Laplace transform of a system (or a signal) gives us
the Fourier transform. Therefore, the transfer function taken along the imaginary axis
of the complex plane is the Fourier transform. When the poles lie on the imaginary axis,
they represent impulses in the Fourier transform. From our study of Fourier transforms,
we know (or should know) that the inverse transform of a pair of impulses gives us a
sinusoidal time-function - the frequency of the sinusoid is ωn or the natural frequency. In
the case of a system transfer function, this represents sustained oscillation at the natural
frequency - regardless of the input. The system oscillates at the natural frequency or
resonant frequency.
When the poles are on the left of the imaginary axis, the oscillation is damped until they
fall on the real axis, and the damped frequency becomes zero. When the poles lie on the
right of the imaginary axis, the oscillation grows exponentially - this represents instability.
This instability is what is defined by the Bounded-Input Bounded-Output condition for
stability - i.e., a system is stable when a Bounded-Input produces an Bounded-Output,
and when a Bounded-Input produces an unBounded-Output, the system is said to be
unstable.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 5: Second Order Systems 44

5.2 Aims
1. To determine the parameters of a second order system, namely the natural fre-
quency and the damping coefficient
2. To obtain the frequency response of a second order system

5.3 Experimental Procedure

A second order electronic system with adjustable natural frequency and damping will be
used in this lab. Connect the board as shown in the figure below.

Figure 5.3.1: Second order electronic system board

Set the two potentiometers approximately in the middle position.

Step response
Apply a square wave, say, repetition period of 1s, and amplitude of 1V, to the input of
the second order system. Capture the response on the oscilloscope. Measure the time
and amplitude of the maxima as shown in fig.5.1.3. Calculate the natural frequency, ωn
and the damping coefficient, ζ .

Frequency Response
Using sine waves, of frequency 1Hz to 1kHz, measure the gain and phase shift of the
second order system.

Adjusting the frequency and damping

Keeping the frequency constant, adjust the damping. Do you observe increasing oscilla-
tion? Is there sustained oscillation?
Keeping the damping constant at the mid-position, adjust the frequency. Does the
system oscillation increase?

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

45 Lab 5: Second Order Systems

5.3.1 Material Required

1. Second order system board

2. Power supply, oscilloscope, function generator.

5.4 Preliminary Report

For an electronic system with L=10H and C = 10µF , and R = 1kΩ, calculate the
natural frequency and damping coefficient. For these values plot the step response for
time, 0 < t < 20ms. Calculate and plot the frequency response for 0.1 < f < 10kHz.

5.5 Final Report

From your experimental measurements calculate the natural frequency and damping
coefficient. Draw the frequency response plots for system at these values.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

6 Lab 6: Position Control System

6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Plant Model - Geared DC motor
The permanent magnet electric motor comprises a current carrying conductor wound in
an armature placed in a magnetic field. The force on the conductor is proportional to, (a)
magnetic flux density, (b) the current, and (c) the length of the conductor. The magnetic
flux density is constants, and the length of the conductor is also constant. The torque
on the motor shaft is proportional to the applied current with proportionality constant
km , i.e., eq.3.1.1 which is reproduced here for convenience:

Tm (t) = km I(t)

Considering the net moment of inertia of the rotor and gears, Jo , the instantaneous
angular displacement of the output shaft, θ(t), net coefficient of frictional damping is bo ,
and negligible load torque on the motor shaft, we have eq.3.1.5 which is also reproduced
here for convenience:

To (t) = nTm (t) = nkm I(t) = Jo θ̈(t) + bo θ̇(t)

The transfer function of the motor angular displacement with motor current as the
input is:

θ(s) nkm
Gm (s) = I(s) = Jo s2 +bo s
nkm /bo (6.1.1)
= s[(Jo /bo )s+1]

Compare eq.3.1.7 with eq.6.1.1. In Lab:3 we only considered the angular velocity of
the motor for system identification of the motor since when the motor is freely running,
the speed is related to the armature current. When the motor was freely running, in-
stantaneous angular displacement was not related to any input quantity, except as an
integral over time of the speed that was controlled by the armature current.

6.1.2 Closed Loop Control of Motor Shaft Position

If we incorporate the motor in a feedback control system, we can control the shaft posi-
tion.

47
Lab 6: Position Control System 48

Figure 6.1.1: Motor Position Feedback Control

V
Vθ (t) = θ(t) 360po = kθ θ(t)
Vθ (s) = kθ θ(s) (6.1.2)
H(s) = Vθ(s)
θ (s)
= kθ
The overall closed loop system transfer function can be written using eq.4.1.1:
θ(s) Gc (s)GA (s)Gm (s)
Vi (s) = 1+H(s)Gc (s)GA (s)Gm (s)
kp km
(Jo s+bo )s
= k kp km
1+ (J θ s+b (6.1.3)
o o )s
kp km
= Jo s2 +bo s+kθ kp km
kp km /Jo
= s2 +(bo /Jo )s+(kθ kp km /Jo )

This is a second order system as seen in Lab.5, and it can have a stable step response
if the poles are on the left side of the complex s-plane. Comparing eq.6.1.3 to the general
form for a second order system given in eq.5.1.1, we can write:
s s
Jo bo 1
ωn = , ζ= (6.1.4)
kθ kp km 2 Jo kθ kp km
The poles are at:

s = −ζωn ± jωd
As noted in fig.5.1.5, when ζ is large and close to unity, the system is stable. But when
ζ is large the system is also sluggish. The damping coefficient ζ is inversely related to
the value of kp .

6.2 Aims
1. To show position control using a DC motor and angular position sensor in a feed-
back control system

2. To characterize the system properties using the step response

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

49 Lab 6: Position Control System

6.3 Experimental Procedure

The DC motor has already been characterized in Lab.3, and we know the value of the
motor time constant,Jo /bo ,and the motor sensitivity or gain, nkm /bo . We also know
the sensitivity of the feedback sensor (the potentiometer as angle sensor), kθ ; this is the
value of H(s) in fig.6.1.1. We can adjust the value of kp using the general purpose PID
controller used in lab.4.
Setup the motor control arrangement as shown in fig.6.3.1. Set the motor position
potentiometer to be at a position approximately in the middle of its range, i.e., it should
not be too close to 0o or 360o as the potentiometer transition from maximum to minum
takes place in this region.
Adjust the control potentiometer and verify that the motor position varies in parallel.
Use the oscilloscope to monitor the motor output position from the potentiometer.
You can use a step function from the function generator to test the step response of
the motor position control.
How does varying the value of kp affect the response?

Figure 6.3.1: Motor Position Control Experiment Connections

6.3.1 Material Required

1. Geared DC motor

2. Rotary potentiometer with attachment to motor shaft

3. PID controller board, Summing amplifier board, power amplifier board (transcon-
ductance amplifier)

6.4 Preliminary Report

Using approximate values for the constants in eq.6.1.3 calculate the step response of the
motor position control.
Can this system become unstable? Explain the conditions for stability.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 6: Position Control System 50

6.5 Final Report

Describe your experimental designs. Report your observations.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

7 Lab 7: Temperature controller

7.1 Introduction
In this lab we will use a feedback control system to control the temperature of a heated
tank of water.

Figure 7.1.1: Water tank with heater

7.1.1 Plant Model

The rate of change of temperature depends on (a) rate of increase in temperature due to
the electrical heater, and (b) rate of decrease in temperature due to removal of heated
liquid by flow.
1 flow
rate of change of temperature = (mass)(specific heat) (Power input to tank) − mass (Temperature of outflow)

This can be written as:

dT (t) 1 q
dt = mc P (t) − m T (t)
(7.1.1)

51
Lab 7: Temperature controller 52

To (t) is the temperature of the outflow in o C

m is the mass in kg
c is the specific heat in Jkg−1 (o C)−1
q is the fixed flow rate in kgs−1
P (t) is the thermal power in Js−1
Taking the Laplace Transform, we get the system transfer function for the plant:

To (s) 1/mc (q/c)

= = (7.1.2)
P (s) q/m + s 1 + (m/q)s
Here the controlled input is the electrical power supplied to the heater. While it is
possible to control power, the circuitry required is somewhat complex. It is easier to
simply control the current through the heater. The thermal power input is equal to the
electrical power
P (t) = I 2 (t)R (7.1.3)
The relationship between current I and power P is non-linear; in order to make the
system amenable to linear systems analysis we will linearize the relationship as shown in
the figure below.

Figure 7.1.2: Linearization of Power

The power at zero current is zero, therefore our linear function must go through the
P |. I 2
Imax R
origin. The slope of the linear function is taken as Imax
max
= Imax = Imax R. Therefore,
the linear relation between power and current is:

P (t) ≈ [Imax R]I(t) (7.1.4)

Thus eq.7.1.2 becomes:

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

53 Lab 7: Temperature controller

To (s) (q/c)(Imax R)
GP (s) = = (7.1.5)
I(s) 1 + (m/q)s
Putting this equation in standard form:

To (s) K
GP (s) = = (7.1.6)
I(s) 1 + τs
with K = (qImax R)/c and τ = m/q

7.1.2 Control System

Figure 7.1.3: Water Heater Control System

7.2 Aims

7.3 Experimental Procedure

7.3.1 Material Required
1. TMP50 temperature sensor board

2. Transconductance amplifier board

3. PID controller

4. Summing amplifier

5. Water bath with flow control

6. Heating element

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 7: Temperature controller 54

Figure 7.3.1: Experiment Connections

7.4 Preliminary Report

7.5 Final Report

Report your experimental observations

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

8 Lab 8: Inverted Pendulum

8.1 Introduction

Figure 8.1.1: Experimental setup of the Inverted Pendulum

8.1.1 Plant model

The plant model takes the applied horizontal force on the carriage as the system’s input,
and the system’s output is the angle of the inverted pendulum. Therefore the required
transfer ratio is: Fθ(s)
(s)
The effective mass of the carriage and belt is M and the mass of the pendulum is m,
the length of the pendulum is 2l and the distance centre of the pendulum’s mass to its
centre of rotation is l, and the angle of tilt of the pendulum is θ.

Solving Euler-Lagrange equation for the Plant

The Lagrangian, , is the difference between the Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy,
L = (KE) − (P E). The Kinetic Energy is due to (i) horizontal velocity of the carriage,
(ii) horizontal velocity of the centre of the pendulum, (iii) angular velocity of the pendu-
lum. The potential energy is due to the height of the centre of the pendulum from the
horizontal. The Laplacian can be written as:
 
1 2 1 1 2 2
L= M ẋ + m(ẋ + lθ̇cosθ) + (J + ml )θ̇ − (mglcosθ)
2 2 2

55
Lab 8: Inverted Pendulum 56

For notational simplicity, x and θ mean x(t) and θ(t). From this we can solve for the
relation between applied force and pendulum angle using the Euler-Lagrange equation
for applied horizontal force and applied angular torque (which is zero):

d ∂L ∂L
− =F (8.1.1)
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (8.1.2)
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
Solving eq.8.1.1:
h i
(M + m)ẍ + KB ẋ + ml θ̈cosθ − θ̇2 sinθ = F (t) (8.1.3)
Solving eq.8.1.2:

J θ̈ + ml2 θ̈ + mlẍcosθ − mg(lsinθ) = 0 (8.1.4)

Solving using Newton’s equations of motion

Considering the horizontal forces:

force applied on the belt by the motor = force due to movement of belt and carriage+force due to ho

The force due to movement of belt and carriage has a component due to acceleration,
and a component due to friction and damping. The pendulum pivot has negligible friction
and therefore the force due to the pendulum has only an acceleration component; since
the pendulum swings, its centre changes with change in the angle, and the displacement
in the x direction is [x(t) + lsin (θ(t))].
h 2
i h 2 i
F (t) = M d dtx(t)
2 + K dx(t)
B dt + m d (x+lsinθ)
dt2
h i (8.1.5)
F (t) = (M + m)ẍ + KB ẋ + ml θ̈cosθ − θ̇2 sinθ
which is the same as eq.8.1.3
Next, considering the forces normal to the pendulum, we equate the forces due to
gravity and the carriage: with the forces due to motion:

fh sinθ + fv cosθ + mgsinθ = −mlθ̈ − mẍcosθ (8.1.6)

To get fv and fh in eq.8.1.6 we calculate the moment about the centre of the pendulum
using the pendulum’s moment of inertia, J and equate it to the torque due to external
forces:

J θ̈ = − (fh lsinθ + fv lcosθ) (8.1.7)

Substituting eq.8.1.7 into eq.8.1.6 and re-arranging, we get:

J + ml2 θ̈ + mlẍcosθ − mglsinθ = 0

(8.1.8)

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

57 Lab 8: Inverted Pendulum

Simplifying the equations

We assume that the pendulum swings freely without friction or damping. Since the
angle of deviation from zero is small, θ̇2 ≈ 0, sinθ ≈ 0, and cosθ ≈ 1. Therefore, eq.8.1.3
becomes:

F (t) = (M + m)ẍ + KB ẋ + mlθ̈ (8.1.9)

Similarly, eq.8.1.4 becomes:

J + ml2 θ̈ + mlẍ = 0


(8.1.10)
Taking the Laplace transform of eq.8.1.9 and eq.8.1.10:

F (s) = (M + m)s2 + KB s X(s) + mls2 θ(s)

 
(8.1.11)

J + ml2


X(s) = θ(s) (8.1.12)
ml
Substituting eq.8.1.12 into eq.8.1.11 and re-arranging:

θ(s) 1
=  MJ
+ (M + 2m)l + Jl s + J



F (s) s ml ml +l

Figure 8.1.2: Block diagram for control of the inverted pendulum

8.2 Aims

8.3 Experimental Procedure

8.3.1 Material Required
1. Frictionless rotary potentiometer (Bourns) and holder

2. Bridge amplifier board for potentiometer

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 8: Inverted Pendulum 58

3. PID control board

4. Summing amplifier

5. Power amplifier board

6. Timing belt arrangement with DC motor

8.4 Preliminary Report

8.5 Final Report

Report your observations.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

9 Lab 9: Magnetic Levitation Control
9.1 Introduction
Levitation or the suspension of an object in mid-air without the use of propellants or
buoyancy is very useful to make frictionless movement. Practical levitation is usually
achieved by the use of magnetic force to counter the force of gravity. Since levitation
involves the suspension in “mid-air” the forces must be precisely controlled to maintain
the desired height at which the object “floats” or is “suspended”.
In this lab we will use an electromagnet to levitate a ferromagnetic ball at a precisely
controlled height. The magnetic force must be precisely controlled to counteract the
force of gravity and maintain the height of levitation.

Figure 9.1.1: Setup of the electromagnetic levitation system

9.1.1 Plant model

The plant consists of a coil forming an electromagnet facing downwards. The object is a
ferromagnetic ball. In order the keep the size of the electromagnet reasonably small, the
ball has to be light, so it is a hollow ferromagnetic ball.
Energy stored in the inductor formed by the electromagnet’s coil, the iron core and
the iron ball:
1
E(t, y) = L(y)Ic (t)2 (9.1.1)
2
The inductance depends on the air gap between the electromagnet and the ferromag-
netic ball, and therefore is a function of y.
Consequently, the energy is also a function of displacement, yb .
Energy used to cause displacement y with force Fm at time t is:
Z
E(t, y) = Fm (t, y)dy (9.1.2)

59
Lab 9: Magnetic Levitation Control 60

Therefore, the force on the ferromagnetic ball due to the electromagnet:

d 1 ∂L(t, y) 2
Fm (t, y) = E(t, y) = Ic (t) (9.1.3)
dy 2 ∂y

Linearization
Around an operating point, Io , we approximate eq.9.1.3 by a linear function as shown in
Fig.9.1.2.

Figure 9.1.2: Linearization of the electromagnetic force

The inductance decreases with increasing air gap, therefore, ∂L

∂y is always negative; we
∂L
assume ∂y = −K. Thus eq.9.1.3 can be linearized, Fig.9.1.2, about an operating current
Io by the equation:
Fm (t) ≈ k0 − k1 Ic (t) (9.1.4)
The other external forces on the ball are due to gravity, Fg (t) and due to the viscous drag
of air,Fa (t). The force due to viscous drag at low speeds is proportional to the velocity of
movement. The proportionality constant depends on the size of the ball and the nature
of flow of the viscous fluid around the object.

dy
Fa (t) = −b (9.1.5)
dt
For simple non-turbulent motion, Stokes formula can be used to calculate the damping
coefficient, b = 6πηr where η = 18 × 10−6 Pa· s is the density and r is the radius of the
ball.
The external forces are balanced by the force due to acceleration of the mass by
displacement, Fd (t). The force due to gravity and the force due to acceleration are not
dependent on the distance of the ball from the electromagnet, y, and are only functions
of time, t.
Therefore, the force balance equation is:

Fd (t) = Fm (t, y) + Fg (t) + Fa (t)

d2 y(t)
m dt2 = [k0 − k1 Ic (t)] + mg − b dy(t) dt (9.1.6)
2
m d dty(t)
2 + b dy(t)
dt + k I
1 c (t) − k 0 = mg
Taking the Laplace transform we get the transfer function of the plant:

Y (s) −k1
= (9.1.7)
Ic (s) s(ms + b)

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

61 Lab 9: Magnetic Levitation Control

Actuator model
The electromagnetic coil, is actuated by a transconductance amplifier whose input is
the controller output, Vc (t) and output is the proportional current, Ic (t) . By using
the transconductance amplifier, the voltage across the coil is automatically adjusted to
ensure that the coil current is proportional to the voltage Vc (t).

Ic (s) = ko Vc (s) (9.1.8)

Feedback of Ball Position

The electromagnet is fixed at a height of h from the table surface. The position of the
ball from the table is measured using the position sensor, Sharp GP2Y0E02A, which has
an output, Vb (t) = Voffset − g yp (t), with Voffset u 2.5 and g u 3.75V m−1 . The distance
of the ball from the electromagnet is: y(t) = h − yph(t). Using
i an offset correction circuit
and an inverting amplifier, Vf (t) = [Vb (t) − Voffset ] − kg1 , we obtain Vf (t) = k2 y(t) .

Vf (s) = k2 Y (s) (9.1.9)

Figure 9.1.3: Control System for Ball Levitation

9.2 Aim
To characterize the displacement sensor.
To characterize the electromagnet.
To connect the blocks to form the closed loop feedback system for levitation.
To observe the behaviour of the system to perturbation. To observe the variation in
displacement and the signals in the different blocks.

9.3 Experimental Measurements

9.3.1 Material Required
1. PID control board

2. Summing amplifier board

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 9: Magnetic Levitation Control 62

3. Transconductance amplifier board

4. Position sensor board

5. Offset and gain circuit x2

6. Electromagnet and Ferromagnetic ball

9.4 Preliminary Report

9.5 Final Report

Report your observations.

Control Systems Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu