AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

The United States, compared to European powers such as Spain, Great Britain, and France, was
a relative late-comer to the colonial enterprise. The Philippines, then a long-time Spanish
colony in Southeast Asia, was acquired by the Americans only in the final years of the
nineteenth century. Some suggest that the colony fell under American control simply as an
unavoidable consequence of the Spanish-American War. Yet, others also contend that the US
waged war against Spain to acquire the Philippines, citing economic interests, the desire to
further develop their military capabilities, and the long-standing belief in “manifest destiny”
and “the white man’s burden.” Whatever the case may be, one thing remains true—the
Philippines was annexed by the US as a colony.

While the US had been present in the Philippines as early as the 1820s, the gradual opening of
the colony to foreign traders the Americans imported sugar and abaca from the Philippines.

THE TREATY OF PARIS OF 1898

To fulfill the provisions set the Protocol of Peace, signed on August 12, 1898 by William R. Day,
the Secret of State of the United States, and by His Excellency Jules M. Cambon, Ambassador of
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of France at Washington who was acting on
behalf of the Spanish government, the parties at war agreed to convene in Paris negotiate a
treaty that would officially end the hostilities of the Spanish-American War. Five commissioners
from each country were tasked to accomplish this. From the United States were Day, senators
Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray and a diplomat, Whitelaw Reid. The Spanish
delegation, on the other hand, was composed of the envoys Eugenio Montero Rios,
Buenaventura Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, and Rafael
Cerero.

Meetings were held between October and December 1898, with the resulting agreement, now
known as the Treaty of Paris, being finalized on December 10. After debates among its
statesmen regarding the prospects of the United States becoming an imperial power, the
senate ratified the Treaty on February 6, 1899, two days after the infamous San Juan Bridge
incident, with Spain following suit on March 19, 1899. Documents of ratification were
exchanged at Washington on April 11, 1899, thereby entering the Treaty into force on the same
day.

While Felipe Agoncillo, representative of the Aguinaldo government, wanted to participate in

the drafting of the Treaty, he was denied to do so on the grounds that the Philippines, although
already declared independent by Filipino revolutionaries, during the time was considered a
Spanish possession. As a result, Filipino public opinion and sentiment regarding their own
future were never ‘considered by the attending commissioners. The finalized version of the
treaty, through Articles I, II, and Ill ultimately obliged Spain to relinquish its claims on its colonial
territories such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines in exchange of $20 million from the
United States. Likewise, the Treaty of Paris determined the fate of Spanish residents living in
these colonies as stated in Articles IX, XI, XIII, to name a few. However-and more importantly, it
also gave a glimpse of the possible future for the Filipinos amidst the already complicated
situations in the Philippines.

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Article I
Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. And as the island is, upon its
evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the United States, the United States will, so long as such
occupation shall last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international law
result from the fact of its occupation, for the protection of life and property.

Article IX
Spanish subjects, native of the Peninsula residing in the territory over which Spain by the
present treaty relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such territory or may
remove therefrom retaining in either event all their rights of property, including the right to sell
or dispose of such property or of its proceeds; and they shall also have the right to carry on
their industry, commerce and professions, being subject in respect thereof to such laws as are
applicable to other foreigners.
The civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants of the territories hereby
cede to the United States shall be determined by the Congress

Article X
The inhabitants of the territories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sovereignty shall
be secured in the free exercise of their religion.

Article XI
Spaniards residing in the territories whose sovereignty Spain cedes or renounces shall be
subject in civil and criminal matters to the tribunal of the country in which they reside,
conformably with the common laws which regulate their competence, being enable to appear
before them in the same manner and to employ the same proceedings as the citizens of the
country to which the tribunal belongs must observe.

Article XVII
The present treaty shall be ratified by the President of the United States by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate thereof and by Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain and the
ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington within six months from the date hereof, or
earlier if possible
In faith, whereof, we, the respective Plenipotentiaries, have assigned this treaty and
have hereunto affixed are seals.
Done in duplicate at Paris, the tenth day of December, in the year of Our Lord one
thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight.
 (Seal) William R. Day
(Seal) Cushman K. Davis
(Seal) William P. Frye
(Seal) Geo Gray
(Seal) Whitelaw Reid
(Seal) Eugenio Montero Rios
(Seal) B. de Abarzuza
(Seal) J. De Ganica
(Seal) W.R. de villa Urrutia
(Seal) Rafael Cerero
Source: Treaty of Peace (Treaty of Paris)

The Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation

Though the Treaty was ratified by the US Senate on February 6, 1899, President William
McKinley had already clarified as early as December of the previous year his opinion regarding
the possibility of annexing the Philippines. The Ohio-native statesman issued a proclamation
now known as the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation which is one of the earliest official
indications of the American policy regarding the Philippines. It openly acknowledged the
intentions of the US to stay in the Philippines and to exercise the rights of sovereignty over its
inhabitants.

The making of the decision, according to McKinley, in an account given in 1903 to a delegation
of Methodist dignitaries, was not an easy task. He said:

When next I realized that the Philippines had dropped into our laps I confess I did not know
what to do with them. I sought counsel from all sides—Democrats as well as Republicans—but
got little help. He then exclaimed, ‘One night late it came to me this way——I don't know how it
was, but it came: (1) That we could not give them back to Spain—that would be cowardly and
dishonorable; (2) chat we could not turn them over to France or Germany—our commercial
rivals in the Orient—that would be bad business and discreditable; (3) that we could nor leave
them not themselves – they were unfit for self-government—and they would soon have
anarchy and misrule over there worse than Spain's was; and (4) that there was nothing left for
us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and
Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we could by them, as our fellow-men for
whom Christ also died. And then I went to bed, and went to sleep, and slept soundly, and the
next morning I sent for the chief engineer of the War Department (our mapmaker), and I told
him to put the Philippines on the map of the United States pointing to a large map on the wall
of his office, and there they are, and there they will stay while I am President!”

With these realizations in mind, McKinley ultimately issued a proclamation on December 21,
1899 known as the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation. Aguinaldo would later issue a
counter-proclamation that vehemently opposed the prospect of annexation. Below is the
proclamation of McKinley.

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Executive Mansion,
Washington
21 Decerber 1898

The destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Mania by the United States naval squadron
commanded by Rear-Admiral Dewey, followed by the reduction of the city and the surrender of
the Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine Islands and the
suspension of the Spanish sovereignty therein with the signature of the treaty of peace
between the United States and Spain by their respective plenipotentiaires at Paris on the 10th
instant, and as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition and
government of the Philippine islands are ceded to the United States. In the fulfilment of the
rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible obligations of government thus
assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group of the Philippine Islands
becomes immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore maintained by the
United States in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is to be extended with all possible dispatch
to the whole of the ceded territory.

In performing this duty, the military commander of the United States is enjoined to make
known to the inhabitants of the Philippine islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of
Spain, in severing the former political relations and in establishing a new political power, the
authority of the United States is to exerted for the securing of the persons and property of the
people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and relations. It will be
the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most
public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the
natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights. All
persons who, either by active aid or by honest submission, co-operate with the Government of
the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes will receive the reward of its
support and protection. All others will be brought within the lawful rule we have assumed, with
firmness, if need be, but without severity, so far as possible. Within the absolute domain of
military authority which necessarily is and must remain supreme in the ceded territory until
legislation of the United States shall otherwise provide, the municipal laws of the territory in
respect to private rights and property and the repression of crime are to be considered as
continuing in force, and to be administered by the ordinary tribunals, so far as practicable. The
operations of civil and municipal government are to be performed by such officers as may
accept the supremacy of the United States by taking the oat of allegiance or by officers chosen,
as far as practicable, from the inhabitants of the islands. While the control of all the public
property and the revenues of the state passes with the cession and while the use and
management of all public means of transportation are necessarily reserved to the authority of
United States, private property, whether belonging to individuals or corporations, is to be
respected except for cause duly established. The taxes and duties heretofore payable by the
inhabitants to the late government become payable to the authorities of the United States
unless it be seen fit to substitute for them other reasonable rates or modes of contribution to
the expenses of government whether general or local. If private property be taken for military
use, it shall be paid for when possible in cash, at a fair valuation on, and when payment in cash
is not practicable, receipts are to be giver. All ports and places in the Philippine Islands in the
actual possession of the land and naval forces of the United States will be opened to the
commerce of all friendly nations. All goods and wares not prohibited for military reasons by due
announcement of the military authority will be admitted upon payment of such duties other
charges as shall be in force at the time of their importation. Finally, it should be the earnest
wish and paramount aim of the military administration to win the confidence, respect and
affection of inhabitants of the Philippines by at assuring them in every possible way that full
measure of individual rights and liberties which is the heritage of free peoples, and by proving
to them that the mission of the United States is one of Benevolent Assimilation, substituting the
mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule. In the fulfillment of this high mission,
supporting the temperate administration of affairs for the greatest good of the governed, there
must be sedulously maintained the strong arm of authority, to repress disturbance and to
overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of good and stable government upon
the people of the Philippine Islands under the free flag of the United States.

William McKinley
Source The Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation

ADDRESS ADOPTED BY THE ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE, FEBRUARY 10, 1899

In June 15, 1898 the American Anti-Imperialist League was established to oppose
American annexation of the Philippines. One of the strongest arguments of the individuals
forming the organization was the claim that colonizing the Philippines is tantamount to the
Americans abandoning their own ideals such as self-government and self-determinism, as well
as the nonintervention. Some of the prominent members of this group included the former
president Stephen Grover Cleveland, former senators George Boutwell from Massachusetts and
John Carlisle from Kentucky, activists Jane Addams and Edward Atkinson, writer Mark Twain,
and the steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.

On February 10, 1899, the League agreed to issue petition and disseminated it in
leaflets. The content of the address.

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The full ratification of the Treaty with Spain will cause a technical change in the relations of the
United States to the Philippine islands, but will afford no reason for any change of the purposes
of the Anti-imperialists in regard to the future of the islands, nor will it in the least affect the
clear duty of this Republic.

We are now engaged in warfare with the inhabitants of those islands. It is unprofitable to
discuss the question as to which party began hostilities. No other result could have been
expected, when the lines of two opposing military forces were held ‘so close and in such tense
condition that little was needed to cause an explosion

Certain facts, however, are beyond dispute that Aguinaldo was brought to the islands by our
own warship that his aid was accepted and desired in our military operations against the
Spaniards and that hopes of independence were encouraged by our consuls and other officers.
It is equally indisputable that a parliament of the islands, organized by representatives elected
by 186 towns and provinces chose Aguinaldo President and framed a constitution, which was
promulgated, defining the powers and duties of the separate departments of the government
with remarkable clearness and ability; that the government so formed beyond a doubt
represented fairly the people of the islands and probably with quite as much fairness as the
Continental Congress in Philadelphia, in 1775, represented the people of the thirteen States

It is also undeniable that on January 5 President McKinley issued a proclamation through

General Otis, declaring that on the 10th of the previous month the Philippine Islands had been
ceded to this country by Spain by the signature of the Treaty of Paris, and further ordered him
to extend the military government of the United States ‘to the whole of ceded territory and to
demand the surrender of Iloilo, which was then held by the Filipinos in an orderly manner by
capture from the Spaniards.

It cannot be claimed in law that this assumption of power was warranted in advance of the
ratification of the Treaty by both parties; and there can be no doubt that the arbitrary claim
greatly aggravated the people of the islands, whose hope of independence seemed thus rudely
destroyed.

No declaratory resolution as to the future of the islands was assented to by the Administration
before the ratification of the Treaty by the Senate. and none has been made since

Any right that we assert to ownership of the Philippines must rest therefore, either upon
conquest or upon purchase from the Spanish oppressors, or upon both and in any case, it is, as
we believe, inconsistent with the principles of this Republic, and fraught with danger to its
peace and to the peace of the world.

The first result we already witness a war of subjugation, which must embitter the people we
seek rule and which, however successful, must bring disaster and death to our soldiers, and
unmeasured cost to our people.

Profoundly impressed with the seriousness of the situation, it is the purpose of the Anti-
Imperialists to continue the circulation of literature, to assist in the formation of leagues, and
by public meetings, and every proper means known to a free people, to agitate for the revival in
the land of the spirit of Washington and Lincoln, to protest against a spirit of militarism and
force, to oppose the colonial idea and a permanently large standing army, and to assert the
vital truths of the Declaration of Independence embodied in the Constitution and indissolubly
connected with the welfare of this Republic.

They urge, therefore, all lovers of freedom, without regard to party associations, to cooperate
with them to the following ends.

First. That our government shall take immediate steps towards a suspension of hostilities in the
Philippines and a conference with the Philippine leaders, with a view to preventing further
bloodshed upon the basis of a recognition of their freedom and independence as soon as
proper guarantees can be hail of order and protection to property.

Second That the Congress of the United States shall tender an official assurance to the
inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that they will encourage and assist in the organization of
such a government in the islands as the people thereof shall prefer, and that upon its
organization in stable manner the United States, in accordance with its traditional and
prescriptive policy in such cases, will recognize the independence of the Philippines and its
equality among nations, and gradually withdraw all military and naval forces.

Source: Address of the Anti-Imperialist League

EMILIO AGUINALDO'S PROCLAMATION OF SURRENDER TO THE UNITED STATES

After two years of fighting and leading the Filipinos, and after the fall of several comrades such
as Mabini and Luna, President Aguinaldo was ultimately captured by the Americans with the
help of the Macabebes of Pampanga in the isolated town of Palanan, Isabela on March 23,
1901. It was on April 19, 1901 that Aguinaldo officially surrendered to the US. His proclamation
is found below.

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To the Filipino People

I believe that I am not in error in presuming that the unhappy fate to which my adverse fortune
has led me is not a surprise to those who have been familiar day to day with the progress of the
war. The lessons thus taught, the full meaning of which has recently come to my knowledge,
suggested to me with irresistible force that the complete termination of hostilities and a lasting
peace are not only desirable but absolutely essential to the welfare of the Philippines.

The Filipino have never been dismayed by their weakness, nor have they faltered in following
the path pointed out by their fortitude and courage. The time has come however, in which they
find their advance along the path impeded by an irresistible force - a force which, while it
restrains them, yet enlightens the mind and opens another course by presenting to them the
cause of peace, this cause has beer joyfully embraced around glorious and sovereign banner of
the United States. In this manner, they repose their trust in the belief that under its protection
our people will attain all the promised liberties which they are even now beginning to enjoy.

The country has declared unmistakably in favor of peace; so be it. Enough of blood; enough of
tears and desolation. This wish cannot be ignored by the men still in arms if they are animated
by no other desire than to serve this noble people which has clearly manifested its will.

So also do I respect this will now that it is known to me, and after mature deliberation
resolutely proclaim to the world that I cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for
peace, nor the lamentations of thousands of families yearning to see their dear ones in the
enjoyment of the liberty promised by the generosity of the great American nation.

By acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States throughout the entire
Archipelago, as I now do without any reservations whatsoever, I believe that I am serving thee,
my beloved country May happiness be thine!

Source: Emilio Aguinaldo‘s Proclamation of Surrender to t United State