Mathematical Proofs

A Transition to Advanced Mathematics

Chapter 5
Existence and Proof by Contradiction

Gary Chartrand Albert D. Polimeni Ping Zhang

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

We have now seen two proof techniques that can be used to verify
statements of the type:

∀x ∈ S, R(x): For every x ∈ S, R(x). If x ∈ S, then R(x).

Of course, sometimes a statement of the type ∀x ∈ S, R(x) is

false. Then its negation is true:

∼ (∀x ∈ S, R(x)) ≡ ∃x ∈ S, ∼ R(x).

Definition
So, there exists some element x in the set S for which R(x) is
false. Such an element x is called a counterexample of the false
statement ∀x ∈ S, R(x).

Finding a counterexample verifies that ∀x ∈ S, R(x) is false.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

Example 1
Consider the statement:

If x ∈ R, then (x 2 − 1)2 > 0. (1)

or, equivalently,

For every real number x, (x 2 − 1)2 > 0.

Show that the statement (1) is false by exhibiting a

counterexample.
Solution. For x = 1,

(x 2 − 1)2 = (12 − 1)2 = 0.

Thus, x = 1 is a counterexample. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

Definition
If a statement P is shown to be false in some manner, then P is
said to be disproved.

The counterexample x = 1 therefore disproves the statement

If x ∈ R, then (x 2 − 1)2 > 0.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

Example 2
Disprove the statement:

x2 + x x +1
If x ∈ Z, then 2
= . (2)
x −x x −1

x2 + x
Solution. If x = 0, then x 2 − x = 0 and so is not
x2 − x
x +1
defined. On the other hand, if x = 0, then = −1; so the
x −1
2
x +x x +1
expressions 2 and are certainly not equal when x = 0.
x −x x −1
Thus, x = 0 is a counterexample to the statement (2). 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

Example 3
Show that the statement:

Let n ∈ Z. If 4 | (n2 − 1), then 4 | (n − 1).

is false.
Solution. Since 4 | (32 − 1) but 4 - (3 − 1), it follows that n = 3
is a counterexample. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Counterexamples

Example 4
Show that the statement
c
c
For positive integers a, b, c, ab = ab .

is false.
Solution. Let a = 2, b = 2 and c = 3. Then
c 3
ab = 22 = 28 = 256,

while

c
3
ab = 22 = 43 = 64.

Since 256 6= 64, the positive integers a = 2, b = 2 and c = 3

constitute a counterexample. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

As we mentioned, we have now seen two proof techniques that can

be used to verify statements of the type:

∀x ∈ S, R(x).

These two proof techniques are (1) direct proof and (2) proof by
contrapositive. We now introduce a third proof technique.
Suppose that we are interested in showing a certain mathematical
statement is true. Often the statements R we encountered are
expressed as

R: ∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x): Let x ∈ S. If P(x), then Q(x).

Suppose, by assuming that R is a false statement, we are able to

arrive at a statement that contradicts something we know to be
true (which might be some assumption, an axiom or a theorem).

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Let’s denote this assumption or known fact by P. That is, what we

have deduced is ∼ P and have thus produced the contradiction

C : P ∧ (∼ P).

Both P and ∼ P are true, which is impossible. So, what we have

proved is the implication

(∼ R) ⇒ C .

Therefore, (∼ R) ⇒ C is true and C is false. The only way this

can occur is for ∼ R to be false and so R is true.
Definition
Showing R is true by this technique is called proof by
contradiction.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

If R is the quantified statement ∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x), then a

proof by contradiction of this statement consists of verifying the
implication

∼ (∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x)) ⇒ C

for some contradiction C . However, since

∼ (∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x)) ≡ ∃x ∈ S, ∼ (P(x) ⇒ Q(x))

≡ ∃x ∈ S, (P(x) ∧ (∼ Q(x))),

it follows that a proof by contradiction of ∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x)

would begin by assuming the existence of some element x ∈ S
such that P(x) is true and Q(x) is false.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Often the reader is alerted that a proof by contradiction is being

used by saying (or writing)

Suppose that R is false.

or

Assume, to the contrary, that R is false.

Therefore, if R is the quantified statement ∀ x ∈ S, P(x) ⇒ Q(x),

then a proof by contradiction might begin with:
Assume, to the contrary, that there exists some element
x ∈ S for which P(x) is true and Q(x) is false.

(or something along these lines). The remainder of the proof then
consists of showing that this assumption leads to a contradiction.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Example 5
Result There is no smallest positive real number.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there is a smallest positive
real number, say r . Since 0 < r /2 < r , it follows that r /2 is a
positive real number that is smaller than r . This, however, is a
contradiction.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Example 6
Result No odd integer can be expressed as the sum of three even
integers.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there exists an odd integer
n which can be expressed as the sum of three even integers x, y
and z. Then

x = 2a, y = 2b and z = 2c

with a, b, c ∈ Z. Therefore,

n = x + y + z = 2a + 2b + 2c = 2(a + b + c).

Since a + b + c is an integer, n is even. This is a contradiction.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Example 7
Result If a is an even integer and b is an odd integer, then

4 - (a2 + 2b 2 ).

Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there exist an even integer

a and an odd integer b such that 4 | (a2 + 2b 2 ). Thus,

a = 2x, b = 2y + 1 and a2 + 2b 2 = 4z

for some integers x, y and z. Hence,

a2 + 2b 2 = (2x)2 + 2(2y + 1)2 = 4z.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

Example 7 (continued)
Simplifying, we obtain 4x 2 + 8y 2 + 8y + 2 = 4z or, equivalently,

2 = 4z − 4x 2 − 8y 2 − 8y = 4(z − x 2 − 2y 2 − 2y ).

Since z − x 2 − 2y 2 − 2y is an integer, 4 | 2, which is

impossible.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Proof by Contradiction

One of the most famous results in mathematics

√ using a proof by
contradiction is showing that the number 2 is irrational.
Theorem
√
The real number 2 is irrational.
√
Proof.
√ Assume, to the contrary, that 2 is rational. Then
2 = a/b, where a, b ∈ Z and b 6= 0. We may further assume that
a/b has been expressed in (or reduced to) lowest terms. Then
2 = a2 /b 2 ; so a2 = 2b 2 . Since b 2 is an integer, a2 is even. Then a
is even. So, a = 2c, where c ∈ Z. Thus, (2c)2 = 2b 2 and so
4c 2 = 2b 2 . Therefore, b 2 = 2c 2 . Because c 2 is an integer, b 2 is
even, which implies that b is even. Since a and b are even, each
has 2 as a divisor, which is a contradiction since a/b has been
reduced to lowest terms.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

The Three Prisoners Problems

Three prisoners in the figure have been sentenced to long terms in

prison, but due to overcrowded conditions, one prisoner must be
released. The warden devises a scheme to determine which prisoner
is to be released. He tells the prisoners that he will blindfold them
and then paint a red dot or a blue dot on each forehead.
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#1 #2 #3

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

The Three Prisoners Problems

After he paints the dots, he will remove the blindfolds and a

prisoner should raise his hand if he sees a red dot on at least one of
the other two prisoners. The first prisoner to identify the color of
the dot on his own forehead will be released. Of course, the
prisoners agree to this. (What do they have to lose?)
The warden blindfolds the prisoners, as promised, and then paints
a dot on the foreheads of all three prisoners. In fact, he paints a
red dot on the foreheads of all three prisoners. He removes the
blindfolds and, since each prisoner sees a red dot (indeed two red
dots), each prisoner raises his hand. Some time passes when one of
the prisoners exclaims, “I know what color my dot is! It’s red!”
This prisoner is then released. Although the story of the three
prisoners is over, there is a lingering question: How did this prisoner
correctly identify the color of the dot painted on his forehead?

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Definitions
An existence theorem asserts the existence of an object (or
objects) possessing some specified property or properties. Typically,
an existence theorem is expressed as a quantified statement

∃x ∈ S, R(x) : There exists x ∈ S such that R(x).

Such a statement is true if R(x) is true for some x ∈ S. A proof of

an existence theorem is called an existence proof.

Example 8
Result There exists an integer whose cube equals its square.
Proof. Since 13 = 12 = 1, the integer 1 has the desired
property.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Example 9
Result There exist real numbers a and b such that

(a + b)2 = a2 + b 2 .

Proof. Let a, b ∈ Z such that (a + b)2 = a2 + b 2 . Then

a2 + 2ab + b 2 = a2 + b 2 ,

so 2ab = 0. Since a = 1, b = 0 is a solution to this equation, we

have

(a + b)2 = (1 + 0)2 = 12 = 12 + 02 = a2 + b 2 .

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Example 10
Result There exist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is
rational.
√ √2
Proof. Consider the number 2 . Of course, this number is
either rational or irrational. We consider these possibilities
separately.
√ √2
Case 1. 2 is rational. Then we can take
√
a=b= 2

and we have the desired result.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Example 10 (continued)
√ √2
Case 2. 2 is irrational. In this case, consider the number
√ √2
obtained by raising√the (irrational) number 2 to the
(irrational) power 2; that is, consider ab , where
√
√ 2 √
a= 2 and b = 2.

Observe that
√  √2 √ √
√ √ √

b 2 2· 2 2
a = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2,

which is rational.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

While an existence theorem can be proved by giving a single

example of a desired type, it may be the case that we can’t find
such an example.
Nevertheless, the existence theorem can still be verified without
exhibiting a single example of a desired type.
For example, there are theorems in mathematics that tell us that
every polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has at least
one real number as a solution but we don’t necessarily know how
to find a solution.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

The following is a well-known theorem from calculus.

The Intermediate Value Theorem of Calculus:
If f is a function that is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and
k is a number between f (a) and f (b), then there exists a number
c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k.

We now give an example to show how this theorem can be used.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Example 11
Result The equation x 5 + 2x − 5 = 0 has a real number solution
between x = 1 and x = 2.
Proof. Let f (x) = x 5 + 2x − 5. Since f is a polynomial function,
it is continuous on the set of all real numbers and so f is
continuous on the interval [1, 2]. Now,

f (1) = −2 and f (2) = 31.

Since 0 is between f (1) and f (2), it follows by the Intermediate

Value Theorem of Calculus that there is a number c between 1
and 2 such that
f (c) = c 5 + 2c − 5 = 0.
Hence, c is a solution.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Existence Proofs

Example 12
Result The equation x 5 + 2x − 5 = 0 has a unique real number
solution between x = 1 and x = 2.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that the equation
x 5 + 2x − 5 = 0 has two distinct real number solutions a and b
between x = 1 and x = 2. We may assume that a < b. Since
1 < a < b < 2, it follows that
a5 + 2a − 5 < b 5 + 2b − 5.
On the other hand,
a5 + 2a − 5 = 0 and b 5 + 2b − 5 = 0.
Thus,
0 = a5 + 2a − 5 < b 5 + 2b − 5 = 0,
which produces a contradiction.
Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang
Disproving Existence Statements

We have already seen that to disprove a quantified statement of

the type ∀ x ∈ S, R(x), it suffices to produce a counterexample
(that is, an element x in S for which R(x) is false).
However, disproving a quantified statement of the type
∃x ∈ S, R(x) requires a totally different approach. Since

∼ (∃x ∈ S, R(x)) ≡ ∀x ∈ S, ∼ R(x),

it follows that the statement ∃x ∈ S, R(x) is false if R(x) is false

for every x ∈ S.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Disproving Existence Statements

Example 13
Disprove the statement: There exists an odd integer n such that
n2 + 2n + 3 is odd.
Solution. We show that if n is an odd integer, then n2 + 2n + 3
is even. Let n be an odd integer. Then n = 2k + 1 for some
integer k. Thus,

n2 + 2n + 3 = (2k + 1)2 + 2(2k + 1) + 3

= 4k 2 + 4k + 1 + 4k + 2 + 3
= 4k 2 + 8k + 6 = 2(2k 2 + 4k + 3).

Since 2k 2 + 4k + 3 is an integer, n2 + 2n + 3 is even. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Disproving Existence Statements

Example 14
Disprove the statement: There is a real number x such that

x 6 + 2x 4 + x 2 + 2 = 0.

Solution. Let x ∈ R. Since x 6 , x 4 and x 2 are all even powers of

the real number x, it follows that x 6 ≥ 0, x 4 ≥ 0 and x 2 ≥ 0.
Therefore,

x 6 + 2x 4 + x 2 + 2 ≥ 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 = 2

and so

x 6 + 2x 4 + x 2 + 2 6= 0.

Hence, the equation x 6 + 2x 4 + x 2 + 2 = 0 has no real number

solution. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Disproving Existence Statements

Example 15
Disprove the statement: There exists an integer n such that
n3 − n + 1 is even.
Solution. Let n ∈ Z. We consider two cases.
Case 1. n is even. Then n = 2a, where a ∈ Z. So

n3 − n + 1 = (2a)3 − (2a) + 1 = 8a3 − 2a + 1

= 2(4a3 − a) + 1.

Since 4a3 − a is an integer, n3 − n + 1 is odd and so it is not even.

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang

Disproving Existence Statements

Example 15 (continued)
Case 2. n is odd. Then n = 2b + 1, where b ∈ Z. Hence,

n3 − n + 1 = (2b + 1)3 − (2b + 1) + 1

= 8b 3 + 12b 2 + 6b + 1 − 2b − 1 + 1
= 8b 3 + 12b 2 + 4b + 1 = 2(4b 3 + 6b 2 + 2b) + 1.

Since 4b 3 + 6b 2 + 2b is an integer, n3 − n + 1 is odd and so it is

not even. 

Mathematical Proofs: A Transition to Advanced Mathematics Chartrand, Polimeni, Zhang