Mathematical Analysis I, a.a.

2021/22, 10 CFU

Politecnico di Torino
Department of Mathematical Sciences DISMA
General information

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2
Exercise 1: Thursday 10:00–11:30 C1 group B in classroom (Aula 7S)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2
Exercise 1: Thursday 10:00–11:30 C1 group B in classroom (Aula 7S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 11:30–13:00 C1 group A in classroom (Aula 5S)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2
Exercise 1: Thursday 10:00–11:30 C1 group B in classroom (Aula 7S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 11:30–13:00 C1 group A in classroom (Aula 5S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 14:30–16:00 C2 group B in classroom (Aula R4b)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2
Exercise 1: Thursday 10:00–11:30 C1 group B in classroom (Aula 7S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 11:30–13:00 C1 group A in classroom (Aula 5S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 14:30–16:00 C2 group B in classroom (Aula R4b)
Exercise 1: Thursday 16:00–17:30 C2 group A in classroom (Aula R4b)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30

General information
Course coordinator: Patrik Wahlberg
Teachers: Patrik Wahlberg (lectures), Enrico Carlini (exercise classes)
Literature: Mathematical Analysis I, C. Canuto, A. Tabacco, Springer
2015
Analisi Matematica I, F. Nicola, CLUT 2020
Material: Portale della Didattica
Two courses: Course 1 (C1) AA–JZ, Course 2 (C2) KA–ZZ
Weekly timetable
Lecture 1: Tuesday 8:30–11:30 online C1+C2
Lecture 1 (repeat): Tuesday 14:30–17:30 in classroom (Aula 10A)
C1+C2
Lecture 2: Wednesday 8:30–10:00 online C1+C2
Exercise 1: Thursday 10:00–11:30 C1 group B in classroom (Aula 7S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 11:30–13:00 C1 group A in classroom (Aula 5S)
Exercise 1: Thursday 14:30–16:00 C2 group B in classroom (Aula R4b)
Exercise 1: Thursday 16:00–17:30 C2 group A in classroom (Aula R4b)
Exercise 2: Friday 13:00–14:30 exercise C1+C2 in classroom (Aula 10A)
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 2 / 30
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 3 / 30
Group A: even matricola number
Group B: odd matricola number

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 3 / 30

Group A: even matricola number
Group B: odd matricola number

Example: 068116 Group A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 3 / 30

Exam

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

1 “Ongoing activities” during the course: max 3 credits

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

1 “Ongoing activities” during the course: max 3 credits
2 Multiple choice test (45 min), 15 questions. Max 15 credits

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

1 “Ongoing activities” during the course: max 3 credits
2 Multiple choice test (45 min), 15 questions. Max 15 credits
3 If pass (score > 8) on 2: written exam (75 minutes). Max 15 credits

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

1 “Ongoing activities” during the course: max 3 credits
2 Multiple choice test (45 min), 15 questions. Max 15 credits
3 If pass (score > 8) on 2: written exam (75 minutes). Max 15 credits
4 Pass: > 18 credits

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Exam
Four occasions:
End of January
Middle February
June/July
Middle September
Registration necessary. Deadline ∼ two weeks before exam

Structure of the exam:

1 “Ongoing activities” during the course: max 3 credits
2 Multiple choice test (45 min), 15 questions. Max 15 credits
3 If pass (score > 8) on 2: written exam (75 minutes). Max 15 credits
4 Pass: > 18 credits
5 Oral exam: optional

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 4 / 30

Ongoing activities (optional)

Four tests:
1 Test 1: Friday 29 October 16:00
2 Test 2: Friday 19 November 16:00
3 Test 3: Friday 17 December 16:00
4 Test 4: Friday 7 January 16:00

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 5 / 30

Contents of the course

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity
5 Differential calculus

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity
5 Differential calculus
6 Taylor expansions

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity
5 Differential calculus
6 Taylor expansions
7 Integral calculus

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity
5 Differential calculus
6 Taylor expansions
7 Integral calculus
8 Complex numbers

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30

Contents of the course
Mathematics is a necessary tool for a scientific study of engineering,
physics, economy, biology, medicine, . . .
Analysis is the part of mathematics that concerns quantities that
may vary continuously, e.g. the space coordinate of a particle as a
function of time
The real line R is a mathematical model of time and of space
1 Set theory and logic
2 Numerical sets
3 Functions
4 Limits and continuity
5 Differential calculus
6 Taylor expansions
7 Integral calculus
8 Complex numbers
9 Differential equations
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 6 / 30
Set theory

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Example: 34 ∈ N where
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
is the set of natural numbers.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Example: 34 ∈ N where
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
is the set of natural numbers.

Example: π ∈
/N

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Example: 34 ∈ N where
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
is the set of natural numbers.

Example: π ∈
/N

A subset A ⊆ X is a set of elements in X .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Example: 34 ∈ N where
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
is the set of natural numbers.

Example: π ∈
/N

A subset A ⊆ X is a set of elements in X .

Two ways:
A = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30

Set theory
If X is a set then
x ∈X
means that the element x belongs to X .

Example: 34 ∈ N where
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }
is the set of natural numbers.

Example: π ∈
/N

A subset A ⊆ X is a set of elements in X .

Two ways:
A = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
or
A = {x ∈ X : p(x)}
where p(x) is a property of x.
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 7 / 30
Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

The empty set ∅ ⊆ X contains no elements.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

The empty set ∅ ⊆ X contains no elements.

The power set P(X ) is the set of all subsets of X .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

The empty set ∅ ⊆ X contains no elements.

The power set P(X ) is the set of all subsets of X .

Example: X = {1, 3}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

The empty set ∅ ⊆ X contains no elements.

The power set P(X ) is the set of all subsets of X .

Example: X = {1, 3}

P(X ) = {∅, {1}, {3}, {1, 3} = X }

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Examples:
A = {n ∈ N : n 6 7} = {0, 1, . . . , 7}

B = {n ∈ N : n > 2} = {3, 4, . . . }

For a proper subset A ⊂ X it holds A 6= X .

The empty set ∅ ⊆ X contains no elements.

The power set P(X ) is the set of all subsets of X .

Example: X = {1, 3}

P(X ) = {∅, {1}, {3}, {1, 3} = X }

If X has n elements (cardinality) then P(X ) has 2n elements.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 8 / 30

Complement of A ⊆ X :

CA = {x ∈ X : x ∈
/ A}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 9 / 30

Complement of A ⊆ X :

CA = {x ∈ X : x ∈
/ A}

CX = ∅ C∅ = X C(CA) = A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 9 / 30

Complement of A ⊆ X :

CA = {x ∈ X : x ∈
/ A}

CX = ∅ C∅ = X C(CA) = A

Intersection of A ⊆ X and B ⊆ X :

A ∩ B = {x ∈ X : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 9 / 30

Complement of A ⊆ X :

CA = {x ∈ X : x ∈
/ A}

CX = ∅ C∅ = X C(CA) = A

Intersection of A ⊆ X and B ⊆ X :

A ∩ B = {x ∈ X : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Union of A ⊆ X and B ⊆ X :

A ∪ B = {x ∈ X : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 9 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ).

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ).

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). Then x ∈ A ∪ C and x ∈ B ∪ C .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). Then x ∈ A ∪ C and x ∈ B ∪ C . Either
x ∈ C.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). Then x ∈ A ∪ C and x ∈ B ∪ C . Either
x ∈ C . If x ∈
/ C then x ∈ A ∩ B.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). Then x ∈ A ∪ C and x ∈ B ∪ C . Either
x ∈ C . If x ∈
/ C then x ∈ A ∩ B. Thus x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30

Properties:
A∩B =B ∩A A∪B =B ∪A
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C )

(A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )

Proof: 1. (A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
Take x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . Then x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ C . Thus x ∈ A ∪ C and
x ∈ B ∪ C . This shows x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). We have shown
(A ∩ B) ∪ C ⊆ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C )
2. (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Take x ∈ (A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ). Then x ∈ A ∪ C and x ∈ B ∪ C . Either
x ∈ C . If x ∈
/ C then x ∈ A ∩ B. Thus x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ C . We have shown
(A ∪ C ) ∩ (B ∪ C ) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ C
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 10 / 30
 (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C )

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 11 / 30

 (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C )

De Morgan laws:
C(A ∩ B) = CA ∪ CB

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 11 / 30

 (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C )

De Morgan laws:
C(A ∩ B) = CA ∪ CB

C(A ∪ B) = CA ∩ CB

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 11 / 30

 (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C ) ∪ (B ∩ C )

De Morgan laws:
C(A ∩ B) = CA ∪ CB

C(A ∪ B) = CA ∩ CB

Relative complement:
A \ B = A ∩ CB

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 11 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Conjunction: p and q
p∧q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Conjunction: p and q
p∧q

Disjunction: p or q
p∨q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Conjunction: p and q
p∧q

Disjunction: p or q
p∨q

Implication:
P⇒Q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Conjunction: p and q
p∧q

Disjunction: p or q
p∨q

Implication:
P⇒Q

If P holds then Q holds.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30

Logic
A formula p is true or false.

Example: p = “2 > 1” is true, p = “1 > 2” is false.

The negation ¬p of p has opposite truth value to p.

Conjunction: p and q
p∧q

Disjunction: p or q
p∨q

Implication:
P⇒Q

If P holds then Q holds.

Example: P = “n > 5”, Q = “n > 0”
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 12 / 30
Equivalence: P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P

P⇔Q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 13 / 30

Equivalence: P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P

P⇔Q

Contrapositive implication:

P⇒Q ⇔ ¬Q ⇒ ¬P

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 13 / 30

Equivalence: P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P

P⇔Q

Contrapositive implication:

P⇒Q ⇔ ¬Q ⇒ ¬P

Proof of P ⇒ Q by contradiction:

P⇒Q ⇔ (P ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ ¬P

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 13 / 30

Equivalence: P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P

P⇔Q

Contrapositive implication:

P⇒Q ⇔ ¬Q ⇒ ¬P

Proof of P ⇒ Q by contradiction:

P⇒Q ⇔ (P ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ ¬P

or
P⇒Q ⇔ (P ∧ ¬Q) ⇒ r ∧ ¬r
for some formula r

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 13 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

∃x ∈ X : p(x)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

∃x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “there exists x ∈ X such that p(x) holds”

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

∃x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “there exists x ∈ X such that p(x) holds”

Examples:
∀n ∈ N : 2n is an even number

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

∃x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “there exists x ∈ X such that p(x) holds”

Examples:
∀n ∈ N : 2n is an even number

∃n ∈ N : n > 273

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Quantifiers:
∀x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “for all x ∈ X , p(x) holds”

∃x ∈ X : p(x)
reads “there exists x ∈ X such that p(x) holds”

Examples:
∀n ∈ N : 2n is an even number

∃n ∈ N : n > 273

¬(∀x ∈ X : p(x)) ⇐⇒ ∃x ∈ X : ¬p(x)

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 14 / 30

Sets of numbers

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

The set of integers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

The set of integers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }

The set of rational numbers

 
p
Q= : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+
q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

The set of integers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }

The set of rational numbers

 
p
Q= : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+
q

Decimal expansions for p/q ∈ Q:

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

The set of integers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }

The set of rational numbers

 
p
Q= : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+
q

Decimal expansions for p/q ∈ Q: Either it is finite

p
= 1.134123
q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30

Sets of numbers
The set of natural numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, . . . }

The set of integers

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }

The set of rational numbers

 
p
Q= : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N+
q

Decimal expansions for p/q ∈ Q: Either it is finite

p
= 1.134123
q
or it is infinite and eventually periodic
p z}|{ z}|{ z}|{
= 2.17845 321 321 321 · · ·
q
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 15 / 30
Decimal expansions are not unique.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2∈
/Q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2∈
/Q
Proof.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q
Proof. By contradiction.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √ p
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = q where p and q have no
common factors.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √ p
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = q where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even,

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even. This gives
4k 2 = 2q 2 that is q 2 = 2k 2 .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even. This gives
4k 2 = 2q 2 that is q 2 = 2k 2 . Thus q 2 is even

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even. This gives
4k 2 = 2q 2 that is q 2 = 2k 2 . Thus q 2 is even ⇒ q = 2n is even.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even. This gives
4k 2 = 2q 2 that is q 2 = 2k 2 . Thus q 2 is even ⇒ q = 2n is even. This
contradicts the assumption of no common factors in p and q.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

Decimal expansions are not unique.

1 = 0.9999 · · ·

Proof:
1
= 0.333 · · ·
3
1
⇒1=3· = 0.999 · · ·
3
√
Theorem: 2 ∈ /Q √
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose 2 = qp where p and q have no
common factors. Then p 2 = 2q 2 . Thus p 2 is even, and p cannot be odd:
(2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 is odd. Hence p = 2k is even. This gives
4k 2 = 2q 2 that is q 2 = 2k 2 . Thus q 2 is even ⇒ q = 2n is even. This
contradicts
√ the assumption of no common factors in p and q. Thus
p
2 = q cannot hold. 2

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 16 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .
Order: x < y

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .
Order: x < y x 6 y ⇐⇒ x < y or x = y

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .
Order: x < y x 6 y ⇐⇒ x < y or x = y
x 6y =⇒ x +z 6y +z ∀z ∈ R

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .
Order: x < y x 6 y ⇐⇒ x < y or x = y
x 6y =⇒ x +z 6y +z ∀z ∈ R

x 6y =⇒ xz 6 yz ∀z > 0

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30

The real numbers R ⊃ Q
Irrational numbers R \ Q have non-periodic decimal expansions
√
2 = 1.414213562 · · ·

The real line

R
0

For any r1 , r2 ∈ R such that r1 < r2 there exists q ∈ Q such that

r1 < q < r2 .
Order: x < y x 6 y ⇐⇒ x < y or x = y
x 6y =⇒ x +z 6y +z ∀z ∈ R

x 6y =⇒ xz 6 yz ∀z > 0

x 6y =⇒ xz > yz ∀z < 0
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 17 / 30
Absolute value

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Triangle inequality
|x + y | 6 |x| + |y |

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Triangle inequality
|x + y | 6 |x| + |y |
Proof: ±x 6 |x| implies

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Triangle inequality
|x + y | 6 |x| + |y |
Proof: ±x 6 |x| implies

x + y 6 |x| + y 6 |x| + |y |

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Triangle inequality
|x + y | 6 |x| + |y |
Proof: ±x 6 |x| implies

x + y 6 |x| + y 6 |x| + |y |

−x − y 6 |x| − y 6 |x| + |y |

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30

Absolute value 
x, x >0
|x| =
−x, x < 0

|x| > 0 for all x ∈ R

|xy | = |x||y |

Triangle inequality
|x + y | 6 |x| + |y |
Proof: ±x 6 |x| implies

x + y 6 |x| + y 6 |x| + |y |

−x − y 6 |x| − y 6 |x| + |y |

|x + y | = ±(x + y ) 6 |x| + |y |
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 18 / 30
If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a
|x| > a ⇔ x 6 −a or x > a

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a
|x| > a ⇔ x 6 −a or x > a

If a < b the closed interval is

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a 6 x 6 b}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a
|x| > a ⇔ x 6 −a or x > a

If a < b the closed interval is

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a 6 x 6 b}

a b

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a
|x| > a ⇔ x 6 −a or x > a

If a < b the closed interval is

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a 6 x 6 b}

a b

The open interval is

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

If a > 0 then |x| 6 a ⇔ −a 6 x 6 a
|x| > a ⇔ x 6 −a or x > a

If a < b the closed interval is

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a 6 x 6 b}

a b

The open interval is

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

a b

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 19 / 30

Half-open intervals

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

a b

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

a b

Half-open to the left:

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x 6 b}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

a b

Half-open to the left:

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x 6 b}

a b

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

a b

Half-open to the left:

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x 6 b}

a b

|x − x0 | 6 a ⇐⇒ −a 6 x − x0 6 a ⇐⇒ x0 − a 6 x 6 x0 + a

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30

Half-open intervals
Half-open to the right:
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a 6 x < b}

a b

Half-open to the left:

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x 6 b}

a b

|x − x0 | 6 a ⇐⇒ −a 6 x − x0 6 a ⇐⇒ x0 − a 6 x 6 x0 + a

x0 − a x0 x0 + a
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 20 / 30
 [a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 21 / 30

 [a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

(a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 21 / 30

 [a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

(a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R : x 6 a}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 21 / 30

 [a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

(a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}

(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R : x 6 a}

(−∞, a) = {x ∈ R : x < a}

a
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 21 / 30
Maximum and minimum

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

and a minimum xm = min A ∈ A if

x > xm ∀x ∈ A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

and a minimum xm = min A ∈ A if

x > xm ∀x ∈ A

Problem: Not all subsets admits a maximum or a minimum.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

and a minimum xm = min A ∈ A if

x > xm ∀x ∈ A

Problem: Not all subsets admits a maximum or a minimum.

Examples:
max({1, 4, 67}) = 67

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

and a minimum xm = min A ∈ A if

x > xm ∀x ∈ A

Problem: Not all subsets admits a maximum or a minimum.

Examples:
max({1, 4, 67}) = 67

min({1, 4, 67}) = 1

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30

Maximum and minimum
A subset A ⊆ R has a maximum xM = max A ∈ A if

x 6 xM ∀x ∈ A

and a minimum xm = min A ∈ A if

x > xm ∀x ∈ A

Problem: Not all subsets admits a maximum or a minimum.

Examples:
max({1, 4, 67}) = 67

min({1, 4, 67}) = 1

(0, 1) ⊆ R does not have a maximum nor a minimum

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 22 / 30
Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.
3. (−∞, 1) ⊆ R is upper bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.
3. (−∞, 1) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 1 is an upper bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.
3. (−∞, 1) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 1 is an upper bound.
4. N ⊆ R is not upper bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.
3. (−∞, 1) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 1 is an upper bound.
4. N ⊆ R is not upper bounded.
5. {n/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} ⊆ R is upper bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Upper bounds

A ⊆ R is bounded from above if

∃α ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x 6 α

The number α ∈ R is an upper bound of A.

If α ∈ R is an upper bound of A, then any α0 > α is also an upper bound
of A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is upper bounded. In fact any α > 5 is an upper bound.
2. [−2, 5) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 5 is an upper bound.
3. (−∞, 1) ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 1 is an upper bound.
4. N ⊆ R is not upper bounded.
5. {n/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} ⊆ R is upper bounded. Any α > 1 is an upper
bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 23 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 1 is a lower bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 1 is a lower bound.
4. Z ⊆ R is not lower bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 1 is a lower bound.
4. Z ⊆ R is not lower bounded.
5. {n/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} ⊆ R is lower bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 1 is a lower bound.
4. Z ⊆ R is not lower bounded.
5. {n/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 0 is a lower
bound.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Lower bounds
A ⊆ R is bounded from below if

∃β ∈ R : ∀x ∈ A : x > β

The number β ∈ R is a lower bound of A.

If β ∈ R is a lower bound of A, then any β 0 < β is also a lower bound of
A.
Examples
1. [−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. In fact any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
2. (−2, 5] ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 −2 is a lower bound.
3. (1, +∞) ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 1 is a lower bound.
4. Z ⊆ R is not lower bounded.
5. {n/(n + 1) : n ∈ N} ⊆ R is lower bounded. Any β 6 0 is a lower
bound.
If A ⊆ R is both upper and lower bounded then it is bounded.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 24 / 30

Least upper bound

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 25 / 30

Least upper bound

For an upper bounded set A ⊆ R the least upper bound is called the
supremum denoted
sup A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 25 / 30

Least upper bound

For an upper bounded set A ⊆ R the least upper bound is called the
supremum denoted
sup A

s = sup A satisfies

(i ) x 6 s ∀x ∈ A
(ii ) r < s ⇒ ∃x ∈ A : x > r

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 25 / 30

Least upper bound

For an upper bounded set A ⊆ R the least upper bound is called the
supremum denoted
sup A

s = sup A satisfies

(i ) x 6 s ∀x ∈ A
(ii ) r < s ⇒ ∃x ∈ A : x > r

If A is not upper bounded then sup A = +∞.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 25 / 30

Greatest lower bound

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 26 / 30

Greatest lower bound

For a lower bounded set A ⊆ R the greatest lower bound is called the
infimum denoted
inf A

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 26 / 30

Greatest lower bound

For a lower bounded set A ⊆ R the greatest lower bound is called the
infimum denoted
inf A

s = inf A satisfies

(i ) x > s ∀x ∈ A
(ii ) r > s ⇒ ∃x ∈ A : x < r

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 26 / 30

Greatest lower bound

For a lower bounded set A ⊆ R the greatest lower bound is called the
infimum denoted
inf A

s = inf A satisfies

(i ) x > s ∀x ∈ A
(ii ) r > s ⇒ ∃x ∈ A : x < r

If A is not lower bounded then inf A = −∞.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 26 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R
n

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

1
For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n 6 1.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n1 6 1.
Thus 1 is an upper bound of A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n1 6 1.
Thus 1 is an upper bound of A.
For any ε > 0 we have
1
1− >1−ε
n
if − n1 > −ε ⇔ 1
n < ε, that is n > 1ε .

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n1 6 1.
Thus 1 is an upper bound of A.
For any ε > 0 we have
1
1−>1−ε
n
if − n1 > −ε ⇔ n1 < ε, that is n > 1ε .
Hence no number smaller than 1 is an upper bound of A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n1 6 1.
Thus 1 is an upper bound of A.
For any ε > 0 we have
1
1−>1−ε
n
if − n1 > −ε ⇔ n1 < ε, that is n > 1ε .
Hence no number smaller than 1 is an upper bound of A.
It follows
sup A = 1

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30

Example.
1
A = {1 − ; n ∈ N \ {0}} ⊆ R max A does not exist
n

···
1 − 11 1 − 21 1 − 31 1

For any n ∈ N, n 6= 0, 1 − n1 6 1.
Thus 1 is an upper bound of A.
For any ε > 0 we have
1
1−>1−ε
n
if − n1 > −ε ⇔ n1 < ε, that is n > 1ε .
Hence no number smaller than 1 is an upper bound of A.
It follows
sup A = 1

Note that x < sup A for all x ∈ A.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 27 / 30
Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30

Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

inf[0, 1] = min[0, 1] = 0

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30

Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

inf[0, 1] = min[0, 1] = 0

sup(0, 1] = max(0, 1] = 1

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30

Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

inf[0, 1] = min[0, 1] = 0

sup(0, 1] = max(0, 1] = 1

inf(0, 1] = 0, min(0, 1] does not exist

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30

Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

inf[0, 1] = min[0, 1] = 0

sup(0, 1] = max(0, 1] = 1

inf(0, 1] = 0, min(0, 1] does not exist

sup[0, 1) = 1, max[0, 1) does not exist

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30

Examples.
sup[0, 1] = max[0, 1] = 1

inf[0, 1] = min[0, 1] = 0

sup(0, 1] = max(0, 1] = 1

inf(0, 1] = 0, min(0, 1] does not exist

sup[0, 1) = 1, max[0, 1) does not exist

inf[0, 1) = min[0, 1) = 0
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 28 / 30
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 29 / 30
 sup(0, 1) = 1, max(0, 1) does not exist

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 29 / 30

 sup(0, 1) = 1, max(0, 1) does not exist

inf(0, 1) = 0, min(0, 1) does not exist

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 29 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q:

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q: Any a ∈ B where

√
B = {a ∈ Q : a > 2}.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q: Any a ∈ B where

√
B = {a ∈ Q : a > 2}.

There is no smallest element in B!

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q: Any a ∈ B where

√
B = {a ∈ Q : a > 2}.

There is no smallest
√ element in B!
In fact sup A = 2 ∈ R \ Q.

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q: Any a ∈ B where

√
B = {a ∈ Q : a > 2}.

There is no smallest
√ element in B!
In fact sup A = 2 ∈ R \ Q.

Fundamental fact. The real numbers R is complete: For every subset

A ⊆ R we have
sup A ∈ R

Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30

If A ⊆ Q then sup A ∈
/ Q may happen.
Example:
A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}

Upper bounds of A in Q: Any a ∈ B where

√
B = {a ∈ Q : a > 2}.

There is no smallest
√ element in B!
In fact sup A = 2 ∈ R \ Q.

Fundamental fact. The real numbers R is complete: For every subset

A ⊆ R we have
sup A ∈ R

Likewise: For any subset A ⊆ R we have

inf A ∈ R
Mathematical Analysis I Lecture 1 Politecnico di Torino 30 / 30