11

General
Mathematics
Quarter 2 – Module 9:
Valid Arguments and Fallacies
General Mathematics – Grade 11
Self-Learning Module (SLM)
Quarter 2 – Module 9: Valid Arguments and Fallacies
First Edition, 2020

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 11

General
Mathematics
Quarter 2 – Module 9:
Valid Arguments and Fallacies
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:

Welcome to the Grade 11 General Mathematics Self-Learning Module (SLM) on

Valid Arguments and Fallacies, Categorical Syllogisms, and Methods of Proof and
Disproof!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators

both from public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher or facilitator in
helping the learners meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while
overcoming their personal, social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help
learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration
their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies
that will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist
the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

2
For the learner:

Welcome to the Grade 11 General MathematicsSelf-Learning Module (SLM) on Valid

Arguments and Fallacies, Categorical Syllogisms, and Methods of Proof and
Disproof!

The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a
learner is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant
competencies and skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in
your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities
for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be
enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active
learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in
the module.

What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to

check what you already know about the
lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip this
module.

What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link

the current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be

introduced to you in various ways such as a
story, a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of

the lesson. This aims to help you discover
and understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More This comprises activities for independent

practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the Answer
Key at the end of the module.

What I Have Learned This includes questions or blank

sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process

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 what you learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will

help you transfer your new knowledge or
skill into real life situations or concerns.

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your

level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.

Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given

to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of
the lesson learned. This also tends retention
of learned concepts.

Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the

module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in

developing this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your
answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

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 What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the Valid Arguments and Fallacies, Categorical Syllogisms, and Methods of
Proof and Disproof. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the textbook you are now using.
The module is comprised of three lessons:
 Lesson 1- Valid Arguments and Fallacies
 Lesson 2 –Categorical Syllogisms
 Lesson 3 Establishing the Validity and Falsity of Real Life Argument using
- -

Logical Propositions, Syllogisms, and Fallacies

After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. illustrate the types of tautology and fallacy (M11GM-IIi-1);
2. determines the validity of categorical syllogisms; (M11GM-IIi-2);
3. establish the validity and falsity of real life arguments using logical
-

propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies (M11GM-IIi- 3).

What I Know
I. Determine if the following argument is valid or invalid.
_______1. Four is an even number. Even numbers are integer.
Therefore, four is an integer.
_______
2. If Zeke is a cheater, then Zeke sits in the back row. Zeke
sits in the back row. Therefore, Zeke is a cheater.
_______3. If you can dream it, you can do it. You can dream it.
Therefore, you can do it.
_______4. If 18,486 is divisible by 18, then 18,486 is divisible by 9.
_______
5. Khent’s private investigator reported that a man with a
beard was having dinner with his wife. Khent’s bestfriend, Cleo has
a beard. Therefore, Cleo is having an affair with his wife.
II. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a proposition that is always true.
a. Fallacy
b. Tautology
c. Argument
d. Logic

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 2. An error in reasoning that results in an invalid argument.
a. Fallacy
b. Tautology
c. Argument
d. Logic
3. Which of the following is the symbol for the following argument:
The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore, I
will order it.
a. ((p ∨ q) →p)→q
b. ((p ∨ q) →p)→~q
c. ((p ∨ q) →~p)→q
d. ((p ∨ ~q) →p)→q
4. Which of the following arguments is a tautology?
a. Her new boyfriend drives an old car. He must be poor.
She should break up with him.
b. I see dark clouds on the horizon. Dark clouds mean
rain. It’s going to rain here today.All humans are mortal.
Khloe is human. Khloe is mortal.
c. The house looks old. Therefore, the house is over 100
years old.
For numbers 6 8.-

All attendees are senior citizens.

Mrs. dela Cruz is an attendee.
Therefore, Mrs. dela Cruz is a senior citizen.
5. Which among the statements is the major premise?
a. All attendees are senior citizens.
b. Mrs. dela Cruz is an attendee.
c. Mrs. dela Cruz is a senior citizen.
d. None of the above.
6. Which among the statements is the minor premise?
a. All attendees are senior citizens.
b. Mrs. dela Cruz is an attendee.
c. Mrs. dela Cruz is a senior citizen.
d. None of the above.
7. Which among the statements is the conclusion?
a. All attendees are senior citizens.
b. Mrs. dela Cruz is an attendee.
c. Mrs. dela Cruz is a senior citizen.
d. None of the above.
8. A _____________ _
is any proposition that can be reduced by
replacement of its constituent terms to a proposition expressing a
logical truth. It can be written in symbols as “If p and q, then p.”
a. invalid proposition
b. logical proposition
c. true proposition
d. valid proposition

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 9. A set of propositions that can be valid or not. Its validity can be
checked using a Venn diagram or using a set of rules.
a. categorical syllogism
b. logical proposition
c. rules of inference
d. truth table
10.If it rains, then the road is wet.It did not rain. Therefore, the road is
not wet.
What type of fallacy was committed?
a. affirming the disjunct
b. fallacy of the converse
c. fallacy of the inverse
d. fallacy of the consequent

Lesson

1 Tautology and Fallacy

What’s In

In the previous lesson, you have learned how to construct a truth table. This
table tests the various parts of any logic statements, including compound
statements
 The negation of proposition p is denoted by ∼ p ( not p) .
p ∼p
T F
F T
 The conjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by p∧ q ( p and q).

p q p∧ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 The disjunction of the propositions p and q is denoted by p ∨ q ( p or q).
p q p∨ q

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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 The conditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by p q ( p implies q ).
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 The biconditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by p ↔q ( p if and
only if q).
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

What’s New

To help you understand tautology and fallacy, do the following activity.

Activity 1.
1. Construct a truth table for (p → q) ∨ (q → p).
p q p→q q→ p (p → q) ∨ (q → p)

2. p ∧ ∼ p
p ∼p p ∧∼p

Activity 2.
Give the propositional form the following arguments.
1. If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he dies at the hands of
the Americans in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.
2. If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is a limited supply of freshwater

Notes to the Teacher

10

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 What is It

Definition. An argument is a compound proposition of the form

(p1∧ p2∧ …∧ pn) → q

The propositions p1, p2, …, pn are the premises of the argument, and q is the
conclusion. Arguments can be written in propositional form, as in above, or in
column or standard form: p1
p2
.
.
Pn
∴q
Example 1. Explain why the following set of propositions is an argument.
If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the
Americans in 1899.
General Luna is a national hero.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899.
Solution. The set of propositions is an argument. The first two propositions are the
premises of the argument, while the last proposition, marked by the word
“therefore”, is the conclusion of the argument.
Example 2. Write the following argument in propositional form and in standard
form:
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
Therefore, we should conserve water.
Solution. The premises of this argument are
p1: If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
p2: There is a limited freshwater supply.
The conclusion is
q: We should conserve water.
In symbols, we can write the whole argument in propositional form (p1 ∧ p2 ) → q
and in standard form p1

p2

∴q
Example 3. Consider the arguments A and A' given below
A p→ q If my alarm sounds, then A' p→ q If my alarm sounds, then
I will wake up. I will wake up.

p My alarm sounded. q I woke up.

∴ q Therefore, I woke up. ∴ p Therefore, my alarm

sounded.
We can analyze the arguments separately by looking at its validity.

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Definition. An argument is valid if it satisfies the validity condition:
Is it logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false?
If the answer is affirmative, we say that the argument satisfies the validity
condition, and is hence valid.
Solution. For argument , we ask: can p→ q and p be both true and q be false? To
answer this, we look at the truth table for p→ q :

p q p→ q
T T T

T F F
F T T

F F T
The highlighted row shows that both p and p→ q are true if and only if q is true.
Based on the truth table, it is not possible for p and p→ q to be true and q to be
false. Hence, argument A is valid.
For argument A' , we ask: can p→ q and q be both true and be false? Looking at the
same truth table,
p q p→ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
the highlighted row shows that it is possible for p→ q and q be both true and p be
false. Hence, argument A' does not satisfy the validity condition and so it is not a
valid argument.
Definition. A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the
conclusion q is true whenever the premises p1 ∧ p2∧ …∧ pn are all true.
Alternatively, the argument is valid if the conditional is a tautology.
(p1∧ p2 ∧…∧ pn) → q
Tautology is a proposition that is always true.

Example 4.
Prove that the argument ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ p) →q) is valid.
This argument is known as Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment).
Solution. We only need to show that ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ p) →q) is a tautology. We can do
this by constructing a truth table.

p q p→q (p → q) ∧ p ((p → q) ∧ p) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Since ((p → q) ∧ p) → q is a tautology, then the argument is valid.
In the next table, we display some basic forms of valid arguments in logic .

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Theorem (Rules of Inference). Let p , q, and r be propositions.
Propositional Form Standard Form
Rule of Simplification 𝑝∧𝑞
(p ∧ q) → p ∴𝑝

𝑝
Rule of Addition p → (p ∨ q)
∴𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

Rule of Conjunction p
(p ∧ q) → (p ∧ q)
𝑞
∴ 𝑝 ∧𝑞

Modus Ponens p→q

((p → q) ∧ p) → q
𝑝
∴𝑞
Modus Tollens p→ q
((p → q) ∧ (~ q)) → ~p
~𝑞
∴ ~𝑝

Law of Syllogism p→ q
((p → q) ∧ ( q →r )) → (p →r)
𝑞 →𝑟
∴ 𝑝 →𝑟

Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism P ∨ q

((p ∨ q) ∧ ( ~ p)) → q ~𝑝
∴𝑞
Rule of Contradiction (( ~ 𝑝 ) → ∅ ) → p (~ 𝑝) → ∅
∴𝑝

Rule of Proof by Cases (( p → r ) ∧ (q → r)) → ((p ∨ q) → r) p→𝑟

𝑞 →𝑟
∴ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟
Example 5. Determine whether the following argument is valid:
If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they are Facebook friends.
Antonio and Jose are not Facebook friends.
Therefore, they are not friends.
Solution. Let :
p: “Antonio and Jose are friends.” and :
q: “Antonio and Jose are Facebook friends.”
Then the given argument is of the form p → q
~𝑝
∴ ~𝑞
This is valid by Modus Tollens.
Example 6: Determine which rule is the basis of each argument below.
a. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead.
Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly Bousted.
b. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
c. If the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will repent and not join
the revolution.

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 Example 7. If Antonio Luna regrets not joining the revolution, then he will
go to Belgium to study the art of war.

Therefore, if the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will go to

Belgium to study the art of war.

Solution.

a. Let :
p:“Antonio Luna likes Nelly Boustead.” and
q: “Jose Rizal likes Nelly Boustead.”
The given argument is of the form
𝑝∧𝑞
∴𝑝

By the Rule of Simplification, the argument is valid.

b. Let :
p:“Antonio Luna is a scientist.” and
q: “Jose Rizal is a scientist.”
The argument is of the form
𝑝
∴𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

By the Rule of Addition, the argument is valid.

c. Let :
p:“The Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna.”,
q: “Antonio Luna regrets not joining the revolution”, and
r: “Antonio Luna goes to Belgium to study the art of war.”
The argument is of the form

p→ q
𝑞 →𝑟
∴𝑝 →𝑟

The argument is valid, by the Law of Syllogism.

Definition. An argument (p1∧ p2∧ …∧ pn) → q which is not valid is called a fallacy.

In a fallacy, it is possible for the premises p1, p2,…pn to be true, while the
conclusion q is false. Equivalently, for this case, the conditional

(p1∧ p2∧ …∧ pn) → q

is not a tautology.

Example 8. Prove that the argument ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ q) → 𝑝 is a fallacy.

This is known as the Fallacy of the Converse

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Solution: We show that ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ q) → 𝑝 is not a tautology using truth table.

p q p→q (p → q) ∧ q ((p → q) ∧ q) → p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
Since ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ q) → 𝑝 is not a tautology, the argument is invalid and is hence a fallacy.

Example 9 : Show that the following arguments are fallacies.

Argument A'
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
I woke up.
Therefore, my alarm sounded.
Argument B'
If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.
I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is limited supply of freshwater.
Solution. Each of the arguments has the form
𝑝→𝑞
𝑞
∴𝑝

Similar to the previous example, each argument is a fallacy of the converse.

The following table lists some common fallacies in logic.

Propositional Form Standard Form

Fallacy of the Converse ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ q) → 𝑝 𝑝→𝑞
𝑞
∴𝑝

Fallacy of the Inverse ((𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝)) → (~𝑞) 𝑝→𝑞

~𝑝
∴ ~𝑞

Affirming the Disjunct ((𝑝 ∨ q) ∧ 𝑝) → (~𝑞) 𝑝 ⋁𝑞

𝑝
∴ ~𝑞

Fallacy of the Consequent (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (𝑞 → 𝑝) 𝑝→𝑞

∴𝑞→𝑝

Denying a Conjunct (~ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ( ~𝑝 )) → 𝑞 ~ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
~𝑝
∴𝑞

Improper Transposition (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (( ~ 𝑝) 𝑝→𝑞

→ (~ 𝑞 )) ∴ (~𝑝) → (~𝑞)

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Example 10: Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

a. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.

Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina.

b. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.

Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina.

c. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.

Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.
Solution.
a. Let
p: “Alvin sings with Nina.” and
q: “Alvin dances with Nina.”
Then, the given argument is of the form
𝑝 ⋁𝑞
𝑝
∴ ~𝑞

This is the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct.

b. In symbols, the given argument has the form
𝑝 ⋁𝑞
~𝑞
∴𝑝

The first premise can be written as 𝑞 ⋁ 𝑝 , by the Commutative Law, and so we can
write
𝑞 ⋁𝑝
~𝑞
∴𝑝

Which adheres to the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the argument is valid.

c. In symbols, the argument is of the form

~ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
~𝑝
∴𝑞
This is the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

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Lesson

2 Categorical Syllogism

What’s In

In the previous module, illustrating the different types oftautologies and

fallacies were discussed. Here is drill to recall your knowledge about the topic.

Complete the table:

Use the table to prove that (P → Q) is logically equivalent to ~P v Q

P Q P→ Q ~P v Q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Valid Argument and Fallacy

An argument is made up of two parts; the given statements
called the premises and conclusion.
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever the
premises are assumed to be true.
An argument that not is valid is said to be an invalid argument,
also called as fallacy.

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 What’s New

“All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal”. It is one of
the famous statements that were used in syllogism. Now, let’s test your knowledge
about this module. Identify if the statement is a syllogism. Write TRUE if the
statement is a syllogism and FALSE if not.

1. All men have brains. Animals have brains. Hence, Men is an animal.
2. A right triangle has 90° angle therefore it is a right angle.
3. Circle is an oblong therefore oblong is a circle.
4. Six is less than seven. Seven is less eight. Therefore, six is less than eight.

What is It

Syllogisms Define
Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrived at a specific
conclusion by examining two other premises or ideas. Syllogism derives from the
Greek word “syllogismos”, meaning conclusion or inference.

It has three components or proposition: Its three terms:

 Major Premise - Major term (P)

 Minor Premise - Minor term (S)
 Conclusion - Middle term (M)

Categorical Syllogism
It is a type of syllogism that contains three components that has a major premise,
minor premise and a conclusion. It follows “If A is part of C, then B is part of C”
logic.

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Let’s look at some more examples:

 All cars have wheels. I drive a car. Therefore, my car has wheels.
o Major Premise: All cars have wheels
o Minor Premise: I drive a car
o Conclusion: My car has wheels

 Complementary angles are two angles whose sum is 90°. 40° and 50° are
consecutive angles. Therefore, 40° and 50° are complementary angles.
o Major Premise: Complementary angles are two angles whose sum is
90°
o Minor Premise: 40° and 50° are two consecutive angles
o Conclusion: 40° and 50° are complementary angles.

A categorical syllogism can be true or valid or false or invalid. There are two ways
to determine the validity of a categorical syllogism. One is to draw Venn diagram by
using the overlapping circle of the premises and second check the form against a
set of rules.

Let’s look at some more examples:

 Birds can fly. Penguin is a bird. Therefore, penguin can fly.
 Invalid – penguin cannot fly
 One half is a number. A number is an integer. Therefore, one half is an
integer.
 Invalid –integer is a whole number that can be a positive, negative or
zero.

Rules in validating categorical syllogism:

1. There must be three terms: the major premise; the minor premise;
and the conclusion.
2. Undistributed middle term- The middle term must be distributed in
at least one other premise.
3. Illicit major or minor terms - Any terms distributed in the
conclusion must be distributed in the relevant premise.
4. Exclusive Premises- Do not use two negative premises.
5. Double Negative Requirement- If one of the two premises is negative,
the conclusion must be negative.
6. Existential Import- From two universal premises, no conclusion may
be drawn.

20
Using a Venn diagram, let’s look at some more examples:

 All M is P. All S is M. Therefore, Sis P.

To diagram the major premiese,

we look only at the two circles P
and M. To diagram the minor
premiese, we look only at the two
circles S and M. To read the
conclusion, we look ony at the
cirlces S and P.

For the major premises (All M is

P), shade away 4 and 7. The area
are called M has been reduced to
sections 5 and 6, both o which are
insde P.

For the minor premises (All s is

M), shade awaysections 1 and 2.
The area are called S is now
reduced to sections 4 and 5,
which are both inside the M circle.

- The only area that can be called S at this point is area. And are 5 is
entirely inside he P circle. All S is P. Answer: Valid

 No M is P. Some M is not S. Therefore, Some S is P.

- Invalid

The first premise is diagrammed

by shadig 5 and 6.

The second premise if

diagrammed by placing an X
inside the reamining M area but
outisde S – section 7.

- Now look for the conclusion. What are we looking for? Some S is P: an X
located in section 2. We find it not there, so the argument is invalid.

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Lesson
Establishing Validity and Falsity
of Real-Life Arguments using
3 Logical Propositions, Syllogisms,
and Fallacies
Establishing the validity and falsity of real-life arguments is vital in
understanding the world better and in making sound judgements. There are three
ways or methods to establish validity and falsity of these arguments, namely,
through logical propositions, syllogisms and fallacies.

What’s In
Previously, you learned about propositions, valid arguments, fallacies and
syllogisms. These concepts are very important in establishing validity or falsity of
arguments. They will be explored further as we discuss this lesson.

What’s New
To better understand this lesson, study the VALIDI-TREE below to get a
grasp of what particular topics are prepared for you in this module.

Are the real-life arguments valid or not?

LOGICAL SYLLOGISM FALLACIES

PROPOSITIONS Does it follow Does it follow the
Does it follow the rules the rules of valid rules of valid
of valid syllogism? syllogism? syllogism?

YES NO YES NO YES NO

VALID NOT VALID VALID NOT VALID VALID NOT VALID

What is It
Establishing the Validity and Falsity of Real -life Arguments
Basic Steps in Establishing Validity and Falsity of Arguments
Establish validity or
Identify the premises Write the arguments falsity through the
and the conclusion in propositional or use of logical
of the argument. standard from. propositions,
syllogisms, and
fallacies.
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 Let us study deeper how to determine validity and falsity of arguments.
I. Logical Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true, which is denoted by T;
otherwise, its truth value is false, which is denoted by F.
Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example, the proposition
p: Everyone should study logic
may be read as

p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic.” If a sequenceof

propositions is considered, we denote the propositions by

Determining validity and falsity of Propositions using Logical Operators

Example. One day, Richard tweeted: “If I get promoted, then I will stop posting
selfies on Facebook.” Let be the statement “Richard gets promoted,” and let be
the statement, “Richard stops posting selfies on Facebook.” Determine whether the
conditional is true given the following scenarios.
Scenario A: Richard got the promotion and promptly stopped posting selfies on
Facebook.
Scenario B: Richard got promoted, but then he realized that posting selfies has
become a habit he cannot break easily.
Scenario C: Richard stopped posting selfies, but he did not get the promotion.
Solution.
Scenario A: Both the hypothesis and conclusion are true, so the conditional is
true.
Scenario B: In this scenario, the hypothesis is true, and conclusion is false. By
definition, the conditional is false.
Scenario C: The hypothesis is false, hence regardless of the truth value of the
conclusion, the conditional is false. In this case, he did not break his promise
since he was not promoted in the first place.
II. Syllogism
A categorical syllogism can be true or valid or false or invalid. As previously
discussed, drawing Venn diagram by using the overlapping circle of the premises and
second check the form against a set of rules are the two ways to establish validity of
arguments through syllogism.

A. Using the Venn Diagram

Example:
All graduates of BSEd are licensed teachers.
All teachers in Maria Makiling High School are graduates of BSEd.
Therefore, all teachers in Maria Makiling High School are licensed teachers.
Solution:
Let P = graduates of BSEd S = licensed teachers
R = teachers in Maria Makiling High School
Note:
The major premise, “All graduates of BSEd are licensed teachers.”can be
written as “ All P are S.”
The minor premise “All teachers in Maria Makiling High School are
graduates of BSEd.” can be written as “All R are P.”
The conclusion “All teachers in Maria Makiling High School are licensed
teachers.” can be written as “All R are S.”
Following the steps in validating using Venn diagram as previously
discussed, shading the appropriate parts of the major premise, minor premise and
conclusion, the diagram will look like this,

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S 7

6 4 3 Note how the only

7
7
P 7

unshaded section of S, section 1,

1 is in all the three circles. Also, the
5
7
3 particular section is entirely in P.
Therefore, the argument is valid.
M 7

B. Using Rules of Categorical Syllogism

Example:
1. All Ilonggos are Filipinos.
All Ilocanos are Filipinos.
Therefore, all Ilocanos are llonggos.
Solution: The middle term Filipinos takes the role of a predicate in both
premises. Hence it is undistributed in the premises. This violates Rule no. 2. Thus,
the argument is false or not valid.
2. All sampaguita are white.
No rose is a sampaguita.
Therefore, no rose is white.
Solution: The major term “white”is the predicate of a negative conclusion. But
“white” is also the predicate of a universal affirmative major premise which violates
the rule on distribution of terms. Therefore, the argument is invalid or false.
3. All humans are mortals.
All girls are humans.
Therefore, all girls are mortals.
Solution: The three terms and their predicate conform to the mentioned rules
in validating syllogisms. Therefore, the argument is valid.

III. Fallacies
A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic which is a result of invalid
reasoning. Fallacies can either be formal (due to a flaw in logical structure) of
informal (with premises which adequately support the validity of its conclusion).

The types of fallacies were already discussed in the previous module.

Examples
Each of the given argument is a fallacy. Identify which type of common
fallacies makes the arguments false.
a. If it will rain today, then I will bring my umbrella.
I will bring my umbrella.
Therefore, it will rain today.
b. If there is fire, there is smoke.
Therefore, if there is no fire then there is no smoke.
c. If the son will pass the test, then the other will be happy.
The mother is not happy
Therefore, the son did not pass the test.
Solution.
d. Let
p: “It will rain today” and
q: “I will bring my umbrella.”
Then, the given argument is of the form
𝑝 ⋁𝑞
𝑝
∴ ~𝑞
This is the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct.
Therefore, the argument is false or invalid.
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 e. In symbols, the argument is of the standard form
𝑝→𝑞
∴ (~𝑝 ) → (~𝑞)
This is the fallacy of Improper Transposition.
Therefore, the argument is false or invalid.
f. In symbols, the argument is of the standard form
p→ q
~𝑞
∴ ~𝑝
This follows Modus Tollens, one of the rules of inferences.
Therefore, the argument is valid or true.

What’s More
Activity 1: Determine whether the statement is valid or invalid and use the
rules in validating the statements:
1. Horse has four legs. All four legs is an animal. Therefore horse is an animal.
2. Fish has gills. Dolphin lives in the ocean. Therefore,dolphins is a fish.
3. No narra trees bear fruit. No mahogany trees bear fruit. Therefore, no narra
trees are mahogany.
4. Mathematician knows what mathematics is. No philosopher is a
mathematician. Therefore, no philosopher knows what mathematician is.
5. Round objects are circle. Moon is circle. Therefore, Moon is round.
Activity1. Validity or Falsity. Determine whether the following arguments are
valid. Use the rules in validating syllogisms.
1. All countries are doing their best to fight COVID-19. Philippines is a country.
Therefore, the Philippines is doing its best to fight COVID-19.
2. All participants are teachers. Mr. Pedro is a participant. Therefore, he is a
teacher.
3. Some husbands are lawyers. Some husbands are thoughtful. Therefore,
some lawyers are thoughtful.
4. No delegates were ladies. No employees were ladies. Therefore, no delegates
were employees.
5. Every integer is a rational number. Some fractions are rational numbers.
Therefore, some fractions are integers.
Activity 2. True or False. Determine whether the given statement is valid or not. If
not, identify the type of fallacy that makes it false.
1. I will help distribute relief goods for displaced families or help distribute
PPE’s for frontlines. I will help distribute relief goods. Therefore, I will not
help distribute PPE’s.
2. If mother will arrive today, I will clean the room. I will clean the room.
Therefore, mother will arrive today.
3. If Ryan will pass the test, then his mother will give him a gift. He passed the
test. Therefore, his mother will give him a gift.
4. If f is a polynomial function, then it is also a rational function. Therefore, if f
is a rational function, it is also a polynomial function.
5. If Lloyd will shoot a vlog, then Maya will create a YouTube channel.
Therefore, if Lloyd will not shoot a vlog, then Maya will not create a YouTube
channel.

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 What I Have Learned
I learned a lot from this module!
From this lesson, I learned to establish the ________ and _________ of real-life
arguments using three methods namely, ___________, _________, and __________.
To begin establishing validity and falsity, I made it a point to remember
these three steps:
_______
___________________________________________________________________;
____________________________________________________________________________;and
_____________________________________________________________________________.
The first method involves ___________ which are proposition which can be
reduced to the form ______________.
On the other hand, there are _______ rules in validating syllogisms. Among
these rules are _________, ___________, and __________. I reminded myself not to
forget all the rules for it will guide me in my quest with syllogisms.
Furthermore, I held myself responsible of my own learning as I diligently
studied and familiarized the common fallacies in logic. __________, _____________,
and ______________ are among these fallacies that we should never commit when
dealing with logical arguments. Also included in this list are _____________,
______________, and ______________.
Ultimately, I understood the lesson and I was able to independently answer
all activities given in the module.
This module has been really helpful to me!

What I Can Do
Cite one example of categorical syllogism based in your real life
experience or situation. Identify the parts of the statement. Determine the
validity of the given syllogism. Draw a Venn diagram that shows the
relationship of the premises:

Assessment

A. Determine whether the argument is valid or not. If it is valid, identify the

rule of inference which justifies its validity. On the other hand, if it is not
valid, identify what kind of fallacy it is.
1. If Nicanor is a famous author, then he knows how to write.
But Nicanor is not a famous author.
Hence, Nicanor does not know how to write.
2. If Liwayway is a famous author, then she knows how to write.
Moreover, Liwayway knows how to write. So, she is famous author.

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 3. If Michael sleeps early tonight, then he will wake up early tomorrow. If he
does not play with his pet dog, then he will wake up early tomorrow. Therefore if
Michael sleeps early tonight or does not play with his pet dog, then he will wake
up early tomorrow.
4. If I am not good in Math, then I am not intelligent. I am not good in Math.
Then I am not intelligent.
5. If you study hard, you refine your communication skills and build up your
confidence. If you refine your communication skills and build up your
confidence, then your job opportunities increase. Hence, if you study hard, your
job opportunities increase.
B. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter.
1. What figure can be used to determine the validity of a categorical syllogism?
a. Cause and effect
b. Flow chart
c. Venn diagram
d. Web mapping
2. What rule applies to the invalid statement “No narra trees bear fruit. No
mahogany trees bear fruit. Therefore, no narra trees are mahoganay trees?
a. Exclusive Premises
b. Double Negative
c. Undistributed middle term
d. Illicit minor or major term
3. What rule applies to the invalid statement “All pineapple have eyes. Nina’s
head has eyes. Therefore Nina is a pineapple head”.
a. Exclusive Premises
b. Double Negative
c. Undistributed middle term
d. Illicit minor or major term
4. What rule applies to the invalid statement “Humans are mortal. John is
human. Therefore, he is moral”
a. Exclusive Premises
b. Double Negative
c. Undistributed middle term
d. Illicit minor or major term
5. What rule applies to the statement “All educated people have worked hard.
Some students are not educated. therefore,some students have not worked
hard”
a. Exclusive Premises
b. Double Negative
c. Undistributed middle term
d. Illicit minor or major term
6. If it rains, then the road is wet. It did not rain. Therefore, the road is not
wet.
What type of fallacy was committed?
a. affirming the disjunct
b. fallacy of the converse
c. fallacy of the inverse
d. fallacy of the consequent
7. Eleven is an odd number. Odd numbers are integers. Therefore, eleven is an
_________.
a. integer
b. even number
c. odd number
d. real number

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8. All licensed teachers are LET passers. All LET passers are graduates of an
Education course. Therefore, __________.
Which is a correct conclusion?
a. all LET passers are teachers
b. all LET passers are college graduate
c. all licensed teachers are graduates of an Education course
d. all licensed teachers are hardworking
9. Which of the following is a valid argument?
a. All animals are mortal. A lion is an animal. Therefore, a lion is mortal.
b. All rocks are hard. Some rocks are blue. Therefore, some blue are
hard.
c. If I lie, then I will say sorry. I said sorry. Therefore, I lied.
d. If I lie, then I will say sorry. I did not lie. Therefore, I did not say sorry.
10. Which of the following is an example of fallacy of inverse?
a. All animals are mortal. A lion is an animal. Therefore, a lion is mortal.
b. All rocks are hard. Some rocks are blue. Therefore, some blue are
hard.
c. If I lie, then I will say sorry. I said sorry. Therefore, I lied.
d. If I lie, then I will say sorry. I did not lie. Therefore, I did not say sorry.

Additional Activities
Two of your classmates, Juan and Pedro, are arguing. Each one claims that
his argument is valid and the argument of the other is not. They called your
attention to judge and determine who is giving a valid argument. Presented in the
table are the arguments of your classmates. Fill out the table below to guide you in
deciding. After doing so, right your decision together with your reasons on the
space provided below.

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 29

30

Argument in Applicable Rule of

Symbols Syllogism/ Validity/ Falsity
Argument
(Standard Inference/ (Valid or Invalid)
Form) Fallacy/
If my allowance
will be increased,
then I will have
more money to
spend.
Juan
I have more
money to spend.

Therefore, my
allowance was
increased.
My parents will
increase my
allowance or get
me a new mobile
phone.

Pedro They did not

increase my
allowance.

Therefore, they
got me a new
phone.

Decision: _______________________________________________________________________

Reason: ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

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 32
Assessment What's More What I Know
A. Activity 1 I.
a. VALID 1. Valid
1. Invalid: Fallacy b. INVALID – Rule 2. Invalid
of the Inverse #2 3. Valid
2. Invalid: Fallacy c. INVALID – Rule 4. Valid
of the Converse #5 5. Invalid
3. Valid: Rule of d. INVALID – Rule
Proof by Cases #2 II.
4. Invalid: Fallacy e. VALID 1. b
of the Inverse
2. a
5. Valid: Syllogism Activity 2 3. d
f. valid 4. c
g. valid 5. a
B.
h. invalid/not valid 6. b
1. C i. invalid/not valid 7. c
2. B j. invalid/not valid 8. b
3. D 9. a
4. C Activity 3 10. c
5. A 1. invalid/not valid
6. C fallacy: affirming the
7. A disjunct
8. C What's New
9. A 2. invalid/not valid
fallacy: fallacy of B.
10. D
converse 1. (p1 ^ p2)→q
2. (p1 ^ p2)→q
3. valid
4. invalid/not valid
fallacy: fallacy of the
consequent
5. invalid/not valid
fallacy: improper
transposition
Answer Key
Additional Activities - Activity 4

Argument in Applicable Rule of

Symbols Syllogism/ Validity/ Falsity
Argument
(Standard Inference/ (Valid or Invalid)
Form) Fallacy/
If my allowance
will be increased,
then I will have
more money to
spend. 𝑝→𝑞
𝑞 Fallacy of Invalid / Not
Juan
I have more Converse Valid
∴𝑝
money to spend.

Therefore, my
allowance was
increased.
My parents will
increase my
allowance or get
me a new mobile
phone.
P ∨q Rule of
Pedro They did not ~𝑝 Disjunctive Valid
increase my ∴𝑞 Syllogism
allowance.

Therefore, they
got me a new
phone.

Decision: Pedro was the one stating a valid argument.

Reason: His statement used the rule of disjunctive syllogism while Juan used a
fallacy of converse in his argument.

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References

1. Department of Education-Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR) (2016)

General Mathematics Learner’s Material. Lexicon Press Inc., Philippines
2. Department of Education-Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR) (2016)
General Mathematics Teacher’s Guide. Lexicon Press Inc., Philippines

3. (n.d.). (WordPress) Retrieved 2020, from www.logic.umwblogs.org:

http://logic.umwblogs.org/categorical-logic/determining-validity-of-
categorical syllogism/
4. (2020). Retrieved from www.lifeissues.net:
www.lifeissues.net/writers/mcm/ph/Chapter7.2exsercises_catagorcal_answ
ers.html
5. Your Dictionary. (2020). (LoveToKnow) Retrieved from
https://www.examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-syllogism.html
6. ashelle14. (2020). Slide Share. Retrieved from www.slidesahre.net:
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/ashelle14/categorical-syllogism-
15581428
7. Orlando A. Oronce, Marilyn O. Mendoza. (2016). General Mathematics (Vol.
1). Rex Bookstore.
8. Department of Education-Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR) (2016)
General Mathematics Learner’s Material. Lexicon Press Inc., Philippines

9. Orines, Fernando B. Next Century Mathematics- General Mathematics

(2016). Phoenix Publishing House. Philippines

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