SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language

• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database

• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard,

there are many different versions of the SQL language.

However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least
the major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT,
WHERE) in a similar manner.

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary
extensions in addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the
following:
 • An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
• A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
• SQL
• HTML / CSS

RDBMS

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.

RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS
SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.

The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.

A table is a collections of related data entries and it consists of columns and

rows.

Database Tables

A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified
by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows)
with data.

Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five
columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City).

SQL Statements

Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL
statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons"
table:

SELECT * FROM Persons

In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.

Keep in Mind That...

• SQL is not case sensitive

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL

statement.

Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database

systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same
call to the server.

We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a
semicolon after each SQL statement, but some database programs force you
to use it.

SQL DML and DDL

SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language
(DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL).

The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:

• SELECT - extracts data from a database

• UPDATE - updates data in a database
• DELETE - deletes data from a database
• INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database

The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It

also define indexes (keys), specify links between tables, and impose
constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
 • CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
• ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
• CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
• ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
• DROP TABLE - deletes a table
• CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
• DROP INDEX - deletes an index

This chapter will explain the SELECT and the SELECT * statements.

The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

and

SELECT * FROM table_name

Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.

An SQL SELECT Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and
"FirstName" from the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari

SELECT * Example

Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Navigation in a Result-set

Most database software systems allow navigation in the result-set with

programming functions, like: Move-To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content,
Move-To-Next-Record, etc.

Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial. To learn
about accessing data with function calls, please visit our ADO tutorial or our
PHP tutorial.

This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT statement.

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a
problem, however, sometimes you will want to list only the different
(distinct) values in a table.

The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different)

values.

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named
"City" from the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

City
Sandnes
Stavanger
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a
specified criterion.

SQL WHERE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value

WHERE Clause Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the
table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City='Sandnes'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Quotes Around Text Fields

SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also
accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.

For text values:

This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove

For numeric values:

This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'

Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause

With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:

Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEENBetween an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you
want to return for at least one of
the columns

Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than
one condition.
The AND & OR Operators

The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the
second condition is true.

The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second
condition is true.

AND Operator Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove"
AND the last name equal to "Svendson":

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

OR Operator Example

Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove"
OR the first name equal to "Ola":

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex
expressions).

Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to
"Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE

LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.

The ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified

column.

The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default.

If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC
keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC

ORDER BY Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we
want to sort the persons by their last name.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

ORDER BY LastName

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

ORDER BY DESC Example

Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we
want to sort the persons descending by their last name.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons
ORDER BY LastName DESC

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

The INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.

SQL INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.

The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be
inserted, only their values:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be
inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

SQL INSERT INTO Example

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons

VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.

The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the
"P_Id", "LastName" and the "FirstName" columns:

INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)

VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
5 Tjessem Jakob
The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.

SQL UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE
clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you omit
the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!

SQL UPDATE Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
5 Tjessem Jakob

Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:

UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes

SQL UPDATE Warning

Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in

the example above, like this:

UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'

The "Persons" table would have looked like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Nissestien 67 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Nissestien 67 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Nissestien 67 Sandnes
4 Nilsen Johan Nissestien 67 Sandnes
5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes
The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.

The DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.

SQL DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE
clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you omit
the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!

SQL DELETE Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes

Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

We use the following SQL statement:

DELETE FROM Persons

WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

The "Persons" table will now look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger

Delete All Rows

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This
means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:

DELETE FROM table_name

or
DELETE * FROM table_name

Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this
statement!

Test your SQL Skills

On this page you can test your SQL skills.

We will use the Customers table in the Northwind database:

CompanyName ContactName Address City
Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin
Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå
Berglund
Centro comercial Francisco Chang Sierras de Granada México D.F.
Moctezuma 9993
Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz
FISSA Fabrica Inter. Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid
Salchichas S.A.
Galería del Eduardo Saavedra Rambla de Barcelona
gastrónomo Cataluña, 23
Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Cowes
Crowther Way
Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg
Laughing Bacchus Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver
Wine Cellars
Magazzini Alimentari Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Bergamo
Riuniti Moro 22
North/South Simon Crowther South House 300 London
Queensbridge
Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Paris
Charonne
Rattlesnake Canyon Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque
Grocery
Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København
The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Portland
Suite 2
Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus
Wolski Zajazd Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Warszawa
Piestrzeniewicz

To preserve space, the table above is a subset of the Customers table used in
the example below.
Try it Yourself

To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste
them into the textarea, or you can make your own SQL statements.

SELECT * FROM customers

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers

SELECT * FROM customers

WHERE companyname LIKE 'a%'

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'a'

When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a
dictionary).

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'g'
AND ContactName > 'g'

The TOP Clause

The TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

The TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of
records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance.

Note: Not all database systems support the TOP clause.

SQL Server Syntax

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle

MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
LIMIT number

Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
LIMIT 5

Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number

Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE ROWNUM <= 5

SQL TOP Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

Now we want to select only the two first records in the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

SQL TOP PERCENT Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger

Now we want to select only 50% of the records in the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified
pattern in a column.

The LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.

SQL LIKE Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "s" from
the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE 's%'

The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the
pattern) both before and after the pattern.

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "s"
from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE '%s'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern
"tav" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that NOT contains the
pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City NOT LIKE '%tav%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.

SQL Wildcards

SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for
data in a database.

SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.

With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:

Wildcard Description
% A substitute for zero or more characters
_ A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist] Any single character in charlist
[^charlist] Any single character not in charlist

or

[!charlist]

SQL Wildcard Examples

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Using the % Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from
the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern
"nes" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes

Using the _ Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any
character, followed by "la" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "S",
followed by any character, followed by "end", followed by any character,
followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
Using the [charlist] Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "b" or
"s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with
"b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

SQL IN Operator

The IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

SQL IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or
"Pettersen" from the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range

of data between two values.

The BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. The
values can be numbers, text, or dates.

SQL BETWEEN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2

BETWEEN Operator Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between
"Hansen" and "Pettersen" from the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes

Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases.

In some databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen"

will not be listed, because the BETWEEN operator only selects fields that
are between and excluding the test values).

In other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen"

will be listed, because the BETWEEN operator selects fields that are
between and including the test values).

And in other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" will be

listed, but "Pettersen" will not be listed (like the example above), because
the BETWEEN operator selects fields between the test values, including the
first test value and excluding the last test value.
Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.

Example 2

To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT
BETWEEN:

SELECT * FROM Persons

WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

The result-set will look like this:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL Alias

With SQL, an alias name can be given to a table or to a column.

SQL Alias

You can give a table or a column another name by using an alias. This can
be a good thing to do if you have very long or complex table names or
column names.

An alias name could be anything, but usually it is short.

SQL Alias Syntax for Tables

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
AS alias_name

SQL Alias Syntax for Columns

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name
Alias Example

Assume we have a table called "Persons" and another table called

"Product_Orders". We will give the table aliases of "p" an "po" respectively.

Now we want to list all the orders that "Ola Hansen" is responsible for.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT po.OrderID, p.LastName, p.FirstName

FROM Persons AS p,
Product_Orders AS po
WHERE p.LastName='Hansen'
WHERE p.FirstName='Ola'

The same SELECT statement without aliases:

SELECT Product_Orders.OrderID, Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName

FROM Persons,
Product_Orders
WHERE Persons.LastName='Hansen'
WHERE Persons.FirstName='Ola'

As you'll see from the two SELECT statements above; aliases can make
queries easier to both write and to read.

SQL Joins

SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.

SQL JOIN

The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or
more tables, based on a relationship between certain columns in these tables.

Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.

A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique

value for each row. Each primary key value must be unique within the table.
The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of
the data in every table.

Look at the "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This
means that no two rows can have the same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two
persons even if they have the same name.

Next, we have the "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and
that the "P_Id" column refers to the persons in the "Persons" table without
using their names.

Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id"
column.

Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can
use, and the differences between them.

• JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
• LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no
matches in the right table
 • RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are
no matches in the left table
• FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in
both tables.

SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.

SQL INNER JOIN Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName OrderNo

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895
Pettersen Kari 44678

The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in
both tables. If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in
"Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1),
even if there are no matches in the right table (table_name2).

SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

SQL LEFT JOIN Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables
above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName OrderNo

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895
Pettersen Kari 44678
Svendson Tove

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons),
even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword Return all rows from the right table
(table_name2), even if there are no matches in the left table (table_name1).

SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the
tables above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName OrderNo

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895
Pettersen Kari 44678
34764

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders),
even if there are no matches in the left table (Persons).

SQL FULL JOIN Keyword

SQL FULL JOIN Keyword

The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the
tables.

SQL FULL JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

SQL FULL JOIN Example

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15

Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with
their persons.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo

FROM Persons
FULL JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName OrderNo

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895
Pettersen Kari 44678
Svendson Tove
34764

The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons),
and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons"
that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do
not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.

SQL UNION Operator

The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.

The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more

SELECT statements.

Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same
number of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also,
the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.

SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2

Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow
duplicate values, use UNION ALL.

SQL UNION ALL Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2

PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the
column names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.

SQL UNION Example

Look at the following tables:

"Employees_Norway":

E_ID E_Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari

"Employees_USA":
E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen

Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

The result-set will look like this:

E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen

Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and
USA. In the example above we have two employees with equal names, and
only one of them will be listed. The UNION command selects only distinct
values.

SQL UNION ALL Example

Now we want to list all employees in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway

UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result

E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen

SQL Constraints

SQL Constraints

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.

Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE

TABLE statement) or after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE
statement).

We will focus on the following constraints:

• NOT NULL
• UNIQUE
• PRIMARY KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
• CHECK
• DEFAULT

The next chapters will describe each constraint in details.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a table column can hold NULL values.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This
means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without
adding a value to this field.

The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column
to not accept NULL values:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for
uniqueness for a column or set of columns.

A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint

defined on it.

Note that you can have have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only
one PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column

when the "Persons" table is created:

MySQL:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
UNIQUE (P_Id)
)

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE

constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)
)

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is

already created, use the following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD UNIQUE (P_Id)

To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE

constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)

To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP INDEX uc_PersonID

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a

database table.

Primary keys must contain unique values.

A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.

Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only one
primary key.

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when
the "Persons" table is created:

MySQL:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a

PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
)

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table
is already created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)

To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a

PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)

Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the
primary key column(s) must already have been declared to not contain
NULL values (when the table was first created).

To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.

Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two
tables:

The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id

1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1

Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id"
column in the "Persons" table.

The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the
"Persons" table.

The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the

"Orders" table.

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy
link between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data is inserted
into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained
in the table it points to.

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when
the "Orders" table is created:

MySQL:

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a

FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the

"Orders" table is already created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a

FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL
syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders

SQL CHECK Constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in
a column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain

values for this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when
the "Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint specifies that the
column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0.

My SQL:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CHECK (P_Id>0)
)

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0),
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK

constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')
)

SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is

already created, use the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK

constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')

To DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.

The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is
specified.

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column

when the "Persons" table is created:

My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)

The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():

CREATE TABLE Orders

(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
)

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is

already created, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

To DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City DROP DEFAULT

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT
The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading
the whole table.

Indexes

An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
searches/queries.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table
without (because the indexes also need an update). So you should only
create indexes on columns (and tables) that will be frequently searched
against.

SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst different databases.
Therefore: Check the syntax for creating indexes in your database.

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "PIndex" on the

"LastName" column in the "Persons" table:

CREATE INDEX PIndex

ON Persons (LastName)

If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the
column names within the parentheses, separated by commas:

CREATE INDEX PIndex

ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)
Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the
DROP statement.
The DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name

The DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.

DROP TABLE table_name

The DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a database.

DROP DATABASE database_name

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new

record is inserted into a table.
AUTO INCREMENT a Field

Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created
automatically every time a new record is inserted.

We would like to create an auto-increment field in a table.

Syntax for MySQL

The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-

increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)

MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-

increment feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will

increment by 1 for each new record.

To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the
following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons"
table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The
"FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column
would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for SQL Server

The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-

increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-

increment feature.

By default, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1

for each new record.

To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by
5, change the identity to IDENTITY(10,5).

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons"
table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The
"FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column
would be set to "Monsen".
Syntax for Access

The following SQL statement defines the "P_Id" column to be an auto-

increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)

The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-

increment feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will

increment by 1 for each new record.

To specify that the "P_Id" column should start at value 10 and increment by
5, change the autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will not have to specify a
value for the "P_Id" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons"
table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The
"FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column
would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for Oracle

In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.

You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object
(this object generates a number sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person

MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10

The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with
1 and will increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance.
The cache option specifies how many sequence values will be stored in
memory for faster access.

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the
nextval function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person
sequence):

INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id,FirstName,LastName)

VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons"
table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned the next number from the
seq_person sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and
the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

SQL Views

A view is a virtual table.

This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view
are fields from one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and
present the data as if the data were coming from one single table.
SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates
the data, using the view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views
installed by default.

The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are
not discontinued) from the "Products" table. The view is created with the
following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]

Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the
"Products" table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:

CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]

Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each
category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view
called "Product Sales for 1997":

CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS

SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale
only for the category "Beverages":

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'

SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List"
view. We will update the view with the following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No
SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name

SQL Date Functions

SQL Dates

The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the
format of the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date
column in the database.

As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work
as expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated.

Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at
the most important built-in functions for working with dates.

MySQL Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in
MySQL:

Function Description
NOW() Returns the current date and time
CURDATE() Returns the current date
CURTIME() Returns the current time
DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression
EXTRACT() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD() Adds a specified time interval to a date
DATE_SUB() Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the number of days between two dates
DATE_FORMAT()Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Server Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL
Server:

Function Description
GETDATE() Returns the current date and time
DATEPART() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATEADD() Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the time between two dates
CONVERT() Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a
date/time value in the database:

• DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD

• DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a
date/time value in the database:

• DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD

• DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number

Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table
in your database!

For an overview of all data types available, go to our complete Data Types
reference.

SQL Working with Dates

You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved!
Assume we have the following "Orders" table:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29

Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from

the table above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11

Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time
component in the "OrderDate" column):

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09 15:45:21
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11 11:12:01
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29 14:56:59

If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates
with no time portion.

Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not
allow time components in your dates!
SQL NULL Values

NULL values represent missing unknown data.

By default, a table column can hold NULL values.

This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.

SQL NULL Values

If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an

existing record without adding a value to this column. This means that the
field will be saved with a NULL value.

NULL values are treated differently from other values.

NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values.

Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.

SQL Working with NULL Values

Look at the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Stavanger

Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This
means that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the
"Address" column will be saved with a NULL value.

How can we test for NULL values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as
=, <, or <>.

We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
SQL IS NULL

How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address"
column?

We will have to use the IS NULL operator:

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons

WHERE Address IS NULL

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName Address

Hansen Ola
Pettersen Kari

Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL

How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address"
column?

We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons

WHERE Address IS NOT NULL

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName Address

Svendson Tove Borgvn 23

In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and
COALESCE() functions.

SQL NULL Functions

SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions

Look at the following "Products" table:

P_Id ProductName UnitPrice UnitsInStock UnitsOnOrder

1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15
2 Mascarpone 32.56 23
3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20

Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain

NULL values.

We have the following SELECT statement:

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products

In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the
result is NULL.

Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat

NULL values.

The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to

achieve the same result.

In this case we want NULL values to be zero.

Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because

ISNULL() returns a zero if the value is NULL:

SQL Server / MS Access

SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products

Oracle

Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the
NVL() function to achieve the same result:
SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products

MySQL

MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit

different from Microsoft's ISNULL() function.

In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:

SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products

or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:

SELECT
ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0))
FROM Products

SQL Data Types

Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.

Microsoft Access Data Types

Data type Description Storage
Text Use for text or combinations of text and numbers.
255 characters maximum
Memo Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to
65,536 characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo
field. However, they are searchable
Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
Long Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 4 bytes
2,147,483,647
Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle most 4 bytes
decimals
Double Double precision floating-point. Will handle most 8 bytes
 decimals
Currency Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole 8 bytes
dollars, plus 4 decimal places. Tip: You can choose
which country's currency to use
AutoNumber AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its4 bytes
own number, usually starting at 1
Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes
Yes/No A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, 1 bit
True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the constants
True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0). Note: Null
values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs up to
(Binary Large OBjects) 1GB
Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Let you type a list of options, which can then be 4 bytes
Wizard chosen from a drop-down list

MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types.

Text types:

Data type Description

CHAR(size) Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers,
and special characters). The fixed size is specified in
parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters
VARCHAR(size) Holds a variable length string (can contain letters,
numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is
specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters.
Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be
converted to a TEXT type
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535
characters
BLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535
bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215
characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to
16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295
characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to
4,294,967,295 bytes of data
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to
65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is
not in the list, a blank value will be inserted.

Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.

You enter the possible values in this format:

ENUM('X','Y','Z')
SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64
list items and can store more than one choice

Number types:

Data type Description

TINYINT(size) -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis
SMALLINT(size) -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis
MEDIUMINT(size)-8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215
UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
INT(size) -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295
UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
BIGINT(size) -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807
normal. 0 to 18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*.
The maximum number of digits may be specified in
parenthesis
FLOAT(size,d) A small number with a floating decimal point. The
 maximum number of digits may be specified in the size
parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right
of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE(size,d) A large number with a floating decimal point. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in the size
parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right
of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DECIMAL(size,d) A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed
decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in the size parameter. The maximum number
of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in
the d parameter

*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the
integer goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED
attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative
number.

Date types:

Data type Description

DATE() A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-

31'
DATETIME() *A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD
HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to

'9999-12-31 23:59:59'
TIMESTAMP()*A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the
number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01
00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01'

UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC
TIME() A time. Format: HH:MM:SS

Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to

'838:59:59'
YEAR() A year in two-digit or four-digit format.

Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155.

Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing
years from 1970 to 2069

*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work
very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP
automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also
accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS,
YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.

SQL Server Data Types

Character strings:

Data type Description Storage

char(n) Fixed-length character string. Maximum 8,000 n
characters
varchar(n) Variable-length character string. Maximum 8,000
characters
varchar(max) Variable-length character string. Maximum
1,073,741,824 characters
text Variable-length character string. Maximum 2GB of
text data

Unicode strings:

Data type Description Storage

nchar(n) Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000
characters
nvarchar(n) Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 4,000
characters
nvarchar(max) Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum
536,870,912 characters
ntext Variable-length Unicode data. Maximum 2GB of text
data

Binary types:
Data type Description Storage
bit Allows 0, 1, or NULL
binary(n) Fixed-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(n) Variable-length binary data. Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max)Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB
image Variable-length binary data. Maximum 2GB

Number types:

Data type Description Storage

tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 4 bytes
2,147,483,647
bigint Allows whole numbers between 8 bytes
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17
bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number

of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the
right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1
to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of

digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must
be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17
bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number

of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the
right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1
to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of

 digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must
be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0
smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes
money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 4 or 8
1.79E + 308. bytes

The n parameter indicates whether the field should

hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and
float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is
53.
real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 4 bytes
3.40E + 38

Date types:

Data type Description Storage

datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an 8 bytes
accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds
datetime2 From January 1, 0001 and December 31, 9999 with 6-8
an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds bytes
smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an 4 bytes
accuracy of 1 minute
date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 3 bytes
31, 9999
time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5
bytes
datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time 8-10
zone offset bytes
timestamp Stores a unique number that gets updated every time
a row gets created or modified. The timestamp value
is based upon an internal clock and does not
correspond to real time. Each table may have only
one timestamp variable

Other data types:

Data type Description
sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except
text, ntext, and timestamp
uniqueidentifierStores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
table Stores a result-set for later processing
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.

SQL Aggregate Functions

SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a

column.

Useful aggregate functions:

• AVG() - Returns the average value

• COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
• FIRST() - Returns the first value
• LAST() - Returns the last value
• MAX() - Returns the largest value
• MIN() - Returns the smallest value
• SUM() - Returns the sum

SQL Scalar functions

SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.

Useful scalar functions:

• UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

• LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
• MID() - Extract characters from a text field
• LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
• ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals
specified
• NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
• FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in
details in the next chapters.

SQL AVG() Function

The AVG() Function

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

SQL AVG() Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL AVG() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the average value of the "OrderPrice" fields.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

OrderAverage
950

Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher
then the average OrderPrice value.
We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Customer FROM Orders

WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

The result-set will look like this:

Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Jensen

SQL COUNT() Function

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a

specified criteria.

SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax

The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL

values will not be counted) of the specified column:

SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL COUNT(*) Syntax

The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name

SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax

The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of

distinct values of the specified column:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name

Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL

Server, but not with Microsoft Access.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen".

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders

WHERE Customer='Nilsen'

The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer
Nilsen has made 2 orders in total:

CustomerNilsen
2

SQL COUNT(*) Example

If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

NumberOfOrders
6

which is the total number of rows in the table.

SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example

Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders"

table.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM

Orders

The result-set will look like this:

NumberOfCustomers
3

which is the number of unique customers (Hansen, Nilsen, and Jensen) in

the "Orders" table.

SQL FIRST() Function

The FIRST() Function

The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.

SQL FIRST() Syntax

SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL FIRST() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the first value of the "OrderPrice" column.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

FirstOrderPrice
1000

SQL LAST() Function

The LAST() Function

The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.

SQL LAST() Syntax

SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL LAST() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the last value of the "OrderPrice" column.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

LastOrderPrice
100

SQL MAX() Function

The MAX() Function

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

SQL MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL MAX() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

LargestOrderPrice
2000
SQL MIN() Function

The MIN() Function

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

SQL MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL MIN() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

SmallestOrderPrice
100

SQL SUM() Function

The SUM() Function

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SQL SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL SUM() Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields".

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

OrderTotal
5700

SQL GROUP BY Statement

Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.

The GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate

functions to group the result-set by one or more columns.

SQL GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name

SQL GROUP BY Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.

We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer

The result-set will look like this:

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000

Nice! Isn't it? :)

Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

The result-set will look like this:

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 5700
Nilsen 5700
Hansen 5700
Hansen 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700

The result-set above is not what we wanted.

Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The

SELECT statement above has two columns specified (Customer and
SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single value (that is the
total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values
(one value for each row in the "Orders" table). This will therefore not give
us the correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY statement
solves this problem.

GROUP BY More Than One Column

We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like
this:

SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate

SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword
could not be used with aggregate functions.

SQL HAVING Syntax

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value

SQL HAVING Example

We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen

Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than
2000.

We use the following SQL statement:

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)<2000

The result-set will look like this:

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Nilsen 1700

Now we want to find if the customers "Hansen" or "Jensen" have a total

order of more than 1500.

We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

WHERE Customer='Hansen' OR Customer='Jensen'
GROUP BY Customer
HAVING SUM(OrderPrice)>1500

The result-set will look like this:

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Jensen 2000

SQL UCASE() Function

The UCASE() Function

The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.

SQL UCASE() Syntax

SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL UCASE() Example

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName"

columns above, and convert the "LastName" column to uppercase.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT UCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName
HANSEN Ola
SVENDSON Tove
PETTERSEN Kari

SQL LCASE() Function

The LCASE() Function

The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.

SQL LCASE() Syntax

SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL LCASE() Example

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the content of the "LastName" and "FirstName"

columns above, and convert the "LastName" column to lowercase.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT LCASE(LastName) as LastName,FirstName FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName
hansen Ola
svendson Tove
pettersen Kari

SQL MID() Function

The MID() Function

The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.

SQL MID() Syntax

SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name
Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to extract characters from.
start Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1).
length Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the
MID() function returns the rest of the text.

SQL MID() Example

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to extract the first four characters of the "City" column above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT MID(City,1,4) as SmallCity FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

SmallCity
Sand
Sand
Stav

SQL LEN() Function

The LEN() Function

The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.

SQL LEN() Syntax

SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LEN() Example

We have the following "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Now we want to select the length of the values in the "Address" column
above.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Persons

The result-set will look like this:

LengthOfAddress
12
9
9

SQL ROUND() Function

The ROUND() Function

The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of

decimals specified.

SQL ROUND() Syntax

SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name

Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to round.
decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.
SQL ROUND() Example

We have the following "Products" table:

Prod_Id ProductName Unit UnitPrice

1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 Gorgonzola 1000 g 15.67

Now we want to display the product name and the price rounded to the
nearest integer.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT ProductName, ROUND(UnitPrice,0) as UnitPrice FROM Products

The result-set will look like this:

ProductName UnitPrice
Jarlsberg 10
Mascarpone 33
Gorgonzola 16

SQL NOW() Function

The NOW() Function

The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.

SQL NOW() Syntax

SELECT NOW() FROM table_name

SQL NOW() Example

We have the following "Products" table:

Prod_Id ProductName Unit UnitPrice

1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 Gorgonzola 1000 g 15.67

Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date.

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, Now() as PerDate FROM Products

The result-set will look like this:

ProductName UnitPrice PerDate

Jarlsberg 10.45 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Mascarpone 32.56 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM
Gorgonzola 15.67 10/7/2008 11:25:02 AM

SQL FORMAT() Function

The FORMAT() Function

The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.

SQL FORMAT() Syntax

SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name

Parameter Description
column_name Required. The field to be formatted.
format Required. Specifies the format.

SQL FORMAT() Example

We have the following "Products" table:

Prod_Id ProductName Unit UnitPrice

1 Jarlsberg 1000 g 10.45
2 Mascarpone 1000 g 32.56
3 Gorgonzola 1000 g 15.67
Now we want to display the products and prices per today's date (with
today's date displayed in the following format "YYYY-MM-DD").

We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') as

PerDate
FROM Products

The result-set will look like this:

ProductName UnitPrice PerDate

Jarlsberg 10.45 2008-10-07
Mascarpone 32.56 2008-10-07
Gorgonzola 15.67 2008-10-07

SQL Quick Reference From W3Schools

SQL Statement Syntax

AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype

or

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias
FROM table_name

or

SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
 BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE CREATE DATABASE database_name
DATABASE
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)

or

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value

or

DELETE FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)

DELETE * FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DROP DATABASE database_name
DATABASE
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS
Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name
GROUP BY SELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING SELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator
value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)

or

INSERT INTO table_name

(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON
 table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
DISTINCT FROM table_name
SELECT INTO SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name

or

SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
TABLE
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UPDATE UPDATE table_name
 SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value

Source : http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_quickref.asp

SQL Hosting

SQL Hosting

If you want your web site to be able to store and display data from a
database, your web server should have access to a database system that uses
the SQL language.

If your web server will be hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you
will have to look for SQL hosting plans.

The most common SQL hosting databases are MySQL, MS SQL Server, and
MS Access.

You can have SQL databases on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating
systems.

Below is an overview of which database system that runs on which OS.

MS SQL Server

Runs only on Windows OS.

MySQL

Runs on both Windows and Linux/UNIX operating systems.

MS Access (recommended only for small websites)

Runs only on Windows OS.

To learn more about web hosting, please visit our Hosting tutorial.
Structured query language(basics)

create database dinesh

use dinesh

create table student(name varchar(20),rollno int,age int,dept

varchar(20),college varchar(20))

insert into student values('arun',1,22,'it','mkce')

insert into student values('rajesh',2,22,'it','mkce')

alter table student add place varchar(20)

update student set place= 'thanjavur' where name='arun'

update student set place='thanjavur'

alter table student drop column rollno

delete from student where name = 'arun'

select * from student

select * into student1 from student

select name,place from student

alter table student alter column name varchar(22)

sp_renamedb dinesh,kumar

sp_rename student2,student

select * from student

sp_rename 'student.age',ages
primary key

create table employee(name varchar(20),empid int identity primary

key,company varchar(20),salary money)
insert into employee values ('dhoni','aspeya',10000)

create table staff (name varchar(20),fk_staffid int foreign key references

employee(empid),salary money,place varchar(20))
insert into staff values('naresh',4,10000,'thanjavur')

JOINS

inner join

select * from employee e inner join staff s on e.empid=s.fk_staffid

left outer join

select * from employee e left outer join staff s on e.empid=s.fk_staffid

right outer join

select * from employee e right outer join staff s on e.empid=s.fk_staffid

---------------cross join----------------------------------------------
select * from employee e cross join staff s
---------------self join-----------------------------------------------
select * from employee e1 join employee e2 on e1.empid=e2.empid

VIEWS

create view employee_view

as
select name,empid from employee
select * from employee_view

create view employee_view1

as
select e.name,e.empid,s.fk_staffid from employee e inner join staff s on
e.empid=s.fk_staffid
select * from employee_view1

CONCADINATION

select name+company from employee

select name+company as"employee" from employee
select name+'-'+company from employee
select name+' '+company from employee
select cast(empid as varchar)+'$'+name as"name" from employee
DATA LENGTH

select name,datalength(name) as "length" from employee

INDEX

create unique clustered index staffindex on staff(name asc)

select * from staff

declare @my varchar(20)

select @my='edwin'
print @my
print 'done first batch'
go
declare @my varchar(20)
select @my='dinesh'
print @my
print 'done second batch'
go
declare @my int
select @my=0017
print @my
print 'done third batch'
go
print @my
print'done fourth batch'

transaction
use kumar
create table example(name varchar(20),age int)
begin transaction text
insert into example values('dinesh',22)
save transaction text
insert into example values('rajesh',23)
rollback transaction text
insert into example values('suresh',22)
commit transaction text
insert into example values('rupase',23)

select * from example

stored procedure

create table neo(name varchar(20),rollno int,age int, adress varchar(20))

create procedure insert_neo

@name varchar(20),@rollno int,@age int,@adress varchar(20)
as
insert into
neo(name,rollno,age,adress)values(@name,@rollno,@age,@adress)
exec insert_neo 'ganesh',5,22,'thanjavur'
select * from neo
------------------------------------------------------------(or)--------
create procedure insert_neo
@name varchar(20),@rollno int,@age int,@adress varchar(20)
as
insert into neo values(@name,@rollno,@age,@adress)
exec insert_neo 'ganesh',5,22,'thanjavur'
select * from neo

Select * from employee order by name asc

select * from employee order by name desc

create table dinesh(name varchar(20),age int,salary money)

insert into dinesh values('dinesh',55,100000)
select * from dinesh
alter table dinesh alter column salary decimal(15,2)

select distinct(name) from dinesh

select * from dinesh group by name,age, salary

TRIGGER

use dineshfinal
create table student(name varchar(20),rollno int,age int)
insert into student values('ganesh',2,3)
select * from student
create table delete_student(name varchar(23),rollno int,age int,deleteddate
smalldatetime)

create trigger delete_trigger_student

on student
after delete
as
begin
declare @name varchar(20)
declare @rollno int
declare @age int
select @name = d.name from deleted d
select @rollno = d.rollno from deleted d
select @age = d.age from deleted d
insert into
delete_student(name,rollno,age,deleteddate)values(@name,@rollno,@age,g
etdate())
print'current detail has been deleted and move into delete_student'
end

delete from student where name = 'dinesh'

select * from delete_student

create table insert_student(name varchar(20),rollno int,age int,inserteddate

smalldatetime)
create trigger insert_trigger_student
on student
after insert
as
begin
declare @name varchar(20)
declare @rollno int
declare @age int
select @name = d.name from inserted d
select @rollno = d.rollno from inserted d
select @age = d.age from inserted d
insert into
insert_student(name,rollno,age,inserteddate)values(@name,@rollno,@age,g
etdate())
print'current detail has been deleted and move into insert_student'
end

insert into student(name,rollno,age)values('dinesh',45,54)

select * from insert_student

create table update_student(name varchar(20),rollno int,age int,updateddate

smalldatetime)

create alter trigger update_trigger_student

on student
after update
as
begin
declare @name varchar(20)
declare @rollno int
declare @age int
select @name = d.name from inserted d
select @rollno = d.rollno from inserted d
select @age = d.age from inserted d
insert into
update_student(name,rollno,age,updateddate)values(@name,@rollno,@age,
getdate())
print'current detail has been deleted and move into update_student'
end
update student set name='vickram' where rollno=45
select * from student
select * from update_student