Newtonian Revolution

The study of Physics begins with Newtonian mechanics.

Mechanics is the branch of physics that focuses on the motion of objects and the
forces that cause the motion to change.
There are two parts to mechanics: Kinematics and Dynamics.
Kinematics deals with the concepts that are needed to describe motion, without
any reference to forces.
Chapter 2: Describing Motion
Chapter 3: Falling Objects and Projectile Motion
Dynamics deals with the effect that forces have on motion
Chapter 4: Newton’s Laws-Explaining motion
 Chapter 2
Describing Motion
• Speed: Average and Instantaneous
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Graphing motion
 Kinematics
• Describes motion while ignoring the agents
that caused the motion
• For now, will consider motion in one
dimension
– Along a straight line
• Will use the particle model
– A particle is a point-like object, has mass but
infinitesimal size
To describe motion accurately and completely, a frame of reference is needed.
 Position
• The object’s position is its
location with respect to a
chosen reference point
– Consider the point to be
the origin of a coordinate
system
• In the diagram, allow the
road sign to be the
reference point
 An object is in motion if it changes position
relative to a reference point.

• Objects that we call stationary—such as a

tree, a sign, or a building—make good
reference points.

The passenger can use a tree as a reference point to decide if the

train is moving. A tree makes a good reference point because it is
stationary from the passenger’s point of view.
 Position-Time Graph
• The position-time graph
shows the motion of the
particle (car)
• The smooth curve is a
guess as to what
happened between the
data points
 Motion of Car
• Note the relationship
between the position of
the car and the points on
the graph
• Compare the different
representations of the
motion
 Data Table
• The table gives the actual
data collected during the
motion of the object (car)
• Positive is defined as
being to the right
 Alternative Representations
• Using alternative representations is often an
excellent strategy for understanding a
problem
– For example, the car problem used multiple
representations
• Pictorial representation
• Graphical representation
• Tabular representation
• Goal is often a mathematical representation
 Vectors and Scalars
• Vector quantities need both magnitude (size or
numerical value) and direction to completely
describe them
– Will use + and – signs to indicate vector directions
Examples: Displacement, Force, weight, and velocity.

• Scalar quantities are completely described by

magnitude only
Examples: Distance, Time, volume, mass,
temperature, and density.
 Scalars and Vectors

Scalar Vector
Distance (m) Displacement (m)

Speed (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Mass (kg) Weight (N)

 Describing Motion
Whether or not
an object is in
motion depends
on the reference
point you choose.
 Distance
When an object moves, it goes from point
A to point B – that is the DISTANCE it
traveled. (SI unit is the meter)
Distance is how much ground an object has
covered during its motion.

B A
 Displacement
Knowing how far something moves is not sufficient. You
must also know in what direction the object moved.
Displacement is how
far our of place the
object is; it is the
object’s overall
change in position.
 Displacement

• DISPLACEMENT is defined as the change of an object's

position that occurs during a period of time.

• The displacement is a vector that points from an object’s

initial position to its final position and has a magnitude that
equals the shortest distance between the two positions.
• SI Unit of Displacement: meter (m)
 Displacement
• Defined as the change in position during some
time interval
– Represented as Δx
Δx ≡ xf - xi
– SI units are meters (m)
– Δx can be positive or negative
• Different than distance – the length of a path
followed by a particle
 Distance and Displacement

Starting from origin, O a person walks 90-m east, then turns around and walks 40-m
west.

Q: What is the total walked distance?

A: 130-m
Q: What is the displacement?
A: 50-m, due east.
 EXAMPLE : Displacements
Three pairs of initial and final positions along an
x axis represent the location of objects at two
successive times: (pair 1) –3 m, +5 m; (pair 2)
–3 m, –7 m; (pair 3) 7 m, –3 m.
• (a) Which pairs give a negative displacement?
• (b) Calculate the value of the displacement in
each case.
 Distance vs. Displacement – An
Example
• Assume a player moves from one end of the court to
the other and back
• Distance is twice the length of the court
– Distance is always positive
• Displacement is zero
– Δx = xf – xi = 0 since
xf = x i
 Velocity and Speed

A student standing still with

the back of her belt at a
horizontal distance of 2.00 m
to the left of a spot of the
sidewalk designated as the
origin.
A student starting to walk
slowly. The horizontal position
of the back of her belt starts
at a horizontal distance of
2.47 m to the left of a spot
designated as the origin. She
is speeding up for a few
seconds and then slowing
down.
 Speed
• It is a rate!
• What does that mean?
• A change over time.
What is the change?
• Change in position, in
other words, distance.
• Standard unit: meters
per second (m/s)
 Speed
Calculating Speed: If you know the distance an
object travels in a certain amount of time, you
can calculate the speed of the object.
What is
instantaneous
speed?
Instantaneous
speed is the
velocity of an
object at a
certain time.
Speed = Distance/time Average speed = Total distance/Total time
 Describing Motion
2.1
Velocity
Because velocity depends on direction as well
as speed, the velocity of an object can change
even if the speed of the object remains
constant.
The speed of this car
might be constant,
but its velocity is not
constant because the
direction of motion
is always changing.
 Velocity
Velocity is a description of an object’s
speed and direction.

As the sailboat’s direction

changes, its velocity also
changes, even if its speed stays
the same. If the sailboat slows
down at the same time that it
changes direction, how will its
velocity be changed?
 Speed v. Velocity
1. How are speed and velocity similar?
They both measure how fast something is moving

2. How are speed and velocity different?

Velocity includes the direction of motion and
speed does not (the car is moving 5mph East)

3. Is velocity more like distance or

displacement? Why?
Displacement, because it includes direction.
 Graphing Speed

D
I
S
Speed
T increasing
Object begins moving at
A a different speed

N
C Object is
stopped
E

TIME
 The steepness of a line on a graph is called slope.

• The steeper the slope is, the greater the

speed.
• A constant slope represents motion at
constant speed.

Using the points shown, the rise is

400 meters and the run is 2 minutes.
To find the slope, you divide
400 meters by 2 minutes. The slope is
200 meters per minute.
Formula for Calculating Speed
Speed = Distance time
 Problem Solving: Calculating Speed

What is the speed of a sailboat that is traveling 120 meters in 60 seconds?

Step 1: Decide what the problem is asking? A boat traveled 120 meters in 60 seconds.
What was the speed of the boat?

Step 2: What is the formula to calculate speed? Speed = Distance/Time

Step 3: Solve the problem using the formula:

Speed = 120 meters 60 seconds = 2 m/s

So, the boat was traveling at 2 m/s

Now you try:

What is the speed of a car that is traveling 150 miles in 3
hours?
 Answer:
Step 1: What are the facts in the problem?
A car is traveling 150 miles in 3 hours.
Step 2: What is the formula to solve the
problem? Speed = Distance/Time
Step 3: Solve the problem.
Speed = 150 miles 3 hours
Speed = 50 miles/hr.
So, the car is traveling 50 miles/hr.
 Average Velocity
• The average velocity is rate at which the
displacement occurs

– The x indicates motion along the x-axis

• The dimensions are length / time [L/T]
• The SI units are m/s
• Is also the slope of the line in the position –
time graph
 Average Speed
• Speed is a scalar quantity
– same units as velocity
– total distance / total time:
• The speed has no direction and is always
expressed as a positive number
• Neither average velocity nor average speed
gives details about the trip described
 Instantaneous Velocity
• The limit of the average velocity as the time
interval becomes infinitesimally short, or as
the time interval approaches zero
• The instantaneous velocity indicates what is
happening at every point of time
Instantaneous Velocity, graph

• The instantaneous
velocity is the slope of
the line tangent to the x
vs. t curve
• This would be the green
line
• The light blue lines show
that as Δt gets smaller,
they approach the green
line
Instantaneous Velocity, equations
• The general equation for instantaneous
velocity is

• The instantaneous velocity can be positive,

negative, or zero
 Instantaneous Speed
• The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of
the instantaneous velocity
• The instantaneous speed has no direction
associated with it
 Vocabulary Note
• “Velocity” and “speed” will indicate
instantaneous values
• Average will be used when the average
velocity or average speed is indicated
 Analysis Models
• Analysis models are an important technique in the
solution to problems
• An analysis model is a previously solved problem
– It describes
• The behavior of some physical entity
• The interaction between the entity and the environment
– Try to identify the fundamental details of the problem and
attempt to recognize which of the types of problems you have
already solved could be used as a model for the new problem
 Analysis Models, cont
• Based on four simplification models
– Particle model
– System model
– Rigid object
– Wave
Particle Under Constant Velocity
• Constant velocity indicates the instantaneous velocity
at any instant during a time interval is the same as the
average velocity during that time interval
– vx = vx, avg
– The mathematical representation of this situation is the
equation

– Common practice is to let ti = 0 and the equation becomes: xf

= xi + vx t (for constant vx)
 Particle Under Constant Velocity,
Graph
• The graph represents the
motion of a particle under
constant velocty
• The slope of the graph is
the value of the constant
velocity
• The y-intercept is xi
Acceleration
• The pitcher throws. The ball speeds toward the
batter. Off the bat it goes. It’s going, going, gone! A
home run!
• Before landing, the ball went through several changes
in motion. It sped up in the pitcher’s hand, and lost
speed as it traveled toward the batter. The ball
stopped when it hit the bat, changed direction, sped
up again, and eventually slowed down. Most examples
of motion involve similar changes. In fact, rarely does
any object’s motion stay the same for very long.
 Understanding Acceleration
1. As the ball falls from the girl’s hand, how does its
speed change?
2. What happens to the speed of
the ball as it rises from the ground
back to her hand?

3. At what point does the ball

have zero velocity? When it
stops and has no direction.

4. How does the velocity

of the ball change when
it bounces on the floor?
 You can feel acceleration!
If you’re moving at 500mph
east without turbulence,
there is no acceleration.

But if the plane hits an air pocket and drops 500 feet in
2 seconds, there is a large change in acceleration and
you will feel that!

It does not matter whether you speed up or

slow down; it is still considered a change in
acceleration.
 In science, acceleration refers to increasing speed, decreasing
speed, or changing direction.

• A car that begins to move from a stopped position or speeds

up to pass another car is accelerating.

• A car decelerates when it stops at a red light. A water skier

decelerates when the boat stops pulling.

• A softball accelerates when it changes direction as it is hit.

 Calculating Acceleration
Acceleration = Change in velocity
Total time
So…Acceleration = (Final speed – Initial speed)
Time
 Calculating Acceleration
As a roller-coaster car starts down a slope, its
speed is 4 m/s. But 3 seconds later, at the
bottom, its speed is 22 m/s. What is its
average acceleration?

What information have you

been given?
Initial speed = 4 m/s
Final Speed = 22 m/s
Time = 3 s
 Calculating Acceleration
What quantity are you trying to calculate?
The average acceleration of the roller-coaster car.

What formula contains the given quantities and the unknown

quantity?

Acceleration = (Final speed – Initial speed)/Time

Perform the calculation.

Acceleration = (22 m/s – 4 m/s)/3 s = 18 m/s/3 s

Acceleration = 6 m/s2

The roller-coaster car’s average acceleration is 6 m/s2.

 Graphing acceleration

S
P
Object
E accele-
rates Object decelerates
E
D
Object moves
at constant
speed

Time
Now You Try:
A roller coasters velocity at the top of the
hill is 10 m/s. Two seconds later it reaches
the bottom of the hill with a velocity of 26
m/s. What is the acceleration of the
coaster?
 The slanted, straight line on this speed-versus-time graph tells you that the
cyclist is accelerating at a constant rate. The slope of a speed-versus-time graph
tells you the object’s acceleration. Predicting How would the slope of the graph
change if the cyclist were accelerating at a greater rate? At a lesser rate?
Since the slope is increasing, you can conclude that the speed
is also increasing. You are accelerating.

Distance-Versus-Ti
me Graph The
curved line on this
distance-versus-time
graph tells you that
the cyclist is
accelerating.
 Acceleration Problems
A roller coaster is moving at 25 m/s at the bottom
of a hill. Three seconds later it reaches the top of
the hill moving at 10 m/s. What was the
acceleration of the coaster?
Initial Speed = 25 m/s
Final Speed = 10 m/s
Time = 3 seconds
Remember (final speed – initial speed) ÷ time is acceleration.

(10 m/s – 25 m/s) ÷ 3 s = -15 m/s ÷ 3 s = -5 m/s2

This roller coaster is decelerating.
A car’s velocity changes from 0 m/s to 30 m/s in
10 seconds. Calculate acceleration.
Final speed = 30 m/s
Initial speed = 0 m/s
Time = 10 s
Remember (final speed – initial speed) ÷ time is acceleration.

(30 m/s – 0 m/s) ÷ 10 s = 30 m/s ÷ 10 s = 3 m/s2

A satellite’s original velocity is 10,000 m/s. After 60
seconds it s going 5,000 m/s. What is the
acceleration?
Remember (final speed – initial speed) ÷ time is acceleration.
Final speed (velocity) = 5000 m/s
Initial speed (velocity) = 10,000 m/s
Time = 60 seconds

(5000 m/s – 10,000 m/s) ÷ 60 s = -5000 m/s ÷ 60 s

= -83.33 m/s2
= -80 m/s2

**This satellite is decelerating.

• If a speeding train hits the brakes and it takes
the train 39 seconds to go from 54.8 m/s to 12
m/s what is the acceleration?
Remember (final speed – initial speed) ÷ time is acceleration.
Final speed= 12 m/s
Initial speed= 54.8 m/s
Time = 39 s

12 m/s – 54.8 m/s ÷ 39 s = -42.8 m/s ÷ 39 s

= -1.10 m/s2
This train is decelerating.
 Average Acceleration
• Acceleration is the rate of change of the
velocity

• Dimensions are L/T2

• SI units are m/s²
• In one dimension, positive and negative can
be used to indicate direction
 Instantaneous Acceleration
• The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of
the average acceleration as Δt approaches 0

• The term acceleration will mean

instantaneous acceleration
– If average acceleration is wanted, the word
average will be included
Instantaneous Acceleration -- graph

• The slope of the

velocity-time graph is the
acceleration
• The green line represents
the instantaneous
acceleration
• The blue line is the
average acceleration
 Graphical Comparison
• Given the displacement-time
graph (a)
• The velocity-time graph is
found by measuring the slope
of the position-time graph at
every instant
• The acceleration-time graph is
found by measuring the slope
of the velocity-time graph at
every instant
 Acceleration and Velocity, 1
• When an object’s velocity and acceleration are
in the same direction, the object is speeding
up
• When an object’s velocity and acceleration are
in the opposite direction, the object is slowing
down
 Acceleration and Velocity, 2

• Images are equally spaced. The car is moving with

constant positive velocity (shown by red arrows
maintaining the same size)
• Acceleration equals zero
 Acceleration and Velocity, 3

• Images become farther apart as time increases

• Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction
• Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length)
• Velocity is increasing (red arrows are getting longer)
• This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity
 Acceleration and Velocity, 4

• Images become closer together as time increases

• Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions
• Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length)
• Velocity is decreasing (red arrows are getting shorter)
• Positive velocity and negative acceleration
 Acceleration and Velocity, final
• In all the previous cases, the acceleration was
constant
– Shown by the violet arrows all maintaining the
same length
• The diagrams represent motion of a particle
under constant acceleration
• A particle under constant acceleration is
another useful analysis model
 Graphical Representations of
Motion
• Observe the graphs of the car under various
conditions
• Note the relationships among the graphs
– Set various initial velocities, positions and
accelerations
Kinematic Equations – summary
 Kinematic Equations
• The kinematic equations can be used with any
particle under uniform acceleration.
• The kinematic equations may be used to solve
any problem involving one-dimensional
motion with a constant acceleration
• You may need to use two of the equations to
solve one problem
• Many times there is more than one way to
solve a problem
 Kinematic Equations, specific
• For constant a,
• Can determine an object’s velocity at any time t
when we know its initial velocity and its
acceleration
– Assumes ti = 0 and tf = t
• Does not give any information about displacement
 Kinematic Equations, specific
• For constant acceleration,

• The average velocity can be expressed as the

arithmetic mean of the initial and final
velocities
 Kinematic Equations, specific
• For constant acceleration,

• This gives you the position of the particle in terms

of time and velocities
• Doesn’t give you the acceleration
 Kinematic Equations, specific
• For constant acceleration,

• Gives final position in terms of velocity and

acceleration
• Doesn’t tell you about final velocity
 Kinematic Equations, specific
• For constant a,

• Gives final velocity in terms of acceleration and

displacement
• Does not give any information about the time
 When a = 0
• When the acceleration is zero,
– vxf = vxi = vx
– xf = x i + v x t
• The constant acceleration model reduces to
the constant velocity model
 Graphical Look at Motion:
displacement – time curve
• The slope of the curve is
the velocity
• The curved line indicates
the velocity is changing
– Therefore, there is an
acceleration
Graphical Look at Motion: velocity –
time curve
• The slope gives the
acceleration
• The straight line indicates
a constant acceleration
 Graphical Look at Motion:
acceleration – time curve
• The zero slope indicates a
constant acceleration
 Graphical Motion with Constant
Acceleration
• A change in the
acceleration affects the
velocity and position
• Note especially the
graphs when a = 0
 Test Graphical Interpretations
• Match a given velocity
graph with the
corresponding
acceleration graph
• Match a given
acceleration graph with
the corresponding
velocity graph(s)