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Study Guide in SSE 102 Physical Geography Module No. 2

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2

THE EARTH

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module introduces the fundamental aspects of the structure and the spheres of the Earth.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. discuss the origin of the Earth;

THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

About 11 to 15 billion years ago all of the matter and energy in the Universe was concentrated into an
area the size of an atom. At this moment, matter, energy, space and time did not exist. Then suddenly, the
Universe began to expand at an incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time came into being (the  Big
Bang). As the Universe expanded, matter began to coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets. Our
solar system formed about 5 billion years ago when the Universe was about 65% of its present size. Today,
the Universe continues to expand.

Scientists believe the Earth began its life about 4.6 billion years ago. The Earth formed as cosmic
dust lumped together to form larger and larger particles until 150 million years had passed. At about 4.4 billion
years, the young Earth had a mass similar to the mass it has today. The continents probably began forming
about 4.2 billion years ago as the Earth continued to cool. The cooling also resulted in the release of gases
from the lithosphere, much of which formed the Earth's early atmosphere. Most of the Earth's early
atmosphere was created in the first one million years after solidification (4.4 billion years ago). Carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor dominated this early atmosphere. 

As the Earth continued to cool, the water vapor found in the atmosphere condensed to form the
oceans and other fresh water bodies on the continents. Oxygen began accumulating in the atmosphere
through photo-dissociation of O2 from water, and by way of photosynthesis (life). The emergence of living
organisms was extremely important in the creation of atmospheric oxygen and ozone. Without ozone, life
could not exist on land because of harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Structure of the Earth

The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a number of different layers as determined by deep
drilling and seismic evidence. These layers are: a) core; b) mantle; and c) crust.

Core. The core is a layer rich in iron and nickel that is composed of two layers: the  inner and outer
cores. The inner core is theorized to be solid with a density of about 13 grams per cubic centimeter and a
radius of about 1220 kilometers. The outer core is liquid and has a density of about 11 grams per cubic
centimeter. It surrounds the inner core and has an average thickness of about 2250 kilometers.

The mantle is almost 2900 kilometers thick and comprises about 83% of the Earth's volume. It is
composed of several different layers. The upper mantle exists from the base of the crust downward to a depth
of about 670 kilometers. This region of the Earth's interior is thought to be composed of peridotite, an
ultramafic rock made up of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The top layer of the upper mantle, 100 to 200
kilometers below surface, is called the asthenosphere. Scientific studies suggest that this layer has physical

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

Study Guide in SSE 102 Physical Geography Module No. 2

properties that are different from the rest of the upper mantle. The rocks in this upper portion of the mantle are
more rigid and brittle because of cooler temperatures and lower pressures. Below the upper mantle is
the lower mantle that extends from 670 to 2900 kilometers below the Earth's surface. This layer is hot and
plastic. The higher pressure in this layer causes the formation of minerals that are different from those of the
upper mantle.

Mantle. The lithosphere is a layer that includes the crust and the upper most portion of the mantle.
This layer is about 100 kilometers thick and has the ability to glide over the rest of the upper mantle. Because
of increasing temperature and pressure, deeper portions of the lithosphere are capable of plastic flow over
geologic time. The lithosphere is also the zone of earthquakes, mountain building, volcanoes, and continental
drift.

Crust. The topmost part of the lithosphere consists of crust. This material is cool, rigid, and brittle.
Two types of crust can be identified: oceanic crust and continental crust. Both of these types of crust are less
dense than the rock found in the underlying upper mantle layer.

Ocean crust is thin and measures between 5 to 10 kilometers thick. It is also composed of basalt and
has a density of about 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter.

The continental crust is 20 to 70 kilometers thick and composed mainly of lighter  granite. The density
of continental crust is about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter. It is thinnest in areas like the  Rift Valleys of East
Africa and in an area known as the Basin and Range Province in the western United States (centered in
Nevada this area is about 1500 kilometers wide and runs about 4000 kilometers North/South). Continental
crust is thickest beneath mountain ranges and extends into the mantle. Both of these crust types are
composed of numerous tectonic plates that float on top of the mantle. Convection currents within the mantle
cause these plates to move slowly across the asthenosphere.

Spheres of the Earth

From the standpoint of Physical Geography, the Earth can be seen to be composed of four principal
components: a) lithosphere; b) atmosphere; c) hydrosphere; and d) biosphere.

Lithosphere. This sphere is the solid inorganic portion of the Earth (composed of rocks, minerals and
elements). It can be regarded as the outer surface and interior of the solid Earth. On the surface of the Earth,
the lithosphere is composed of three main types of rocks: a) igneous; b) sedimentary: and c) metamorphic.

Atmosphere. This sphere is the vast gaseous envelope of air that surrounds the Earth. Its
boundaries are not easily defined. The atmosphere contains a complex system of gases and suspended
particles that behave in many ways like fluids. Many of its constituents are derived from the Earth by way of
chemical and biochemical reactions.

Hydrosphere. This sphere is the waters of the Earth. Water exists on the Earth in various stores,
including the atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, and groundwater. Water moves from one store
to another by way of: evaporation, condensation, runoff, precipitation, infiltration and groundwater flow.

Biosphere. This sphere consists of all living things, plant and animal. This zone is characterized by
life in profusion, diversity, and ingenious complexity. Cycling of matter in this sphere involves not only
metabolic reactions in organisms, but also many abiotic chemical reactions.

All of these spheres are interrelated to each other by dynamic interactions, like biogeochemical
cycling, that move and exchange both matter and energy between the four components.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

Study Guide in SSE 102 Physical Geography Module No. 2

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Creating an Infographic of Earth’s Layer and Sphere

Research further on other interesting facts on each layer and sphere of the Earth and create an
infographic.

Rubric

Criteria 3 2 1
Relevance of Graphics All graphics are related to Some of the grpahics are None of the graphics are
the topic, thus, making related to the topic. related to the topic.
the topic easy to
understand.
Accuracy of Content At least 5 accurate facts At least 3 accurate facts No accurate facts are
are displayed on the are displayed on the displayed on the
infographic. infographic. infographic.
Attractiveness The infographic is The infographic is The infographic is
attractive in its design, attractive but slightly incredibly messy and
layout, and colors used. messy, poorly designed.
Choice of Words and The choice of words is The choice of words is The choice of words is
Grammar appropriate and there are slightly appropriate and inappropriate and there
no grammatical errors. there are a few are many grammatical
grammatical errors. errors.

SUMMARY

The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a number of different layers as determined by deep
drilling and seismic evidence. These layers are: a) core; b) mantle; and c) crust.

The core which is approximately 7000 kilometers in diameter (3500 kilometers in radius) and is

The mantle which surrounds the core has a thickness of 2900 kilometers.

The crust floats on top of the mantle. It is composed of basalt rich oceanic crust and granitic rich

The Earth can be seen to be composed of four principal components: a) lithosphere; b) atmosphere;
c) hydrosphere; and d) biosphere.

Lithosphere is the sphere which is regarded as the outer surface and interior of the solid Earth.
Atmosphere is the sphere consists of vast gaseous envelope of air that surrounds the Earth. Hydrosphere is
the sphere which includes the waters of the Earth. Biosphere is the sphere consists of all living things, plant
and animal.

REFERENCES

http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html

http://164.100.133.129:81/econtent/Uploads/Physical_Geography.pdf

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