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UNIT 2 MODULE 1: GRAMMAR AWARENESS

In this module:

-you will refresh your memory and understanding of the 8 main parts of speech
- you will find a glossary of grammatical terminology that you can refer to during the course

INTRODUCTION

‘Grammar is the logic of speech, even as logic is the grammar of reason.’

Richard Chenevix Trench

‘I am the Roman Emperor, and am above grammar.’

Emperor Sigismund

‘I never made a mistake in grammar but one in my life

and as soon as I done it I seen it.’
Carl Sandburg

Simply speaking, we can say that ‘grammar’ is the rules by which a language works.

As a teacher of English, you are required to have a good understanding of grammar. During
the course, and also while teaching after the course, you will need a good grammar
reference. Many excellent grammar references are available, and deciding on which
reference to use is a matter of personal preference. However, when choosing a reference,
ensure that it is an up-to-date book and one that has been published by a respected
publishing company. If you are in any doubt as to the quality, check out the book online –
you will find reviews and ratings there. If you already have a grammar reference which you
are happy with, you do not need to buy a new one.

One of the most popular grammar references used by teachers is a series of three
books by Raymond Murphy published by Cambridge University Press:

Essential English Grammar in Use (Elementary)

English Grammar In Use (Intermediate)

Advanced Grammar In Use (Advanced)

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In this module you will find a review of the 8 main parts of speech, and also a glossary of
common grammatical terms. Use the information in this module as a review to refresh and
check your knowledge, and use your own grammar reference to supplement your studies. If
at this stage of the course you become aware of any gaps in your knowledge, we
recommend that you take the time to study those areas of grammar by using your grammar
reference.

MAIN PARTS OF SPEECH

There are basically 8 main parts of speech which must be understood in order to learn and
use English correctly and effectively. Here is an overview of them. Remember that these
explanations are not all-inclusive. For further details, please consult your grammar
reference.

If you are a native speaker of English, you will probably need to take more time studying this
module than a non-native speaker. Knowing intuitively whether something is grammatically
correct, is not sufficent in the classroom – you must also know why it is correct, or not
correct, and be able to explain it.

1. ADJECTIVES:
Adjectives are the part of speech used to describe nouns and pronouns.

Adjectives answer such questions as – Which one? (this one, that one, the small one)

What kind? (new, electrical, wooden)

How many? (ten, several, many)

Whose? (Anne’s, his, my)

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E.g. I want the big one.

I love listening to relaxing music.
There were about fifty people at the party.
John’s new car is amazing.

N.B. Adjectives do not have singular or plural forms, they also do not have masculine,
feminine or neuter forms (as adjectives in some other languages do, e.g. German.)

N.B. Adjectives come before the noun they are describing, e.g. my new phone. However,
adjectives can also be used with the verb ‘To Be’ and are used following the verb, e.g. I am
happy.

Compound adjectives: These are single adjectives which are made from more than one
word. The words are often linked by a hyphen.
E.g. I want you to prepare a forty-minute lesson plan.

The sour-faced receptionist wasn’t there today.

Adjective Order: When using a string of adjectives together to describe something, there is
a specific order that should be followed. If using three or more adjectives together, a
comma should be used after all but the last one.

Order of Adjectives:
Opinion e.g. nice, rude, ugly, boring
Dimension e.g. large, long, short, tall, big, small
Age : e.g. young, old, thirty, new, modern,
Shape e.g. round, square, circular, triangular
Colour e.g. red, blue, colourful, colourless, blonde
Origin e.g. Spanish, Mexican, Chinese, foreign, local
Material e.g. metal, wooden, plastic, paper, cardboard

E.g. His secretary was a tall, young, blonde American.

The elegant lady wore a long, red, silk dress.
I saw an amazing, ancient, Roman box.
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SELF CHECK 1:
Put the adjectives into the sentences in the correct order.

1. She has just bought a……………………………………………………… carpet. ( Turkish, red, beautiful)

2. She was wearing the most outrageous …………………………….. dress. (cotton, old, shapeless)
3. She gave me a …………………………………………………………………. ornament. (tacky, large,
plastic)

Comparative & Superlative Adjectives: are used to compare nouns. (Please see: Glossary Of
Grammar Terminology.)

2. ADVERBS:
Adverbs give us more information about (modify) verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Adverbs answer such questions as: How (quietly, comfortably, demandingly)

Where (here, there, everywhere)

When (often, never, sometimes, now)

To what extent (fairly, extremely, partially)

E.g. The deer moved silently through the wood.

Don’t leave your coat there.
He usually goes by bus.
He was extremely happy when he heard the news.

Types of Adverb:

Adverbs of manner:
E.g. slowly, fast, carefully, easily

Adverbs of place:
E.g. here, there, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere
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Adverbs of frequency:
E.g. often, sometimes, never, usually, rarely

Adverbs of time:
E.g. today, yesterday, tomorrow, before, yet, still

Adverbs of degree:
E.g. quite, fairly, rather, very, pretty, too, almost, nearly

Care needs to be taken with the correct placement of adverbs within a sentence.

Type of adverbs & word order Examples

1. Some adverbs, particularly adverbs of Carefully, he walked across the muddy field.
manner can be placed at the beginning of a He walked carefully across the muddy field.
sentence, after the main verb and even at He walked across the muddy field carefully.
the end of a sentence.

2. Adverbs of place are usually placed:

-after the direct object, or Please leave it here.
-after the verb when there is no direct I was waiting there for half an hour.
object

3. Adverbs of frequency (indefinite time) I never watch the television.

can be placed: I have never seen anything so amazing!
- before the main verb I always used to get up late.
- between the auxiliary & main verb He is sometimes grumpy in the mornings.
- Before the verb ‘used to’
- After the verb ‘be’
Yesterday, I went to the cinema.
4. Adverbs of time can be placed: I went to the cinema yesterday.
- at the beginning of a sentence
- at the end of a sentence He was extremely handsome. (before adj.)
He ran very fast. (before adv.)
5. Adverbs of degree are placed: I completely understand. (before verb)
- before the word they are modifying
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Is it an adverb, or not?

1. Adverbs are often, but not always, formed by adding the suffix ‘ly’ to adjectives.
E.g. Quick (adjective) becomes Quickly (adverb)

2. However, care should be taken with some adverbs whose adjective form is the same.
E.g. He had a very fast car. – Here ‘fast’ is an adjective describing the noun ‘car.’
The boy was walking very fast. – Here ‘Fast’ is an adverb describing the verb ‘walk.’

3. Not all words that end in ‘ly’ are adverbs.

E.g.
That was a lovely party. All of the highlighted words here are adjectives.
She was very neighbourly.
I was feeling very lonely.

Adverbs Used As Intensifiers

Adverbs can be used to modify the intensity of the verb, adjective or another adverb, by
amplifying, downgrading or emphasising the meaning.

E.g. The food was absolutely disgusting. – amplifies the meaning of ‘disgusting’
The film was quite good. – downgrading the meaning of ‘good’
I really don’t like him.- emphasises the meaning of the verb.
She talked very fast. – ‘very’ amplifies the meaning of the adverb ‘fast’

SELF CHECK 2:
Identify the adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences.

1. She was feeling quite sad that day.

2. To be totally honest, I think this film is pretty boring.

3. The three men sat relaxing in the comfortable lobby.

4. The thin-faced old lady was talking very loudly on the phone.

5. Please put the vase down here very carefully.

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3. CONJUNCTIONS:
Conjunctions are the part of speech used to join words, clauses or phrases.

E.g. I like tea and coffee. (joining words)

It was my first visit, but I soon felt at home there. (joining clauses)

You will find him in the kitchen, or in the garden. (joining phrases)

The main types of conjunctions are:

Coordinating conjunctions:
Used to join equal parts to each other, i.e. word to word/clause to clause/
phrase to phrase.

The coordinating conjunctions are: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
(An easy way to bring these to mind is to remember the acronym FANBOYS:

Correlating Conjunctions:
These conjunctions are made up of two parts; the two parts are used to join two
equal parts.

Not only…. but also…

Either ….. or …..
Neither …. nor ….
Both ….. and …..

Subordinating Conjunctions:
These conjunctions join two clauses in a way that makes one clause dependent
on the other, i.e. the subordinating clause is no longer an independent clause.

Common subordinating conjunctions are: when, where, after, although, since,

if.
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4. INTERJECTIONS:
Interjections are a part of speech used to express emotion. They are usually composed of
one or two words, and do not modify any other parts of speech.

Common examples are: Congratulations. Awesome! Wow! No way! Oh no!

5. NOUNS:
Nouns are the names of people, places, things or ideas/concepts.

E.g.

John is on holiday. ………………………………. people

I went to Japan last year………………………. place

The book is on the table……………………….. thing

A good teacher needs lots of patience….. concept

Types of Noun

1. Proper Nouns: specific or particular people, places or things.

Proper nouns always start with capital letters
E.g. William Shakespeare; London; John; Cambridge University; The White House

2. Common Nouns: general, non-specific people, places or things. Common nouns do not
start with capital letters.
E.g. cat; table; university; palace; car; house

3. Countable Nouns: something that can be counted, which has a plural form and which can
be used with the indefinite article (a, an.)E.g. boy, table, cat, bag.

4. Uncountable (Mass) Nouns : something that cannot be counted, which does not have a
plural form and which cannot be used with the indefinite article.Substances, liquids and
powders are usually considered to be uncountable, e.g. metal & wood; water and tea; dust
& flour.Here are a few examples of uncountable nouns commonly misused in the classroom
: homework; work; feedback,advice, help.

5. Concrete Nouns: can be experienced through one or more of the five senses, i.e. they can
be seen ,heard, tasted, smelled or felt. E.g. horse, pillow, house, fire.
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6. Abstract Nouns: cannot be experienced through the five senses. They refer to concepts,
rather than tangible things.E.g. power; friendship; peace; love; hate.

7. Collective Nouns: a noun used to refer to a group, e.g. family, team, police etc.

N.B. Personal pronouns can be classed as a type of noun, but here they have been dealt
with as a seperate part of speech – see below.

SELF CHECK 3:
Look at the highlighted nouns in the following sentences, and identify which types of noun
they are.

1. They delivered the new office furniture this afternoon.

2. Peter wanted to go to London to see Buckingham Palace.

3. The jury had not yet delivered its verdict.

4. Lucy bought herself a lovely book about meditation and peace.

5. Her tolerance was commendable.

6. PREPOSITIONS:
Prepositions are used to show the relationship between a noun (or a pronoun) and another
word (or element) of a sentence.

Prepositions only ocur in prepositional phrases.(i.e. a number of words starting with a

preposition followed by its direct object.)

The different types of preposition are:

Time (e.g. on; at; in)

Place (e.g. on; at; under; behind)

Direction & Movement ( e.g. across; through; to; from )

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Agent ( i.e. by, with)

For example: The photo was taken by my brother.

The cake is filled with cream.

Device, machine & instrument: (e.g. by, with, on)

For example: He travelled by plane. (device)

He cleaned the car with the vacuum (machine)
She turned on the kettle. (instrument)

7. PRONOUNS:
Pronouns are used in sentences to take the place of nouns. Using a pronoun means that we
don’t have to keep repeating the same noun. An antecedent is the original noun that is
replaced by a pronoun.

Example: John sat down on the bench. He was still there two hours later.
Antecedent Pronoun

Pronouns act in the same way as nouns.

We can refer to the following types of pronoun:

Personal: I,me,we,us,you,he,him,she,her,it,they,them

Personal pronouns can be subject pronouns

E.g. I will call you later.
or object pronouns
E.g. Will you call me later?

Possesive: mine,yours,his,hers,ours,theirs

Possessive pronouns demonstrate possession.

E.g. Is it hers?
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I don’t want mine.

Demonstrative: this,that,these,those

Demonstrative pronouns identify particular things or people

E.g. Can I look at that, please?
I don’t like these at all.

Indefinite: all, some, most, anyone, someone

These pronouns are not definite, i.e. we don’t know who they refer to.
E.g. Everyone was talking loudly
Someone at work doesn’t like me.

Reflexive: myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,themselves

Reflective pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence.

E.g. I will do it myself.

Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose

Relative pronouns are used in relative (adjective) clauses

E.g. The man who was at the party called again today.

SELF CHECK 4:
Find the pronouns in the following sentences, and identify which types of pronoun they
are.

1. The shop assistant smiled and asked me,’Don’t you like this?’

2. I gave them to the young man who asked about you the other day.

3. I ask myself the same question every day.

4. Does anyone know what time he is arriving?

5. Is this one mine or yours?

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8. VERBS:
Verbs are the part of speech which show actions or states of being.

We can talk about Main Verbs: verbs that can stand alone

I.e. they do need the help of another verb.

And Auxiliary Verbs: verbs that can not stand alone

I.e. they are used to help other verbs.

Main Verbs:

There are two types of Main Verbs: Action Verbs & State Verbs.

Action verbs are used to demonstrate actions.

E.g. Run Jump Climb Talk Swim

State verbs

These verbs are also known as Stative Verbs, or Linking Verbs.

This type of verb is not usually used in continuous tenses, and relate to states of
being; they often refer to states that last for some time.

We generally refer to four types of state verbs.Those relating to :

Emotions: e.g. want, like, love, hate

Sense: e.g. hear, see, smell, taste, seem

Thought: e.g. believe, know, remember, prefer, doubt

Possession: e.g. have, own, belong, possess

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Verbs that are both Action Verbs and State Verbs

Some verbs can be both action verbs and state verbs.However, the meaning
changes depending on whether the verb is used as an action, or a state verb.

E.g. I think it’s ridiculous. (state verb meaning ,’In my opinion’)

But …
I am thinking about taking a few days holiday. (Action Verb meaning
‘planning’)

I have three children (State verb referring to possession)

But…
I am having a party on Friday (Action verb meaning ‘to host the party’ in this
context)

Auxiliary (or Helping) Verbs

Auxiliary verbs help main verbs (action & state verbs).

They :
- always occur before the main verb of the sentence
- help to form the tenses and demonstrate other grammatical information (e.g. whether a
sentence is negative.)

The Three Primary Auxiliary Verbs :

There are 3 main auxiliary verbs used in English which assist with forming the tenses.The
3 auxiliary verbs are :

Have (Used in the formation of the present perfect and past perfect tense)

Be (Used in the formation of the continuous tenses and passive constructions)

Do (Used in the formation of negative and question forms of the present and
past simple tenses)
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These three verbs can be used both as main verbs when they stand alone, or as auxiliary
verbs when they occur with other verbs. These 3 verbs are known as Primary Auxiliary
Verbs.

I have a car. (Main verb) I have lost my key. (Auxiliary verb – used to
form the present perfect tense. The main
verb is ‘lost’.)
I am cold. (Main verb ) I am going home. (Auxiliary verb used to
form the present continuous tense. The
main verb is ‘go’.)
I do my homework in the evenings. (Main Did you finish? (Auxiliary verb used to form
verb) a question in the past simple tense)
You didn’t do your homework. (‘Do’ is used
twice in this sentence - ‘Didn’t’ is the
auxiliary verb; ‘do’ is the main verb)

Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

The other auxiliary verbs are known as Modal Auxiliary Verbs. These verbs, when combined
with main verbs, express different ideas such as obligation, prohibition, neccessity, ability
etc.

The 10 Modal Verbs

(Not all linguists agree completely about which verbs are modal verbs, but these
are the 10 most commonly accepted modal verbs)
Can Could May Might
Will Would Must Ought
Shall Should
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How Modal Verbs Differ from Main Verbs

MODAL VERBS MAIN VERBS

1.The main verb following a modal verb is 1. Main verbs are followed by full infinitives
always in its base form. or gerunds).
E.g. ‘You must go!’ and NOT, ‘You must E.g. I struggle to survive.
to She enjoys working.
go.’
N.B. Ought is an exception to this
rule.Ought is always followed by the
full infinitive.E.g. I ought to go.
2. Modal verbs come before the subject in 2. Main verbs use auxiliary verbs and
question forms. follow the subject to form questions.
E.g. Can I have another drink? E.g. Do you want a drink?

3. Modal verbs are used before ‘not’ in 3. Main verbs use auxiliary verbs and
negative sentences. follow ‘not’ to form negatives,
E.g. He might not want to go. E.g. I did not want to go.

4. Modal verbs do not take word endings 4. Main verbs taking various endings in order
for forming participles, and do not agree to form present and past participles and
with their subject harmonise with the subject of the sentence.
E.g. She can go. NOT She cans go E.g. I am going.
She must go. NOT She must going. She works at home.

Transitive & Intranstive Verbs:

Another area to be aware of when teaching verbs is the concept of Transitive and
Intransitive Verbs, which can cause problems for students.

TRANSITIVE VERBS INTRANSITIVE VERBS

These are main verbs which always take a These are main verbs which do not require
direct object, i.e. the object that receives an object. With these verbs, the action is not
the action of the verb. With transitive verbs, received by anyone, so does not require an
if we ask the question,”What?”, the direct object.
object provides the answer to this question. Because intransitive verbs do not have a
direct object, they do not have a passive
form.
E.g. ‘I sent yesterday’ – is NOT a complete E.g. She retired last year. The verb ‘retire’
sentence.It doesn’t tell us what was sent does not require an object.
yesterday, i.e. the object.
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This verb requires an object. ’Last year’ just provides extra information
I.e. I sent the photo yesterday – What was about when she retired; it does not answer
sent? – The photo! the question,’What?’

Examples of Transitive Verbs Examples of Intransitive Verbs

Hit Meet Write Cry Sit Stand
Move Love Eat Fall Work Sleep
Take Drink Pay Walk Stop Come
Help Find Get Smile Grow Travel

SELF CHECK 5 :
Identfy the types of verbs in the following sentences.

1. I have decided that I have to go on a diet.

2. If you see her, tell her that I’m seeing my new girlfriend this evening.

3. I will always love you.

4. Mrs Johnson had always been a little eccentric.

5. She will have had a wonderful time.

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GLOSSARY OF GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY

It is not possible to include all grammar terms here. The following glossary is a list with
simple explanations (and it is not all-inclusive) of the most common grammatical structures.
Refer to your own grammar reference for more detailed explanations and examples, and for
information on other more complex areas of grammar.

ACTIVE VOICE: When the subject of the sentence is usually the person or thing carrying
out the action.(The opposite of the passive voice).

E.g. Sarah plays tennis at the weekends.

ABSTRACT NOUN: The name of something that is not concrete, but rather something that
we experience as an idea. (The opposite is a concrete noun.)

E.g. What is the secret of happiness?

ADJECTIVE: Words which describe nouns and pronouns. (See Main Parts of Speech)

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Also known as relative clauses. This is a clause, introduced by a

relative pronoun, which does the same job as an adjective, i.e. describes a noun or a
pronoun.

E.g. The little boy was crying – (adjective = ‘little’)

The little boy, who was crying, had lost his mum – (‘who was crying’ = adjective clause)

For more information, see ‘Relative Clause’ in this glossary.

ADVERB: A word that describes verbs and adjectives.(See Main Parts of Speech)

ADVERB CLAUSE: Clauses that do the same job as an adverb.

E.g. He ate his food greedily – (‘greedily’ = adverb)

He ate his food as if he hadn’t eaten for a week – ‘as if he hadn’t eaten all week =

adverbial clause)

ADVERB PARTICIPLE: small words like – off, out, up, through, in , which complement the
verb in a phrasal verb.

E.g. Tell off Go out Wake up Get through Let in

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ADVERB PHRASE: A short group of words that does the same job as an adverb.
E.g. in the evening / on the same day / at the weekend

AFFIRMATIVE: An affirmative sentence is a positive sentence. (The oppositve is a negative

sentence.)

E.g. He likes me.

AFFIX: An affix is added to the beginning, or the end of a word in order to modify the
word’s meaning. The two types of affixes are Prefixes (added to the beginning of a word),
and Suffixes (added to the end of a word.)

E.g. Prevention – the suffix ‘tion’ has been added to the verb, ‘prevent’ to form a noun.

Suffixes are often used to alter the form of speech, e.g. forming an adverb by adding ‘ly’ to
the end of an adjective – ‘quick’ becomes ‘quickly.’

Misbehave – the prefix ‘mis’ is added to the verb, “behave” ,thus giving it a negative

meaning.

ARTICLE: There are two types of articles in English – the definite article, and the indefinite
article. Articles identify nouns.

There are two indefinite articles: ‘a’, and ‘an.’

The definite article is ‘the’.

AUXILIARY VERB: a type of verb which helps another noun. (See Main Parts of Speech -
Verbs)

E.g. I don’t live here. – The auxiliary verb,’Do’ is used here with the main verb ‘live’ in order

to form the negative form of the present simple tense.

BASE FORM: The base form of a verb is the original form of the verb. It can also be called
the bare infinitive form of a verb.

CAUSATIVE: Causatives are used in the active form to show that someone causes
something to happen; the subject of the sentence is not the person who does the action. We
use the verbs ‘make’,‘get’ and ‘have’ to form causatives.
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E.g. I am getting the house painted. – I am arranging for someone to paint the house for me.

I am having my hair done before the party. – I am arranging for someone to do my hair.

You made me drop my books! – I dropped them, but you caused it to happen.

CLAUSE: A clause is a statement or question that usually contains a subject and a verb
phrase and is a complete thought. Some sentences contain just one clause:

E.g. I am bored.

However, other sentences contain more than one clause:

E.g. I am bored, so I am going to call my friend.

The sentence you have just seen contains two clauses:

The Main Clause,’I am bored’,and:

The Subordinate Clause,’so I am going to call my friend’

Main Clauses:

E.g. I like you. -are complete thoughts

Subordinate/Dependent Clauses -are incomplete thoughts.They are

dependent on the main clause for meaning
E.g. I don’t like him, because he never listens and context.
to me.

COLLECTIVE NOUN: A collective noun is a noun used to refer to a group, e.g. family,
team, police etc.

COLLOQUIAL: A colloquial expression is an informal expression used in daily life.

COMMON NOUN: A common noun is a noun which is not a proper name, e.g. table, chair,
city, country as opposed to proper nouns such as London,Paris,Mexico etc.
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COMPARATIVE: Comparative refers to the form of an adjective, or an adverb used to

compare two things. Comparative adjective and adverbs demonstrate a higher degree of
something.

The comparative adjective is generally formed with the suffix ‘er’ + ‘than’ after the adjective
if it is a one-syllable adjective, or with the word ‘more’ placed before the adjective if the
adjective has more than one syllable. (For further rules about spelling and irregular
adjectives, consult a grammar reference.)

E.g. Tall + er = Taller (one-syllable adjective)

More + beautiful (muti-syllable adjective)

Irregular Adjectives :
Good becomes ‘better’
Bad becomes ‘worse’
Far becomes ‘further’

Most comparative adverbs are formed using ‘more’, because most adverbs are two-
syllabled. (Remember that many adverbs are formed by adding ‘ly’ to the adjective)
However, one-syllable adverbs take the ‘er’ suffix.

E.g. more friendly (two-syllable adverb)

more quickly (two-syllable adverb)

faster (one-syllable adverb)

harder (one-syllable adverb)

COMPLEMENT: A complement is a part of a sentence that gives more information about

the subject (after the verbs ‘seem’, ‘be’, ‘become’, ‘look’ ,’find’ and some other verbs,) or
more information about the object in some structures. Complements are neccessary to
complete the meaning of the verb in a sentence, in contrast to modifiers, which are optional.
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SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS

(Subject + clause + complement) (Subject + verb + object + complement)

E.g. The man is (my neighbour.) I find it (foolish.)

Subject clause complement Subject verb object complement

The term ‘complement’ can also be used in a more general sense to refer to words and
expressions that complete the meaning of verbs, nouns and adjectives.

E.g. I love going (abroad on holiday.) – ‘abroad on holiday’ is the complement of the verb
love.

She is interested (in classical music.) – ‘in classical music’ is the complement of the
adjective ‘interested.’

He bought me a large box (of chocolates.) – ‘of chocolates’ is the complement of the
noun ‘box.’

COMPLEX SENTENCE: A complex sentence is a sentence that contains a main clause, plus
at least one subordinate clause.

E.g. ( She stopped,) (because she wanted to watch the helicopter.)

Main clause + Subordinate clause = Complex sentence

COMPOUND: A compound is something that is made up of more than one part, e.g.
compound verbs, nouns, adjectives, prepositions.

E.g.
Bedroom (bed + room = compound noun)

Bad-tempered (bad + tempered = compound adjective)

Because of (because + of = compound preposition)

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I am working (am + working is a compound verb)

N.B. Compound verbs consist of a main verb and an auxiliary verb. Many compound verbs
are seen when auxiliary verbs are used for the formation of different tenses.

CONCRETE NOUN: A concrete noun is the name for something that we can directly
experience in real-life, e.g. sun, fish, holiday, money etc. (The opposite of an abstract noun.)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE/CLAUSE: A sentence containing the word ‘if’, (or a word with
a similar meaning. Conditional statements express that an action in the main clause can only
happen if a situation in the ‘if’ clause occurs. There are four types of conditional sentences.

Zero Conditional: It is If + condition + result If you heat ice, it melts

always true, because
the result of the If + Present + Present If you burn yourself, it
condition is a basic rule Simple Simple hurts
of nature.

First Conditional: It is If + condition + result

possible, and likely to If I finish work, I will call
happen. If + Present + Will (Future you.
Simple Simple)
If you hurry, you will not
be late.
Second Conditional:It If + Condition + Result If you got up earlier, you
is possible, but very wouldn’t be late every
unlikely to happen. If + Past + Would + Infinitive morning.
Simple
If you had enough money,
you could buy that dress.

Third Conditional: It is If + Condition + Result If you had not been so

impossible, because it tired, you would not have
refers to an event in If + Past + Would have + Past had that accident.
the past which cannot Perfect Participle
be changed. If you had come earlier,
you would have seen him
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CONJUNCTION: A conjunction is used to join two words, clauses or phrases. (See Main
Parts of Speech)

E.g. ‘and’, ‘but’, although’, ‘because’, ‘in order to’.

CONTRACTION: A contraction is a short form, where two words are joined into one.

E.g. A Subject + an Auxiliary Verb : I’ll ; she’ll, I’ve ; they’ve

A Verb + Not : haven’t ; aren’t ; can’t ; doesn’t

N.B. With the verb,’Be’, two ways of forming a contraction are possible :
They’re not or They aren’t
We’re not or We aren’t
And in questions, ‘am not’ is contracted to ‘aren’t’, i.e. Aren’t I?

COUNTABLE NOUN: (‘See Main Parts of Speech.’)

DECLARATIVE QUESTION: A statement (positive or negative) which is used as a

question.A rising intonation pattern is used with this type of question.

E.g. You don’t like football? You want to go?

DETERMINER: A determiner precedes and identifies a noun, or noun phrase. There are
different types of determiner but they all have basically the same function. There are a
number of different kinds of determiners, including the definite and indefinite article,
demonstratives like ‘this and ‘that’, and quantifiers like ‘a few’, ‘a lot’ and ‘many’.
Determiners modify nouns.

DIRECT SPEECH: Direct speech is when we record what a person has said word for word.
With direct speech, there is no change in tense, pronouns, time expressions etc.

The correct use of punctuation is important when using direct speech, i.e. the person’s
words are placed between quotation marks, and a comma is used between the reporting
verb and the quotation.
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E.g. He turned towards me, and said,’I will never forget how you look at this moment.’
My boss said, ‘You can’t seriously expect me to give you a pay rise!’

EMPHASIS: Emphasis is when special attention is paid to one part of a word or sentence.
This may be through word stress when pronouncing words, or it may be by writing
something in capitals, or by writing something in a particular order.

FORMAL: A formal style is a polite and respectful style used when speaking or writing. A
formal style is often used in business situations, and with strangers. Some words are
considered to be more formal than others. (The opposite of formal is ‘informal.’)

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: The future perfect tense is used to express something that will
be completed before a definite time in the future.

Subject + Will + Have + Past Participle + Complement

E.g. I will have finished the housework by the time you get home.

I will have finished eating before the match starts.

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: is used to show how long something has
been happening up to a future point of time.A future time reference must be used.

Subject + Will + Have Been + Verb (Base + ‘ing’) + Complement

E.g. She will have been living in this house for thirty years by the
end of this year.

She will have been working on her thesis for three years by
the time she finishes it.
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FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE: The future progressive tense refers to an action that will
be in progress at a certain time in the future.

Subject + Will + be + Verb (Base + ‘ing’) + complement

E.g. I will be sunbathing on the beach at this time next week.

You will be enjoying your retirement at this time next year.

FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE: The present simple tense used to express future plans made at
the time of speaking ; predictions; offers, requests & promises and general facts about the
future (not in our control.)

Subject + Will + Base Verb + Complement

E.g. I will go to the theatre tomorrow

Subject will base verb complement

Wait a minute.I’ll call a friend and ask him. – future plan made at time of speaking
We’ll have a great time at the party. – prediction

I will carry your bags for you. – offer

I’m busy right now, but I will call you later. – promise

He will be 18 next year. – future fact not in our control

GERUND: A gerund is a verb that functions as a noun. A gerund is formed from the base
verb plus – ing. A gerund has exactly the same form as the present participle of the verb.

E.g. Swimming is good for your health.

Reading is my passion in life.

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N.B. Gerunds and present participles can be confusing.

Simply speaking- when used as a noun, the –ing form is referred to as a gerund.
- when used as a verb, adjective or adverb, the –ing form is referred
to as a present participle.

E.g. John is smoking outside (Smoking = part of the present continuous tense -participle)

The smoking cigarette (Smoking = adjective which describes the noun -participle)
continued to burn.

Smoking should be banned (Smoking = subject of the sentence – gerund)

N.B. Gerunds are also used as the object of certain verbs, such as enjoy, dislike, mention
E.g. I enjoy playing tennis
She dislikes getting up early.
Don’t forget to mention seeing John yesterday.
(Other verbs, however, are followed by infinitives.)

Gerunds are also used after certain prepositions, e.g. after, instead of, about.
E.g. I went home after walking in the park.
She called me instead of calling her mum.
She was not very happy about staying out so late.

Gerunds can also follow an adjective + a prepostion, e.g. afraid of, fond of.
E.g. He is afraid of hurting her feelings.
The old lady is very fond of playing bridge.

IDIOM: An idiom is an everyday expression that cannot be understood from the literal
meaning of the indiviual component words.

E.g. A pain in the neck: something, or someone that is annoying and irritating.
‘My boss is a real pain in the neck.He is always demanding the impossible.’

A nest egg: a reserve of money that has been put aside for possible future needs.
‘When I retire, I am going to use my nest egg to travel the world.’
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IMPERATIVE: An imperative is the base form of a verb used to give orders and
suggestions.

E.g. Stand up.

Have a good flight.

INDEFINITE PRONOUN: An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun which does not refer to a

specific person/persons or thing(s).For example, anyone, someone, something.

INDIRECT SPEECH: See ‘Reported speech.’

INFINITIVE: An infinitive is the base form of a verb, sometimes preceded by ‘to’. When the
infinitive is not preceded by ‘to’, it is usually referred to as the ‘bare infinitive’, or ‘base
form’of the verb. When preceded by ‘to’, it is usually referred to as a ‘full infinitive’, or as the
‘to infinitive.’ Infinitives are used after other verbs, adjectives or nouns, or as the object of a
sentence.

E.g.
I want to go home. (following the verb ‘want’)

It isn’t easy to play the guitar. (following the adjective ‘easy’)

Their plan is to stay all night. (following the noun ‘plan’)

She doesn’t let the children stay out late (the bare infinitive used after the verb ‘let’)

I don’t want to see you anymore. (the object of the sentence)

INTERROGATIVE: An interrogative is another word for ‘question.’The words – who,

what,when, where, why and when are all interrogative words used to form information
questions, i.e. words requiring more than a yes/no answer. When an interrogative word is
not used, the interrogative is formed by using an auxiliary verb before the subject.
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E.g. Do you work here? (Interrogative in the present simple tense)

Are you listening to me? (Interrogative in the present continuous tense)
Will you be staying here long? (Interrogative in the future continuous tense)
Have you been here before? (Interrogative in the present perfect tense)
Did you call your friend? (Interrogative in the past simple tense)

IRREGULAR: Something that is irregular does not follow the usual grammatical rules.E.g.
Irregular verbs that have a past tense and/or past participle that does not take the usual ‘-
ed’ ending, such as think/thought/thought, and see/saw/seen.

LEXIS: Lexis refers to the words/vocabulary of a language.

MAIN CLAUS : (See ‘Clause’ in this glossary)

MAIN VERB: (See ‘Verb’ in ‘Main Parts of Speech.’)

MODAL VERB: (See ‘Verb’ in ‘Main Parts of Speech.’)

NOUN: (See ‘Noun’ in this glossary)

NOUN CLAUSE: A noun clause acts in the same way as a noun as the subject, or object of
a sentence.The words ‘that’, and ‘what’ are often used to introduce noun clauses. A noun
clause includes a subject and a predicate (including a verb.).

E.g. I believe that he wants to leave now.

Following the main verb ‘believe’, ‘that’ introduces the noun clause, ‘he wants to leave
now.’

His boss wants to know what he has done with the money.
Following the main verb phrase ‘want to know’, ‘what’ introduces the noun clause, ‘he
has done with the money.’

NOUN PHRASE: A noun phrase is a group of words which act as a noun. A noun phrase
can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence.It contains a noun (or indefinite
pronoun) and modifiers (which distinguish it). The modifiers may come before, or after the
noun.
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E.g. I was searching for my cat. - This sentence contains a simple noun,’cat.

I was searching for my runaway cat. – This sentence contains a noun phrase,’runaway
cat’ – i.e. the noun ‘cat’, plus an adjective which describes it.

The dog was looking for a bird. – This sentence contains a simple noun, ‘bird’.

The dog was looking for a bird to eat. – This sentence contains the noun phrase, ‘bird
to eat.’

OBJECT: The object of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that usually comes after the verb in
active sentences. A direct object refers to the thing that is affected by the action of the verb.

An indirect object usually refers to a person who receives the direct object.

E.g. James bought a bouquet of flowers. – ‘bouquet of flowers’ is the direct object.

James bought a bouquet of flowers for me. – as well as the direct object, this sentence
includes the indirect object ‘me.’

PARTICIPLE: a word formed from a verb which can be used as an adjective. The two main
types of participles are the Present Participle, and the Past Participle. See Past Participle and
Present Participle below.

PARTICIPLE CLAUSE: is a clause which contains a participle of a verb.

E.g. Having got settled in at the hotel, he went to explore the local area.
‘Having’ is the present participle introducing the clause - ‘ got settled in at the
hotel.’

PASSIVE (VOICE): The passive voice is the opposite of an active sentence. However,
active sentences are used more frequently than passive constructions. In an active sentence,
the subject of the sentence does the action, or is responsible for what happens.
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However, in a passive sentence, the subject becomes the person or thing affected by the
action. The object of an active sentence becomes the subject in a passive sentence.

Subject + Auxiliary verb ‘Be’ + Past participle

E.g. Mary wrote this essay. – active sentence

Subject Object

This essay was written by Mary – passive sentence

Subject

N.B. The passive object is always introduced by the word ‘by.’

Subject + Auxiliary verb ‘Be’ + Past participle + Complement

N.B. The passive can be formed in any tense.Sentence 1 below is in the past simple tense.
Sentence 2 is in the past perfect tense, and sentence 3 is in the future simple tense.

E.g. 1. The room was cleaned by the maid.

Subject Verb ‘be’ past complement
participle

2. The room had been cleaned by the maid.

Subject Verb ‘be’ past complement

participle

3. The room will be cleaned by the maid.

Subject Verb ‘be’ past complement
participle

The passive voice is used when we want to give importance to the object of an active
structure, or when we do not know the subject of the active construction.

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: (Also known as the past progressive tense.)This tense is
used to refer to an action which was in progress at a certain time in the past.
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Subject + was/were + Verb (Base + ing) + Complement

E.g. I was working yesterday.

Subject was V+ing complement

I was watching the news at 6 o’clock last night.

Subject was V+ing complement

PAST PARTICIPLE: A past participle is the third form of a verb (i.e. The verb found in the
third collumn in lists of irregular verbs – 1.Present simple ; 2.Past simple; 3.Past participle.)
It is the form of the verb used to form the perfect tenses, passive sentences, and can also
be used as an adjective. Regular verbs form the past participle by adding ‘-ed’ to the base
verb. Other past participle endings are : -d; -t; -en and –n.

E.g. He has gone home. – present perfect tense (past participle – gone)

The bag was stolen from the office. – passive construction (past participle – stolen)

The man looked so bored. – adjective (past participle – bored)

PAST PERFECT TENSE: The past perfect tense is used to demonstrate that an action
occured before another action in the past.

Subject + Had + Past Participle + Complement

E.g. I had finished the project before Mary joined the team.

Subject had past participle complement

In this sentence, both actions happened in the past.However, finishing the project was
the first action, and Mary joining the team was the later action.
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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This tense is like the past perfect tense, however,
it refers to a longer past action which occurred before another action in the past.

Subject + had + been + Verb (Base + ing) + complement

E.g. I had been waiting for 40 minutes when the bus arrived.

Subject had been V + ing complement

PAST SIMPLE TENSE: The past simple tense refers to completed actions in the past.

Subject + Verb (Base + ed) + complement

E.g. I walked home after work.

Subject V + ed complement

N.B. The same form is used for all subjects.

The negative and question forms of this tense are formed using ‘did.’

PERSONAL PRONOUNS: Personal pronouns take the place of nouns.They can be the
subject of a sentence (subject pronouns), or the object of a sentence (object pronouns).

Singular Subject & Object Pronouns Plural Subject and Object Pronouns

Subject Object Pronouns Subject Object

Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns
I Me We Us
You You You You
He Him They Them
She Her
It It

PHRASAL VERB: A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and another word or words.The
other words are usually adverbs and/or prepositions.Phrasal verbs are a type of multi-word
verb.They are most commonly used in informal spoken and written English.
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E.g. ‘Put’ is a simple verb

‘Put up with’ ‘is a phrasal verb meaning to tolerate someone or something.

PHRASE: A phrase is two or more words that function together as a group, e.g. ‘in the
morning’, ‘the cute little dog.’

POSSESSIVE: A possessive is a form used to show possession, e.g. Penny’s (posessive case
‘s); my (possessive adjective); mine (possessive pronoun.)

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES: A possessive adjective is an adjective which demonstrates

possession. It tells us who owns something.

Possessive Adjectives : my, your, his, her, its, our, their

whose (interrogative)

E.g. This is not my phone.Whose phone is it?

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: replace a noun in a sentence. This type of pronoun

demonstrates possession.

Possessive pronouns: mine; yours; his; hers; ours & theirs

E.g. It’s not his. It’s mine.

PREDICATE: Simply put, a predicate is the part of the sentence that is not the subject. It
makes a statement about the subject of the sentence, and includes a verb.
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E.g. John’s enthusiasm delighted his teacher.

‘John’s enthusiasm’ is the subject of the sentence. The remaining part of the sentence
is the predicate.

PREPOSITION: See ‘Main Parts of Speech.’

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition followed by

an object of the preposition. The object of the preposition may be a noun, a pronoun, a
gerund or a clause.

E.g. at work ; on time (preposition + noun)

with me; from you (preposition + pronoun)
by watching; by working (preposition + gerund)
about what you said; because of the way that you had spoken (prepsition +
clause)

Prepositional phrases can act as adjectives or adverbs.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE: the –ing form of a verb.It is used to form continuous tenses, as an
adjective and as a gerund.

E.g. She is swimming very fast – present continuous tense

The film was incredibly boring – adjective

Swimming is my favourite sport in Summer. – gerund

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: Also known as the present progressive tense. This tense
is used to describe actions that are happening at this moment (now), actions happening
around now and also to talk about scheduled plans for the future.
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Subject + Auxiliary verb ‘Be’ + Verb (Base + ing) + Complement

E.g. He is having his lunch at the moment. – happening right now

Subject be V + ing complement

I am looking for a new job these days – around now

Subject be V + ing complement

I am playing football on Sunday afternoon – future plan

Subject be V + ing complement

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: is used to talk about events that happened at an unspecified
time in the past. Specific time references are never used with this tense, e.g. I have visited
Sydney many times. We can say that in general this tense is used to refer to experiences,
changes and continuing situations.

Subject + Have/has + Past Participle + Complement

E.g. I have bought a puppy.

Subject have past participle complement

This tense can be used :

1. To talk about experiences in the past

E.g. I have been to Nepal. / I have been on television.

2. To refer to uncompleted actions (which we are expecting to happen)

E.g. They haven’t arrived yet. / The parcel hasn’t come yet.

3. To refer to past actions which have an affect on the present moment.

E.g. He has lost his keys; he can’t get in the house. / I’ve broken my leg; it hurts.

4. To talk about change that has been happening over a period of time.
E.g. You have changed so much. / Your grades have improved.

5. Multiple actions which occurred at different times in the past.

E.g. I have had several blood tests. / He has won 6 matches so far.

6. To refer to events/actions within a time period which is incomplete.

E.g.I have been to the beach this week. / I haven’t been on holiday this year.
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PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE: This tense is used to describe habitual actions, regular or
permanent situations, and things that are always true.The verb ‘To Be’ in the present
simple tense is also used for situations that are general.The present simple tense can also be
used to refer to the future when talking about timetabled events.

Subject + Base Verb + Complement

E.g. I cook every day - habitual action

Subject Base verb complement

I live in Scotland. – permanent situation

A ball falls to the floor when it is thrown in the air as a result of gravity. – always true

I am fat. – general situation

The plane leaves at 10 o’clock tonight – future timetabled event

N.B. For the third person singular, i.e. he/she/it, an ‘s’ is added to the verb.
E.g. She cooks every day.

N.B. The verb ‘To Be’ in the present simple tense :

I …………….. am French.
You ……….. are German.
He/she/It .. is Spanish.
We ………… are Turkish.
They ………. are Greek.

N.B. The auxilary verb ‘do’ is used in the formation of the question and negative forms in
the present simple tense.
E.g. Do you work here?
I don’t like coffee.

However, the verb ‘be’ does not take an auxiliary verb

E.g. Are you happy now?

He’s not here.
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QUANTIFIER: A quantifier is a type of determiner which expresses imprecise quantity,

e.g. some / any, much /, a lot, a few, several. Quantifiers usually occur before a noun.
However, a quantifier can also be used instead of a pronoun, (E.g. All are present.)Not all
quantifiers can be used with all nouns, i.e. certain quantifiers can only be used with
uncountable nouns, and others can only be used with countable nouns.

E.g. There are a few people here. (‘a few’ is used with countable nouns)
but….
There is a little wine left. (‘ a little’ is used with uncountable noun)

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN: A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the clause, e.g. I
did it all by myself.(See Parts of Speech.)

RELATIVE CLAUSE: is used to give more information about something without having to
start a new sentence.The relative clause is introduced by the use of a relative pronoun and
gives additional information about a noun.The additional information introduced by the
relative clause acts like an adjective.

E.g. There’s John, who works with me.

Sally, who I told you about yesterday, asked me to join her for lunch today.

The relative pronouns are: who, which, that, whose, whom.

Who, which and ‘that’ can be used with both subject pronouns and object pronouns

Subject Pronouns: If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, it is a subject pronoun.

Object Pronouns: If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb, it is an object pronoun.

Relative adverbs (when, where, why) can be used instead of relative pronouns.
E.g. We stayed in the hotel where we had first met.
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There are two main types of relative clauses:

Defining Relative Clause: The information given in the relative clause defines the
noun.Without this information, the remaining sentence is incomplete and is not
understandable.Defining relative clauses are not placed inside two commas.
E.g.That’s the lady whose house I painted this week.

Non-Defining Relative Clause: the information introduced by the relative pronoun does not
identify the noun – it is extra information.Without this information the remaining sentence
is complete in itself and is understandable.The non-defining relative clause is always placed
between two commas.
E.g. My sister, who broke her leg last week, is staying with us for a few weeks.

REPORTED SPEECH: Reported speech is used when we report what has been said
without literally repeating it word for word.There are many rules about forming reported
speech, but generally we can say that:

- The original tense usually moves back one tense

- The most commonly used verb to introduce what was said is ‘say’, which is followed
by ‘that’
- If the situation is still true now, it is not necessary to change the tense
- Pronouns sometimes have to be changed
- Time and place may have to be changed
- Modal verbs do not usually change
- Yes/No questions are formed by using the word ‘ask’ followed by ‘if’ or ‘whether’ and

a clause.

- ‘Wh’questions use the verb ‘ask’ followed by the question word, then a clause. The

word order is the same as a positive statement, and no auxiliary verb is used.
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E.g.

‘I want an ice-cream’ – He said that he wanted an ice-cream. – tense moves back

one tense
‘John is ill’ – He told me that John is ill. – situation still true/no change of tense

‘I went in February’ – She said that she had gone in February. – change of pronoun

‘I will visit you next week’ – John said that he would visit me the following week.-
change of time reference

‘Jane is here.’ – My friend told me that Jane was there. – change of place reference

‘You should call her tonight.’ – He said that I should call her tonight. – no change of
the modal verb

‘Are you leaving?’ – My mum asked me whether I was leaving – Yes/no question

‘Where are you going?’ – He asked where I was going. – ‘Wh’ question

SUPERLATIVE:A superlative is a form of an adjective which expresses that it is the best

example of a given quality when compared with others in a group.

The superlative adjective is generally formed by placing ‘the’ before the adjective, and by
adding the suffix ‘est’ if it is a one-syllable adjective.However, if the adjective has more than
one syllable, ‘the most’ is used before the adjective.(For further rules about spelling and
irregular adjectives, consult a grammar reference.)

One-syllable adjectives : the + adjective + the suffix ‘est’

E.g. The cheetah is the fastest animal in the world.

Multi-syllable adjectives : the most + adjective

E.g. It was the most magnificent thing I had ever seen.

Irregular adjectives :
'good' becomes 'the best'
'bad' becomes 'the worst'
'far' becomes 'the furthest'
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Superlative Adverbs:
With adverbs ending in ‘ly’, the superlative is formed by adding ‘the most’ before the
adverb.
E.g. Keith drives the most carefully.
With adverbs whose form is the same as the adjective form, we use ‘the’ before the
adjective and add the ‘est’ suffix to the adverb , e.g. ‘fast’ becomes ‘the fastest’; ‘hard’
becomes ‘the hardest.’
E.g. Who works the hardest in your office?

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: Please see ‘Parts of Speech.’

VERB: Please see ‘Parts of Speech.’

UNIT 2 MODULE 1: TASKS

NAME:

TASK 1 : Write 1 example sentence demonstrating each of

the following tenses.Include time references
where necessary to make the context clear.
1. Present Simple 1.

2. Present Simple to refer to 2.

the future
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3. Present Continuous 3.

4. Present Continuous to refer 4.

to the future
5. Present Perfect Simple 5.

6. Present Perfect Continuous 6.

7. Past Simple 7.

8. Past Continuous 8.

9. Past Perfect Simple 9.

10. Past Perfect Continuous 10.

11. Future Simple 11.

12. Future using ‘Going to’ 12.

13. Future Continuous 13.

14. Future PerfectTense 14.

15. Future Perfect Continuous 15.

UNIT 2 MODULE 1
TASK 2: Write one example sentence for each of the following
NAME: structures. Place the target structures in brackets, e.g. I like
(Paris.)
1. Adjective 1.

2. Compound Adjective 2.

3. Comparative Adjective 3.
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4. Superlative Adjective 4.

5. Aderb of frequency 5.

6. Adverb of degree 6.

7. Coordinating Conjunction 7.

8. Interjection 8.

9. Countable Noun 9.

10. Uncountable Noun 10.

11. Abstract Noun 11.

12. Preposition of time 12.

13. Preposition of place 13.

14. Demonstrative Pronoun 14.

15. Object Pronoun 15.

16. Primary Auxiliary Verb 16.

17. Main Verb 17.

18. State Verb 18.

19. Action Verb 19.

20. Modal Auxiliary Verb 20.

UNIT 2 MODULE 1
NAME:

TASK 3: Write 1 example of each of the

following types of conditional statement.

1. Zero Condional 1.

2. First Conditional 2.
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3. Second Conditional 3.

4. Third Conditional 4.

TASK 4:

Transform the direct speech into reported Transform the reported speech into direct
speech. speech.
1. She asked me,’What time are you going to 4. He said that he had been to France when
go to work?’ he was a child.
Answer: Answer:

2. Paul asked,’Did you remember to buy the 5. She asked if I would like to go to the
bread?’ cinema the following day.
Answer: Answer:

3. ’I will call you tomorrow,’ John said to me. 6. Keith asked me if I liked him.
Answer: Answer: