History Project

The Rise and fall of Magadh

History as a study must be pieced together from passing references in texts both religious and
secular, from a few dramas and works of fiction purporting to describe historical events, from the
records of foreign travellers, and other references to reigning monarchs and their ancestors which
have been found engraved on rocks, pillars and temple walls, or incorporated as preambles to the
title-deeds of land grants.

Earlier at the courts of ancient Indian kings’ careful records were kept of the events of chief
importance to the state, but unfortunately these archives are completely lost to us.

Thus, the early history of India resembles a jigsaw puzzle with many missing pieces; some parts of
the picture are fairly clear; others may be reconstructed with the aid of a controlled imagination; but
many gaps remain, and may never be filled and that is what also makes history exciting.

Thus, our knowledge of the political history of ancient India is often tantalizingly vague and
uncertain.

Mahajanpadas
Janapada means the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its foot or settles. The word is
used both in Sanskrit and Prakrit . Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings but some known as
Ganas or Sanghas were oligarchies.

A few janapadas arose towards the end of the Vedic-period. However, with progress in agriculture
and settlement by 500 BC, they became a common feature. Around 450 BC, over forty janapadas
covering even Afghanistan and south-eastern Central Asia are mentioned by Panini (Panini was an
ancient Sanskrit philologist)

The Pali texts also show that the janapadas grew large states or countries. These texts mention
sixteen of them. Magadha, Gandhara, Kamboja, Kuru, Kosala, Malla, Panchala, Matsya, Chedi, Anga,
Avanti, Vatsa, Ashmika, Surasena, Vajji, Kashi.

We also find examples of these Mahajanapadas in the age of the Buddha where we find these
sixteen large states called mahajanapadas. Most of these states arose in the upper and mid-Gangetic
plains, including the doab area covered by the Ganges, Yamuna, and their tributaries. They were
mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extended from the north-west frontier to Bihar.

Of these, Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa, and Avanti seem to have been the most powerful.

We also find that, The four Mahajanapadas – Magadha, Kosala, Avanti and Vatsa were vying for
supremacy from the 6th century BC to the 4th century BC. Finally, Magadha emerged victoriously and
was able to gain sovereignty. It became the most powerful state in ancient India. Magadha is
situated in modern Bihar. Jarasandha, who was a descendant of Brihadratha founded the empire in
Magadha. Both are talked about in the Mahabharata.

List of the Mahajanapads that had coexisted with Magadh

Gandhara

Kamboja

Kuru

Kosala

Malla

Panchala

Matsya

Chedi

Anga

Avanti

Vatsa

Ashmika

Surasena

Vajji

Kashi

Kosala

Kosala, the home of the legendary Rama, was already in decline. Her king, Prasenajit (in Pali,
Pasenadi), was indeed still a mighty monarch, ruling an area little smaller than France; but from
fleeting references in the Buddhist scriptures it seems that he was inefficient, and squandered his
time and wealth on holy-men, both orthodox and heretical. His kingdom, which was infested by
robbers, was loosely controlled through tribal chieftains and vassal kings.

Anga

Beginning from the east, we hear of the kingdom of Anga which covered the modern districts of
Monghyr and Bhagalpur. It had its capital at Champa, which shows signs of habitation in the fifth
century BC, and there is a mud fort dating to that century. Eventually the kingdom of Anga was
swallowed by its powerful neighbour Magadha.

Mallas

In the neighbourhood of Koshala lay the republican clan of the Mallas, whose territory touched the
northern border of Vajji state. One of the capitals of the Mallas was at Kushinara where Gautama
Buddha passed away. Kushinara is coterminous with Kasia in Deoria district.

Vatsa

Further west was the kingdom of the Vatsas, along the bank of the Yamuna, with its capital at
Kaushambi near Allahabad. The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who had shifted from Hastinapur and
settled at Kaushambi. Kaushambi was chosen because of its location near the confluence of the
Ganga and the Yamuna. In the fifth century BC, it had a mud fortification, as excavations reveal.
Avanti

In central Malwa and the adjoining parts of MP lay the state of Avanti. It was divided into two parts,
the northern part with its capital at Ujjain, and the southern part at Mahishamati. Both these towns
became fairly important from the fifth century BC onwards, though eventually Ujjain surpassed
Mahishamati. It developed large-scale working in iron and erected strong fortifications.

Magadh
Magadha, ancient kingdom of India, situated in what is now west-central Bihar state, in north-
eastern India.

Magadh was one of the mahajanpadas which became the strongest and largest state in ancient
India. It was because of many factors that Magadh was able to achieve this, it was majorly because
of many strong rulers and their policies as well as the geographical location of Magadh and its
political conditions during its existence that it was able to rise.

The early importance of Magadha may be explained by its strategic position in the Ganges (Ganga)
River valley, enabling it to control communication and trade on the river. The river further provided
a link between Magadha and the rich ports in the Ganges delta.

Lively accounts of Pataliputra and Magadha are available in the Indica of the Greek historian
Megasthenes (c. 300 BCE) and in travel diaries of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Faxian and Xuan
Zang (4th–5th and 7th centuries CE) which tell us about the kings the former glory of the state.

Causes of Magadh’s rise/success

There were several reasons for the success of Magadh and some of them are stated below:

1.Geographical position
Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because the richest iron
deposits were situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha.

The ready availability of the rich iron ores in the neighbourhood enabled the Magadhan princes to
equip themselves with effective weapons which were not easily available to their rivals.

2.Strategic Capitals
Magadha enjoyed certain other advantages. The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Rajgir and the
second at Pataliputra, were situated at very strategic points.

Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it was impregnable fortress in those days when
there was no easy means of storming citadels such as cannons.

In the fifth century BC, the Magadhan prince Udayin shifted their capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra,
which occupied a pivotal position commanding communication on all sides.

Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of the Ganges, the Gandak, and the Son, and a fourth
river called the Ghaghra joined the Ganges not far from Pataliputra. In preindustrial days, when
communications were difficult, the army could move north, west, south, and east by following the
courses of the rivers.

Also, the position of Patna itself was rendered invulnerable because it was virtually surrounded by
rivers. While the Ganges and the Son girdled it on the north and west, the Poonpun girdled it on the
south and east. Pataliputra was therefore a true water fort (jaladurga).
3.Tranporation capabilities
Magadha lay at the centre of the mid-Gangetic plains; the Ganges provided a mean of transport. As
most of the mahajanapadas were located in the Gangetic plains, they could be reached by navigating
the rivers.

4.Timber
There was also an abundance of timber as can be seen in the palisades of the sixth century BC found
south of Patna. Megasthenes speaks of the wooden walls and houses in Pataliputra. Thus, boats
could be easily manufactured and they played an important part in promoting the advance of
Magadh towards the east and the west.

5. Agricultural facilities
environmental factors conducive to agriculture helped Magadha. The alluvium, once cleared of
jungles, proved immensely fertile. Given the heavy rainfall, the area could be made productive even
without irrigation. The countryside produced varieties of paddy, which are mentioned in the early
Buddhist texts

This area was far more productive than the areas to the west of Allahabad. This naturally enabled
the peasants to produce a considerable surplus, which could be mopped up by the rulers in the form
of taxes.

6. Rise of towns
The princes of Magadha also benefited from the rise of towns and use of metal money. A Pali text
speaks of twenty towns in the age of the Buddha. Most of them were located in the mid-Gangetic
plains. They contributed to trade and commerce in north-east India. This enabled the princes to levy
tolls on the sale of commodities and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army

7. Military Organisation
Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organization. Although the Indian states were well
acquainted with the use of horses and chariots, it was Magadha which first used elephants on a large
scale in its wars against its neighbours.

The eastern part of the country could supply elephants to the princes of Magadha, and we learn
from Greek sources that the Nandas maintained 6000 elephants.

Elephants could be used to storm fortresses and to march across marshy and other areas lacking
roads and other means of transport

9. Strong rulers
The reason for the success of Magadh as an Empire was also because of the fact that through its it
was led by some very strong and sturdy rulers which facilitated it’s rise.

For example: Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya, Mahapadma Nanda, Chandra Guptas etc.

Timeline of Magadh
Dynasty King Name Years of reign / BCE
Haryanka dynasty Bimbisara 546 – 494
Buddha attained nirvana 528
Rajgir capital
Ajatashatru 494 – 462
Buddha’s Death 480
Udayin 462 – 446
Pataliputra made capital
Anuruddha and Munda 446–43
Nagadasaka 438–414

Shishunaga dynasty Shishunaga 414–396

Kalashoka 396–368
Mahadin 368–346

Nanda Dynasty Mahapadma Nanda 367 – 338

Ugra-sena Nanda 338 -
Panduka Nanda
Pandugati Nanda
Bhuta-Pala Nanda
Rashta-Pala Nanda
Govishanaka Nanda
Dasha-siddhaka Nanda
Kaivarta Nanda
Dhana Nanda -321

Maurya Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya 322 / 312 – 297

Battle of Chandragupta w/ 305
Selecus Nicator
Megasthenes visits India 302 – 288
Chandragupta Maurya does
sallekhna
Bindusara 297 – 272 / 268
Ashoka 272 / 268 – 232
Dasharatha 232 – 224
Samprati 224 – 215
Shalishuka 212 – 202
Devavarman 202 – 195
Shatadhanvan 195 – 187
Brihadratha 187 – 180

Shunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Shunga 180 - 151

Agnimitra 151 - 141
Devabhuti 141 - 131
The Nanda dynasty
The Nandas were known as the first Non-Kshatriya rulers in the history of India. They were also called the “first
Empire Builders” in the recorded history of India. Estimates say that the army of Nandas was consisting of
200,000 infantries, 20,000 (or 80,000) cavalry, 2,000 (or 8,000) war chariots and 3,000 (or 6,000) war
elephants. Nanda ruled almost all parts of India for 100 years.

Nandas proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha. The Nandas extended the Magadhan
power by conquering many areas and expanding such as Kalinga and So great was their power that
Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, dared not move towards the east. The most Prominent
leader pf the Nandas was Mahapadma Nanda.

The Nandas prospered with a complex and effective administrative machinery built on the existing
structures set in place from Bimbisara’s time. This was used to collect taxes that not only enriched
the treasury, but also allowed the Nanda maintain large armies as well as build canals and instituted
irrigation projects.

Mahapadma Nanda (367 BC and 338 BC)

In the middle of the 4th century B.C., Mahapadma Nanda was emperor of Magadha

He was an unpopular upstart, but, as far as can be gathered from the few references to him, he was
an energetic and ambitious king, it seems that he captured not only Kalinga (the modern Orissa and
the northern coastal strip of Andhra) but also Koshala which had probably rebelled against him.

1.Origin
As per the Puranas
He was the son of Shishunaga Dynasty’s last king Mahanandin from a Shudra
wife/concubine. In order to claim the throne, he eliminated all his brothers from his
other mothers and became a king, putti ng an end to the Shishunaga dynasty .

According to Jain and Roman Historian, He was the Son of a Barber

The Jain texts illustrate that Mahapadma Nanda was the son of a courtesan from a
barber. This is further agreed by Roman historian Curti s who claims that Mahapadma’s
father was originally a barber who somehow gained the queen’s aff ecti on

Next, with her influence, he could get close to the king. He then murdered the king and later under
the pretext of the guardian of the royal children, he took over the authority, killed the children and
produced his own. Thus, the legitimate sons to the throne were killed and the son of the conqueror
(Mahapadma) became the king.

2.Destroyer of the kshatriyas

Mahapadma Nanda was a non-kshatriya and had a deep hatred for the caste of kshatriyas, He also
claimed to be ekarat, the sole sovereign who had destroyed all the other ruling princes. In other
references he also has been called the “Destroyer of all kshatriyas” Because of the same.

3.Area extended under control

He also defeated the Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Asmakas, Kalinga, Koshla, Kurus, Maithilas, Sura
Senas and the vitihotras to name a few. He expanded his territory to the south of the Deccan plains
4.Military strength
It was he who began to build one of the biggest Empire of North India which his son Dhana Nanda
expanded. During that era, the Nandas had 3,000 war elephants, 20,000 cavalry, 2000 war chariots
and 2 lakh infantries.

DEATH/Succession
His death seems to have been followed by a disputed succession, which coincided with important
events in the North-West. Out of the confusion of the times emerged the greatest and most
powerful of India's many empires.

Dhana Nanda
Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. He was one of the nine sons of Mahapadma
Nanda, who simultaneously ruled Magadh. (The youngest among them was Dhana Nanda.)

1.Huge army
He is known or establishing a huge army of 20000 infantry, 20000 cavalry, 2000 war chariots and
3000 war elephants and as a powerful king with a huge army he was able to extend his kingdom to
Bengal and Sind.

2.Wealth / Gold Hoarder

Apart from his vast empire and great army, Dhana Nanda amassed huge wealth. He was huge mass
of gold reserves. It is said that he built his treasure house by causing a great excavation in a rock in
the bed of the Ganges and he gathered wealth by levying taxes on skins, stones and various articles.

Reasons for unpopularity and fall

1.Greed

As Stated above he was addicted to hoarding treasure and collected a huge treasure near the river
Ganges. As an autocratic ruler he imposed huge taxes on different things everyday making poor
people’s life miserable. Therefore, there was public outrage against him.

2.Insulted Chanakya

He also known for insulting Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta Maurya. But later through
tactics and guidance from Chanakya he was able defeat Dhana Nanda and in 321 BC Chandragupta
Maurya was crowned was the king where Chanakya was appointed as his prime minister. He was
highly unpopular and it was for the same reason that it was very easy for Chandragupta Maurya to
defeat him, but some sources suggest that Dhana Nanda adopted Buddhism and went for exile.

3.Anti-Kshatriya Policy

The anti-Kshatriya policy made him abominable to the orthodox Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.

*write a intro for the mauryans*

Chandragupta Maurya
Origin
Much of Chandragupta’s life and origins are still shrouded in mystery. Most of what is known about
him comes more from legends and folklore rather than actual historical sources.
There are many views when it comes to the lineage of Chandragupta Maurya. Most of the
information about his ancestry comes from ancient texts of the Greek, Jains, Buddhist and ancient
Hindus.

According to Brahmanical tradition – Son of a Shudra

Some of the historians believe that he was an illegitimate child of a Nanda prince and his maid,
Mura.

According to Buddhist tradition – As a kshatriya

Others believe that Chandragupta belonged to Moriyas, a Kshatriya (warrior) clan of a little ancient
republic of Pippalivana, situated between Rummindei (Nepali Tarai) and Kasia (Gorakhpur district of
Uttar Pradesh)

According to the Greek view – As a commoner

Last but not the least, it is also claimed that Chandragupta Maurya was abandoned by his parents
and that he came from a humble background. According to the legend, he was raised by a pastoral
family and then was later sheltered by Chanakya, who taught him the rules of administration and
everything else that is required for one to become a successful emperor.

The Greek Invasion

In 330 B.C. Alexander of Macedon defeated Darius III, the last of the Achaemenids, and set out to
subdue the whole of the former Persian Empire, he was successful in his attacks and pushed on till
Punjab where he also defeated its king Porus but at the Beas he was forced to turn back, for his
generals feared mutiny if his troops were made to advance further into the unknown country.

Classical sources speak of a young Indian named Sandrocottus identical with the Chandragupta
Maurya of Indian source who supported the invaders. Plutarch states that Sandrocottus advised
Alexander to advance beyond the Beas and attack the Nanda emperor, who was so unpopular that
his people would rise in support of an invader.

Whether or not these stories are true, it is reasonable to believe that the emperor Chandragupta
Maurya, who rose to power soon after Alexander's invasion and went on a war with Dhana Nanda,

It is said that Dhana Nanda in the past had insulted Chanakya and due to this Chanakya had pledged
that he would bring an end to Nanda dynasty. And this insult led to Chanakya Teaching
Chandragupta and him establishing his own dynasty with Chanakya being the brains of the whole
operation.

Ending Dhana Nanda and laying the roots for the Mauryan empire
Much of what is known about the conquest comes from accounts written long after the war itself.
Ancient historian, Plutarch (AD 46 – AD 120) gives an account of parts of the conquest. The conquest
was fictionalized in Mudrarakshasa, a political drama in Sanskrit by Vishakadatta composed between
300 CE and 700 CE.

The history is also briefly recounted in Vishnu Purana (unknown date), which emphasizes the
importance of Chanakya in the destruction of the Nanda empire.

Estimates of the armies have taken from ancient roman sources. Pliny and Plutarch also estimated
the Nanda Army strength in the east as 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000
war elephants. These estimates were based in part of the earlier work of the Seleucid ambassador to
the Maurya, Megasthenes.

The Digambara Jain text Parishishtaparvan states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins
he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka.

In Mudrarakshasa, Chandragupta was said to have first acquired Punjab, and then combined forces
with Chanakya and advanced upon the Nanda Empire. Similarly, Plutarch writes that he first
overthrew Alexanders Prefects in the northwest of India.

One 21st-century author, Suhas Chatterjee, suggests that "Chandragupta had to engage all his
military strength, even Greek mercenaries from Punjab in his conquest of the Nanda king" and
according to references about the conquest in the Milinda Panha "One lakh of soldiers, 10,000
elephants, 100,000 horses and 5,000 charioteers were killed in the encounter"

The Buddhist Mahavamsa Tika and Jain Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army
unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital and Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign
at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the
Nanda capital.

In Mudrarakshasa, he laid siege to Kusumapura (or Pataliputra now Patna), the capital of Magadha,
with the help of north-west frontier tribe mercenaries from areas already conquered. The siege may
have begun in 320 BCE. By 312 BCE he had conquered all of north and north-west India.

In the war, Chandragupta may have allied with the King of Simhapura in Rajputana and Gajapati King
of Kalinga (modern day Orissa). The prior experience of his mercenaries from the Punjab were likely
important in his military success. It is also suggested that Chandragupta's campaign was laid out by
using popular guerrilla tactics, as the Nanda Empire was large and had been able to wield large
armies that would have been overwhelming to oppose by an upstart.

The war brought an end to the Nanda Dynasty, Dhana Nanda accepted defeat and was killed by
Buddhist accounts or deposed and exiled by Hindu accounts. All this then led to the establishment of
the Maurya Empire with Chandragupta Maurya as its leader.

There are a lot of sources stating many different things but Both Indian and classical sources agree
that Chandragupta overthrew the last of the Nandas and occupied his capital, Pataliputra; also, after
Alexander's retreat Chandragupta subdued the North-West, driving out the Greek garrisons. It is not
clear which of these operations was first undertaken, and, with the annoying uncertainty of much
ancient Indian history, estimates of the date of Chandragupta's accession vary within a decade (324
—313 B.C.)

The area under control

Chandragupta thus built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and substantial parts of
Orissa and Bengal but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan.

Aside from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of north-eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over virtually the
entire subcontinent. In the north-west, they held sway over certain areas that did not even form part
of the British empire
Administration Under Chandragupta Maurya
The Mauryas organized a very elaborate system of administration. The empire was divided into a
number of provinces, and each of these was placed under a prince who was a scion of the royal
dynasty.

The provinces were divided into still smaller units, and arrangements were made for both rural and
urban administration. Excavations show that a large number of towns relate to Maurya times.
Pataliputra, Kaushambi, Ujjain, and Taxila were the most important cities.

According to Kautilya, the central government also maintained about two dozen departments of
state, which controlled social and economic activities at least in the areas that were in proximity to
the capital.

Military Administration
The most striking feature of Chandragupta’s administration was its maintenance of a huge army. A
Roman writer called Pliny states that Chandragupta maintained 600,000-foot soldiers, 30,000
cavalrymen, and 9000 elephants. Another source tells us that the Mauryas maintained 8000
chariots. In addition to these, it appears that the Mauryas also maintained a navy.

The administration of the armed forces, according to Megasthenes, was carried on by a board of
thirty officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of five members. It seems that
each of the six wings of the armed forces, the army, the cavalry, the elephants, the chariots, the
navy, and the transport, was assigned to the care of a separate committee.

The Mauryas’ military strength was almost three times that of the Nandas, and this was apparently
because of a much larger empire and thus far greater resources

Financial Administration
If we want to see how Chandragupta financed his massive army, we can look at some sources,

If we rely on the Arthashastra of Kautilya, it would appear that the state controlled almost all the
economic activities in the realm.

The state brought new land under cultivation with the aid of cultivators and shudra labourers. The
virgin land that was opened to cultivation yielded handsome income to the state in the form of
revenue collected from the newly settled peasants.

It appears that taxes collected from the peasants varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the
produce. Those who were provided with irrigation facilities by the state had to pay for it. In addition,
in times of emergency, peasants were compelled to raise more crops.

Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale, and they were collected at the gate.
Moreover, the state enjoyed a monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms, etc. This
naturally brought vast resources to the royal exchequer. Chandragupta thus established a well-
organized administrative system and gave it a sound financial base.

Pataliputra
Megasthenes states that numerous cities existed in India, but he considered Pataliputra to be the
most important. He calls it Palibothra. This Greek term means a city with gates According to him,
Pataliputra was bounded by a deep ditch and a wooden wall crowned with 570 towers, and had 64
gates.
The ditch, timber palisades, and also wooden houses have been found in excavations. According to
Megasthenes, Pataliputra was 9.33 miles long and 1.75 miles broad. This size tallies with that of
Patna even today, because Patna is all length with little breadth. Given this conformity, it is possible
to trust Megatheres’ other statements.

The Greek ambassador also refers to the administration of Pataliputra. The city was administered by
six committees, each of which consisted of five members. These committees were entrusted with
sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of birth and death, regulation of weights and measures,
and similar other functions.

Relations with Seleucus Nicator

Soon after Chandragupta had taken over the Nanda empire and thrown over the Greeks, The Greeks
did not take long to again knock at the doors of India.

Alexanders general Seleucus Nicator had succeeded in Gaining control of most pf the Asiatic
provinces of the short-lived Macedonian Empire, and turned his attention to the East. About 305 B.C.
he met Chandragupta in Battle, and seems to have suffered the worst of the engagement, for not
only did he fail in his attempt to recover Alexander’s Indian Provinces, but he was compelled to yield
parts of what is now eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the area west of the Indus to
Chandragupta, receiving in exchange only 500 elephants.

The peace was concluded by a matrimonial alliance, the exact nature of which is uncertain; but it is
not impossible that the successors of Chandragupta had Greek blood in their veins.

Seleucus sent an ambassador, Megasthenes, to reside at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra, and the
envoy wrote a detailed account of India which became the standard textbook on the subject for
later classical writers.

The sources of Information

Megasthenes
As mentioned Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. He lived in the Maurya capital of Pataliputra and wrote an account not only of the
administration of the city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya empire as a whole.

Megasthenes’s account does not survive in full, but quotations from it occur in the works of several
subsequent Greek and Latin writers. These fragments have been collected and published in the form
of a book entitled Indica, which throws valuable light on the administration, society, and economy of
Maurya times.

The Greek ambassador also refers to the administration of Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas
(Mentioned above).

Chandragupta’s account by Megasthenes

Megasthenes much admired the Emperor Chandragupta for his energetic administration of justice,
which he presided over personally in open Darbar.
He dwelt in great luxury in an enormous palace at Pataliputra, which, though built wholly of wood,
was of unbelievable beauty and splendour

but his life was not a happy one, for he was in constant fear of assassination, an ever-present danger
to many Indian kings, and very stringent precautions were taken for his security

The capital was a large and fine city, surrounded by a wooden wall; it was controlled by an
administrative board of thirty members, who regulated in detail the whole social and economic life
of the city.

The record of Megasthenes, though by no means as complete and accurate as might be wished, is of
great importance as the first authentic and connected description of India by a foreign traveller.

Arthashastra of Kautilya
The Arthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics, military strategy, the function of the
state, and social organization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya (also known
as Chanakya, Vishnugupta, l. c. 350-275 BCE) who was instrumental in establishing the reign of the
great king Chandragupta Maurya.

The name of the work comes from the Sanskrit words Artha (“aim” or “goal”) and Shastra (“treatise”
or “book”) and the goal of the work is a comprehensive understanding of statecraft which will
enable a monarch to rule effectively.

The work was known through later references to it in other pieces but was considered lost until a
later copy was discovered in 1905 CE by the Sanskrit scholar Rudrapatna Shamasastry (l. 1868-1944
CE) which he published in 1909 CE and then translated into English in 1915 CE.

The Arthashastra has since enjoyed international fame as one of the greatest political treatises ever
written and has been compared to other greats such as The Prince by the Italian political philosopher
Niccolò Machiavelli.

The text as we have it at present is certainly not the work of Kautilya entirely, but it is very valuable
nevertheless, and contains genuine Mauryan reminiscences.

The Arthashastra, composed some 1500 years before The Prince, is still studied in the present day
for its rational presentation of statecraft and its effectiveness in arguing for the State as an organic
entity served best by a strong leader whose most important duty and focus should be the good of
the people.

Summary

Megasthenes’s account can also be supplemented by the Arthashastra of Kautilya. Although the
Arthashastra was finally compiled a few centuries after Maurya rule, some of its books contain
material that provides authentic information about the Maurya administration and economy. These
two sources enable us to draw a picture of the administrative system of Chandragupta Maurya.

Death of Chandragupta Maurya

The circumstances and year of Chandragupta's death are unclear and disputed.

According to Jaina tradition Chandragupta abdicated the throne which then came to Bindusara
Maurya, became a Jaina monk, and fasted to death known as Sallekhana after spending some years
under the auspices and guidance of Jain monk Bhadrabahu, at the great Jaina temple and monastery
of Sravana Belgola, in the modern Mysore.

Bindusara
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded after a reign of twenty-four years by his son Bindusara, about
whom little is known except that he was in touch with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria. As well
as running the administration smoothly and maintaining a good relation with distant countries like
the Greeks, the Syrians and the Egyptians. Ambassadors from these countries also lived in the King’s
Court. He was also known as ‘Amitrochates’ or the “destroyer of enemies” by the Greek sources.

Chandragupta Maurya had already conquered northern India and Bindusara’s campaign stopped
close to what is today Karnataka, probably because the territories of the extreme south, such as
those of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras had good relations with the Mauryas.

He is also called the “conqueror of land between the two seas”, Because of the fact that he brought
sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost the entire Indian peninsula i.e.
lying in between the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

Much of the information about him comes from Jain legends focused on Chandragupta and the
Buddhist legends focused on Ashoka. While these legends can be used to make several inferences
about Bindusara's reign, they are not entirely reliable because of the close association between
Ashoka and Buddhism.

There are a lot of sources stating different names for the mother of Ashoka and there is a lot of
debate on which one is right. For example, The prose version of Ashokavadana names three sons of
Bindusara: Sushima, Ashoka and Vigatashoka. The mother of Ashoka and Vigatashoka was a woman
named Subhadrangi, the daughter of a Brahmin of the Champa city.

Ashoka
Bindusara was succeeded, about 269 B.C., probably after a short interregnum, by his son Ashoka, the
greatest and noblest ruler India has known, and indeed one of the great kings of the world.

Rise of Ashoka
According to Buddhist sources Ashoka usurped the throne fight for 4 years a civil war, killed all
possible rivals including his 99 brothers, and began his reign as a tyrant, as this statement is based
on a legend, it may be mythical. Ashoka’s biography, written by Buddhist authors, is so full of fiction
that it cannot be taken seriously.
Ashoka’s Edicts
The history of Ashoka is reconstructed on the basis of his inscriptions, thirty-nine in number, have
been classified into Major rock edicts, Minor rock edicts, Separate rock edicts, Major pillar edicts,
and Minor pillar edicts. Ashoka’s inscriptions are called dhammalipi, which cover not only religion
and morality but also embrace social and administrative matters

The name Ashoka occurs in copies of Minor Rock Edict I found at three places in Karnataka and at
one in MP. Thus, altogether, the name Ashoka occurs four times.

It is significant that Ashoka’s name does not occur in any of his inscriptions from north or north-west
India. The inscriptions which do not carry his name mention only devanampiya piyadasi, dear to the
gods, and leave out the name Ashoka. The title devanampiya or ‘dear to gods’ adopted by Ashoka
was not unique but also adopted by his ancestors. However, piyadasi or ‘good looking’ seems to
have been his unique title.

Ashokan inscriptions have been found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Altogether, they
appear at forty-seven places, and the total number of versions is 182 including two edicts which are
considered spurious. It is significant that Ashokan inscriptions which were generally located on
ancient highways, have been found at six places in Afghanistan.

Composed in Prakrit, they were written in Brahmi script in the greater part of the subcontinent.
However, in the north-western part of the subcontinent they appeared in Aramaic language and
Kharosthi script, and in Afghanistan they were written in both Aramaic and Greek scripts and
languages.

The broad objective was to preserve the social order. He ordained that people should obey their
parents, pay respect to the brahmanas and Buddhist monks, and show mercy to slaves and servants.

While other edicts exist, which are written by other kings they primarily focus on glorifying the
emperor, cataloguing their conquests, and enumerate the peoples and tribes under their sway.

But Ashoka's edicts are in the nature of official pronouncements of policy, and instructions to his
officers and subjects. They contain many personal touches, and the drafts were probably written by
the emperor himself.

That makes Ashoka the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions
which carry royal orders. The inscriptions throw light on Ashoka’s career, his external and domestic
polices, and the extent of his empire.

They (edicts) tell us that when the king had been consecrated eight years i.e. after the Kalinga war,
he underwent a complete change of heart, and embarked on a new policy.

The Kalinga War

After his accession to the throne, Ashoka fought only one major war called the Kalinga war.
According to him, 100,000 people were killed in the course of it, several lakhs died, and 150,000
were taken prisoners. These numbers are exaggerated, because the number ‘a hundred thousand’ is
used as a cliché in Ashokan inscriptions.

it appears that the king was deeply moved by the massacre in this war. The war caused great
suffering to the brahmana priests and Buddhist monks, and this in turn brought upon Ashoka much
grief and remorse. He therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of one of
cultural conquest.
Changes after the Kalinga war
From the rock edicts that Ashoka's reform became humanity in internal administration and the
abandonment of aggressive war. In place of the traditional policy of territorial expansion he
substituted conquest by Righteousness.

It seems that Ashoka believed that, by setting an example of enlightened government, he might
convince his neighbours of the merits of his new policy and thus gain the moral leadership of the
whole civilized world.

It would be wrong to think that the Kalinga war caused Ashoka to become an extreme pacifist. He by
no means gave up his imperial ambitions, but modified them in accordance with the humanitarian
ethics of Buddhism, He did not pursue the policy of peace for the sake of peace under all
circumstances, but adopted the practical policy of consolidating his empire. He by no means gave up
his imperial ambitions, but modified them in accordance with the humanitarian ethics of Buddhism.

For example,

The wild tribesmen of hill and forest were a constant source of danger to the more settled parts of
the empire, and it would seem that earlier kings had kept them in check by ruthless campaigns of
extermination. Ashoka clearly intended to try to civilize them, but it is quite evident that he was
ready to repress them by force if they continued their raids on the more settled parts of his empire.

He made no mention of reducing the army, and if, under the influence of Buddhism, he had done so,
he would surely have taken pride in the fact.

Despite his remorse at the conquest of Kalinga, he was too much of a realist to restore it to its
original rulers.

For all his humanitarianism he maintained the death penalty, which was abolished under some later
Indian kings, and merely granted a stay of execution of three days to men condemned to death, so
that they might put their affairs in order and prepare their minds for the next world.

Though Buddhist tradition records that he abolished judicial torture, this is not clearly stated in his
edicts.

In domestic affairs the new policy was felt in a general relaxation of the stern justice of earlier times.

He strongly supported the doctrine of ahimnsa (non-injury to men and animals), then rapidly
spreading among religious people of all sects, banned animal sacrifices, at least in his capital, and
regulated the slaughter of animals for food, completely forbidding the killing of certain species. Thus,
Asoka's encouragement was in part responsible for the growth of vegetarianism in India.

He also took pride in the fact that he had substituted pilgrimages to Buddhist holy places for hunting
expeditions.

Among his positive social services Ashoka mentions the improvement of communications by planting
fruit trees along the roads to provide shade and food, digging wells at intervals, and setting up rest-
houses for weary travellers. He developed the cultivation of medicinal herbs, which, with other
drugs, were supplied to men and animals alike.

To ensure that his reforms were put into effect he inaugurated a new class of official, the “ Officers
of Righteousness" (dharma-mahamatra) who, taking their instructions direct from the centre, were
ordered to investigate the affairs of all the provinces, to encourage good relations between man and
man, and to ensure that the local officials carried out the new policy.

Ashoka and Religion

Ashoka was converted to Buddhism as a result of the Kalinga war. According to tradition, he became
a monk, made huge gifts to the Buddhists, and undertook pilgrimages to the Buddhist shrines. His
visits to Buddhist shrines are also suggested by the dhamma yatras mentioned in his inscriptions.

According to tradition, Ashoka held the third Buddhist council (sangiti) and missionaries were sent
for the propagation of Buddhism to Sri Lanka and Central Asia which also included Myanmar
(Burma), and there are Brahmi inscriptions of the second and first centuries BC have been found in
Sri Lanka to support Ashoka’s initiatives to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Through Ashoka’s Inscriptions we can see that he was not a meta–physician, and he probably had
little interest in or understanding of the finer points of Buddhism.

Although he never mentions the Buddhist Nirvana, he speaks frequently of heaven and he seems to
have held the naive belief that, as a result of the growth of morality through his reforms, the gods
had manifested themselves on earth, a phenomenon which had not occurred for many years
previously.

For Ashoka, Buddhism seems to have been a system of morals which led to peace and fellowship in
this world and heaven in the next. His metaphysical presuppositions were not distinctively Buddhist,
but were evidently those traditional in India at the time.

Ashoka's Buddhism, though enthusiastic, was not exclusive. He more than once he declared that all
sects were worthy of respect, and he dedicated artificial caves to the sect of Ajivikas, who were
among the chief rivals of the Buddhists.

But it was also in Ashoka’s reign that Buddhism ceased to be a simple Indian sect and began its
career as a world religion.

Death of Ashoka and the decline of the Mauryas

It appears that the old Emperor, who died about 232 B.C., somewhat lost grip in his later years, and
the succession was disputed by his sons.

According to the Ashokavadana, the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using
state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access
to the state treasury and continuing like he also gave away all his personal possessions as donations.

The Empire began to fall apart on his death, when the governors of the great provinces, usually
members of the royal family, established their virtual independence.

The successors of Ashoka were lesser men then he, and little is known of them but their names.

Brihadratha Maurya
For some fifty years Mauryan kings continued to rule in Magadha until, about 183 B.C., Emperor
Brihadratha Maurya was the last Mauryan King of Mauryan Empire. He was killed by Pushyamitra
Sunga, a military General in the Mauryan Army which put an end to the Maurya Dynasty.
According to some sources, one day, Pushyamitra Sunga invited Mauryan Emperor Brihadratha to
check an army parade, and killed him there. It is a rare occurrence in Ancient Indian History that a
Military General could murder a ruling king in the presence of the royal army.

After the death of Brihadratha Maurya, the Mauryan Empire collapsed. Pushyamitra Sunga captured
the throne of Magadha and the Sunga dynasty was established.

Causes of the fall of the Mauryan Empire

The Magadh empire, which had been reared by successive wars culminating in the conquest of
Kalinga began to disintegrate after the exit of Ashoka in 232 B.C. Several causes seem to have
brought about the decline and the fall of the Mauryas

Brahmanical Backlash
The Brahmanical reaction began as a result of Ashoka’s policy. There is no doubt that Ashoka
adopted a tolerant policy and asked the people to respect even the brahmanas, but he issued his
edicts in Prakrit and not in Sanskrit. He prohibited the killing of birds and animals, and derided
superfluous rituals performed by women. The anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism adopted by Ashoka
adversely affected the incomes of brahmanas.

Further, Ashoka appointed rajukas to govern the countryside and introduce vyavaharasamata and
dandasamata. This meant the same civil and criminal law for all varnas. But the Dharma shastra
compiled by the brahmanas prescribed varna discrimination. Naturally this policy infuriated the
brahmanas.

Financial Crisis
The enormous expenditure on the army and payment to the bureaucracy created a financial crisis
for the Mauryan empire. Because as we know the Mauryas maintained the largest army and the
largest number of officers. But despite the taxes imposed on the people, it was still very difficult to
maintain this huge system, in addition to this till his last days he kept making large donations to the
Buddhist monks which left the royal treasury empty

New Knowledge in the Outlying Areas

We may recall that Magadha owed its expansion to certain basic material advantages. Once the
knowledge of the use of these elements of culture spread to central India, the Deccan, and Kalinga
as a result of the expansion of the Magadhan empire, the Gangetic basin, which formed the heart of
the empire, lost its special advantage.

The regular use of iron tools and weapons in the peripheral provinces coincided with the decline and
fall of the Maurya empire. On the basis of the material culture acquired from Magadha, new
kingdoms could be founded and developed.

Neglect of the North-West Frontier

Since Ashoka was primarily preoccupied with missionary activities at home and abroad, he was
unable to pay attention to safeguarding the passes through the north-western frontier. This had
become necessary in view of the movement of tribes in Central Asia in the third century BC.

art and architecture

The Mauryas made a remarkable contribution to art and architecture, and introduced stone masonry
on a wide scale.
Megasthenes states that the Maurya palace at Pataliputra was as splendid as that in the capital of
Iran. Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating the existence of an 84-pillared hall, have been
discovered at Kumrahar on the outskirts of modern Patna. These certainly attest to the high
technical skill achieved by Maurya artisans in polishing the stone pillars, which are as shining as the
Northern Black Polished ware.

It was a very difficult task to transport the huge blocks of stone from the quarries and to polish and
embellish them when they were erected. The whole process suggests a great feat of engineering.
Each pillar is made of a single piece of buff-coloured sandstone.

Only their capitals, which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in the form of lions or bulls, are joined to
the pillars on the top.

The erection of the polished pillars throughout India shows the spread of the technical knowledge
involved in the art of polishing them.

It also shows that transport had spread far and wide. The Maurya artisans also started the practice
of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The earliest examples are the Barabar caves at a
distance of 30 km from Gaya.

Terracotta

In the central phase of the Northern Black Polished Ware around 300 BC, the central Gangetic plains
became the centre of terracotta art.

In Maurya times terracottas were produced on a large scale. They generally represented animals and
women. The women included mother goddesses, and animals included elephants.

These terracottas were however modelled by hand. The stone statue of Yakshini in the form of a
beautiful woman found in Didarganj (Patna) is noted for its Maurya polish
 The end

The Maurya empire was finally destroyed by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BC. Although a brahmana,
he was a general of the last Maurya ruler called Brihadratha. He is said to have killed Brihadratha in
public and forcibly usurped the throne of Pataliputra.

The Shungas ruled in Pataliputra and central India. They performed several Vedic sacrifices to mark
the revival of the Brahmanical way of life, and are said to have persecuted the Buddhists.

The last king of Shungas, Devabhuti was assassinated by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, who then
established Kanva dynasty.

The last king of Kanva dynasty was killed by Balipuccha, who founded the Andhra
dynasty/Satavahana dynasty.

Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line, ruled until 225 C.E. After the death of Pulumavi IV, the
Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms

After them there were some kingdoms that came up the most important of them being the Guptas.

The empire eventually died out because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and
imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna
peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.

After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous
regional kingdoms.