26.

1 Quasi-One dimensional Flows

One and two dimenisonal compressible flows have already been seen in earlier
sections. This section deals with the quasi-one dimensional flows. For Rayleigh
and Fanno flows we had considered the flow to be one dimensional. The main
reason for this assumption is the constancy of the cross sectional area of duct in
the direction of flow. If area of the duct varies in the direction of flow then flow
should be treated as three dimensional flow. However if such a variation is
gradual then we can neglect the changes taking place in cross stream directions.
Such flows are called as quasi-one dimensioanl flows. Example of a strcitly one
dimensional and a quasi-one dimensional flow is given in Fig. 26.1.

Fig 26.1: Control volume for 1D and Quasi 1D flows

Consider a typical control volume shown in Fig. 26.1 (b) where inlet and outlet
properties of the flow are given by subscripts 1 and 2 respectively.

26.1.1 Mass conservation equation

The integral form of mass conservation equation is,

For the steady flow, above equation reduces to,

------------------------(26.1)

Hence the differential form of mass conservation equation is

--------------------------(26.2)

6.1.2 Momentum conservation equation

The integral form of momentum conservation equation for inviscid flow is,

For the steady flow this equation transforms to,

--------------------------(26.3)
Here integration of the pressure is on the streamwise surfaces. This equation is
not the usual algebric equation.The differential form of this equation can be
written as,

Neglecting the higher order terms we get,

------------------(26.4)
We can expand the equation (26.2) as

multiplying this equation by u we get,

Substracting the above equation from Eq. (26.4) we get,

----------------------------(26.5)

6.1.3 Energy conservation equation

The integral form of energy conservation equation for inviscid adiabatic flow is,

For the steady flow above equation reduces to,

But we know that,

Hence,
The differential form of energy equation is,

-------------------------(26.7)

26.2. Area-velocity relation for Quasi-One Dimensional flow.

Consider the differential mass conservation equation

Expanding this equation we get,

dividing both the sides by , we get

------------------------------(26.8)

To obtain the relation between velocity and area we need to replace the

term of above equation. We know differential form or momentum equation

as,
Using the above equation, Eq. 6.8 can be written as,

-----------------------(26.9)

Many conclusions can be drawn from this equation.

1. For positive dA, du will be postive for M>1. Hence for supersonic flows, velocity
of the flow increases with increase in area or divergent portion acts as the nozzle.
Simillarly, for convergent portion acts as the diffuser for supersonic flows.

2. For negative dA, du will be postive for M<1. Hence for subsonic flows, velocity
of the flow increases with decrease in area or convergent portion acts as the
nozzle. Simillarly, for divergent portion acts as the diffuser for supersonic flows.

3. We can always achieve supersonic flow using a convergent-divergent duct

having subsonic flow at the entry. In such a case, for M=1, we get dA=0, means
Mach one will be achieved at the minimum cross section of the duct. Therefore
the minimum cross-section where sonic conditions are achieved in the
convergent divergent duct, is called as throat.
27.1.Isentropic flow through varying area duct

Lets consider the varying area duct as shown in Fig. 27.1. Areas at different stations
are mentioned in the same figure. The minimum cross-sectional area of this duct is
called as throat if local Mach number of the same cross-section is 1. We can find
out the area of throat under this constraint for known inlet or outlet area of the
duct. We know that mass flow rate at the throat is,

Fig. 27.1 Flow through convergent divergent duct.

Where, are geometric and flow properties at the throat.

For the steady flow, mass flow rate at any cross-section having geometric and flow

properties as will be equal to the mass flow rate of the throat. Hence,

But we know that

Hence the area relation can be written as,

---------------------(27.1)

Hence, If we know Mach number M at any cross section and corresponding area A
then we can calculate the area of the throat for the duct. From this expression it is
also clear that the Mach number at any cross-section upstream or downstream of
the throat is not dependant on the nature of variation of cross-sectional area of the
duct in the streamwise direction.

27.2. Nozzle flow.

Consider the convergent divergent duct shown in Fig. 27.1. Left end of the duct
corresponds to the stagnation or total conditions due to its
connection to the reservoir while right end of the duct is open to the atmosphric
pressure . If initially exit pressure ( ) is same as the reservior pressure then
there will not be any flow through the duct. If we decrease the exit pressure by
small amount then flow takes place through the duct. Here convergent portion acts
as nozzle where pressure decreases and Mach number increases in the streamwise
direction while divergent portion acts as diffuser which leads to increase in
pressure and Mach number along the length of the nozzle. Variation of pressure
and Mach number for this condition is shown in Fig. 27.2a and Fig.
27.2b respectively by tag 1.
Fig. 27.2a: Mach number variation along the length of the duct for various exit
pressure conditions

Fig. 27.2a: Pressure variation along the length of the duct for various exit pressure
conditions

Further decrease in pressure at the exit of the duct shifts the pressure and Mach
number curves as shown in Fig. 27.2 tagged by 2. Mass flow continues to increase
with decreasing the exit pressure from conditions from 1 to 2. Condition 3 in this
figure represents first critical condition or a particular value of exit pressure at
which Mach number at the minimum cross-section of the duct becomes 1 or sonic.
From Fig. 27.2a it is clear that convergent portion continues to act as nozzle while
divergent portion acts as diffuser. Pressure at the throat where Mach number has
reached 1 attains the reference star value which is equal to 0.528 times the
reservoir pressure for insetropic air flow. Further decrease in exit pressure pressure
beyond the first critical pressure (corresponding to situation 3), does not change
the role of convergent portion as the nozzle. The pressure and Mach number in the
convergent portion also remain unchanged with further decrease in exit pressure.
Once the sonic state is achieved at the minimum cross section, mass flow rate
through the duct attains saturation. Hence duct or the nozzle is said to be choked
for any pressure value lower than the first critcal condition. Typical mass flow rate
variation for air flow with change in exit pressure is shown in Fig. 27.3.

Fig. 27.3. Variation of mass flow rate for air with change in exit pressure

Variation of pressure and Mach number for a typical exit pressure just below first
critical conditions is shown in Fig. 27.4 a and b respectvely. As discussed earlier, for
this situation also pressure decreases and Mach number increases in the
convergent portion of the duct. Thus Mach number attains value 1 at the end of
convergent section or at the throat. Fluid continues to expand in the initial part of
the divergent portion which corresponds to decrease in pressure and increase in
Mach number in the supersonic regime in that part of the duct. However, if fluid
continues to expand in the rest part of the duct then pressure of the fluid is exected
to reach a value at the exit which is much lower than the exit pressure (as shown
by isentropic expansion in Fig. 27.4 a and b). Therefore, a normal shock gets
created after initial expansion in the divergent portion to increase the pressure and
decerease the Mach number to subsonic value (Fig. 27.5). Hence rest of the portion
of divergent duct acts as diffuser to increase the pressure in the direction of flow
to reach the exit pressure value smoothly.

Fig 27.4a. Pressure variation along the length of the nozzle.

Fig 27.4a. Mach number variation along the length of the nozzle.
Fig 27.5. Presence of normal shock in the nozzle flow.

For the further decrease in exit pressure for the same reservoir condition, the
portion of divergent part acting as nozzle , intern the normal shock moves towards
exit of the duct. For a perticular value of exit pressure normal shock stands at the
exit of the convergent divergent duct. Decrease in the exit pressure beyond this
condition provides oblique shock pattern originating from the edge of the duct to
rise pressure in order to attain the exit pressure conditions. Corresponding
condition is shown in Fig. 27.6.
Fig 27.6. Oblique shock pattern for over expanded condition.

For this exit pressure condition, the flow inside the duct is isentropic. However fluid
attains the pressure at the exit of the duct which is lower than the exit pressure,
hence it has to pass through the oblique shock and attain the pressure as that of
exit pressure by the non-isentropic process. Hence such condition of the duct is
called as 'over expanded nozzle' and it is shown in Fig. 27.6. Decrease in exit
pressure beyond this over expanded condition, decreases the strength of oblique
shock and hence the amount of pressure rise. Hence at a particular value of exit
pressure fluid pressure at the exit of the duct becomes exactly equal to the exit
pressure and flow becomes completely isentropic for the dcut. In this condition
both convergent and divergent portions of the duct act as nozzle to expand the
flow smoothly, hence duct is called as convergent divergent nozzle. Expansion of
the flow in the convergent divernt nozzle is mentioned as 'isentropic expansion'
in Figs 27.4 a and b. Further decrease in exit pressure beyond the isentropic
condition corresponds to more fluid pressure at the exit in comparison with the
ambient pressure. Hence expansion fan gets originated from the edge of the nozzle
to decrease the pressure smoothly to reach the ambient condition isentropically.
Nozzle flow for such a situation is termed as 'underexpanded nozzle flow'.
Corresponding flow pattern is shown in Fig. 27.7.

Fig 27.7. Expansion fan pattern for under expanded condition.

27.3. Chocked mass flow rate of the nozzle

We have already seen in Fig. 27.3 that mass flow rate of the nozzle remains
unaltered after flow gets chocked. This chocked mass flow rate can be calculated
as,

But we know that,

Hence

However,

Hence
 .............................(27.2)

From this expression it is clear that for a convergent divergent nozzle, for given
throat area, choked mass flow rate remains constant for the fixed reservoir
(P0 and T0) conditions. Therefore choked mass flow rate can be increased by
increasing the reservoir pressure P0 or decreasing reservoir temperature T0.

5.1 One dimensional Inviscid Flow Relations

In the previous lectures, we have derived the one dimensional relation for mass,
momentum and energy equations for steady, adiabatic and inviscid flow. The 1-D
control volume and the obtained relations are recalled herewith,

Fig.3.1 Control volume for 1-D flow

Mass Conservation Equation
ρ1u1A = ρ2u2A
ρ1u1 = ρ2u2
ρu = constant
Momentum Conservation
P1 + ρ1u12 = P2 + ρ2u22
P + ρu2 = constant
Energy Equation

Hence mass momentum and energy equations for 1D steady, inviscid, adiabatic
flow without body force are,
ρu = constant 5.1

P + ρu2 = constant 5.2

5.2 Speed of sound

Consider an acoustic wave moving in a stationary fluid with speed ‘a’. Poperties of
fluid change due in the presence of the acoustic wave. These property variations
can be predicted using 1D conservation equations. For simpliaty we can assume
the acustic wave to be stationary and the fluid to be passing across the wave with
velocity ‘a’.Consider the contol volume shown in Fig. 3.1. for understanding,
central hatched portion can be exaggered as the acoustic wave. Let P, ρ and a be
pressure, density and velocity ahead the acoustic wave respectively. Acoustic
wave being a small amplitude disturbance, induces small change porperties while
fluid passing across it. Hence the properties behind the acoustic wave are P+dP, in
ρ+dρ and a+da pressure, density and velocity respectively. Application of mass
conservation (5.1) and momentum conservation (5.2) equations beween inlet and
exit stations of control volume, we get,
ρa = (ρ + dρ)(a + da)
P + ρu2 = (P + dP)+(ρ + dρ)(a + da)2

From mass equation ρa = ρa + ρda + adρ + dadρ

We will neglect dadρ since both are small quantities. Hence their product will be
even smaller.
Therefore ρda + adρ = 0 and
5.4

From momentum equations we get,

p + ρa2 = (p + dp)+(ρ + dρ)(a2 + 2ada + da2)
neglecting da2
p + ρa2 = (p + dp)+(ρ + dρ)(a2 + 2ada)
p + ρa2 = (p + dp)+(ρa2 + 2aρda + a2dρ + 2adadρ)
neglecting 2adads,
p + ρa2 = (p + dp)+(ρa2 + 2aρda + a2dρ)
0 = dp + 2aρda + a2dρ

Incorporating Eq. (5.4) in above equation, we get,

5.5

This is the general formula for acoustic speed or speed of sound.

We can express the same in terms of bulk modulus or compressibility using the
definition of the compressibility (τ) givein in section 1.4.3
Now this τ can be isothermal or adiabatic compressibility. However, changes in
properties across sound wave are small and we have also not considered any
dissipative effect like viscous effects, therefore we can treat the compressibility as
the isentropic one. This proves that acoustic wave is isentropic (adiabatic
reversible) in nature. Both the formulas derived for acoustic speed are valid for
any state of matter. But if we consider gas then we can further simplify the
expression as below.

Since the flow is adiabatic

Therefore,
5.6

5.3. Definition of Mach number

Mach number is defined as the ratio of the particle (local) speed to the (local)
speed of sound.
Here, ‘V’ represents the speed of the fluid particle at a perticular instant at a
perticular position and it is related to kinetic energy which is direct form of
energy. Kinetic energy here is termed as directed energy since it has capacity to
do work. If energy is present in random form then there is no capacity to do work.
As ‘a’ represents acoustic speed and is for gas, it clearly shows that, it is
related to random velocity of molecule, obtained from kinetic theory of

gases, . Hence Mach number can be thought of as the ratio of directed

energy to random energy. Essentially, ratio of kinetic energy (KE) and internal
energy (IE) of the flow depicts the ratio of directed energy and random energy
and it is function of Mach number.

This clearly shows that, in order to increase the Mach number we will have to
either decrease the internal energy or increase the kinetic energy.
6.1. Fluid Flow Regimes
Various flow regimes are classified based on the definition of Mach number.
1. Subsonic Flow: When the fluid velocity is lower than the acoustic speed
(M<1) then the fluid flow is called as subsonic. However Mach number of
the flow changes while passing over an object or through a duct. Hence for
simplicity, flow is considered as subsonic if Mach number is in the range of
0-0.8. All small amplitude disturbances travel with acoustic speed and
speed of the flow in the subsonic regime is less than acoustic speed hence
presence of the disturbance is felt by the whole fluid domain. Therefore
subsonic flow is pre-warned or prepared to face the disturbance.
 2. Transonic flow: When the flow Mach number is in the range 0.8-1.2 it is
called transonic flow. Highly unstable and mixed subsonic and supersonic
flows are the main features of this regime.
3. Sonic flow: When flow Mach number is 1 it is called sonic flow.
4. Supersonic Flow: When the flow Mach number is more then everywhere in
the domain then it is called as supersonic flow. This flow is not pre-warned
since the fluid speed is more than the speed of sound.
5. Hypersonic Flow: As per the thumb rule, when the flow Mach number is
more than 5 then it is called as hypersonic flows. This is not the fixed
definition for hypersonic flow since hypersonic flow is defined by certain
characteristics of flow.
6.2. Isentropic Relations for Reference Conditions
Flow is said to be stagnant when its velocity is zero. Here we are interested to
predict the flow properties at the stagnation conditions. Let's imagine that a fluid
flow is decelerated from its exhisting state isentropically to zero velocity which is
termed as the stagnation condition as shown in Fig. 6.1. All the properties of the
flow at stagnation condition are called as stagnation properties. Similarly if we
decelerate the supersonic flow or accelerate the subsonic flow isentropically so
that the fluid particles reach sonic velocity, then flow properties are called as star
properties. Both the stagnation properties and star properties are the reference
properties of the flow and are constant in the fluid domain if the flow is
isentropic. Let's apply the 1D energy conservation principle to derive the relation
initially between stagnation and static properties.
Fig.6.1 Isentroipc stagnation of a moving fluid particle
Consider that the fluid particle is isentropically brough to zero as shown in above
figure. We know that 1D form of energy conversion equation is

Here subscript 1 stands for initial state of the fluid and subscript 2 stands for final
decelerated state of fluid. Since, V2=0, lets represent T2=T0 is abpve equation.
Then,

Dividing the above equation by

6.1

Here subsrcipt 0 represents the stagnation condition. Its evident from this
equation that the stagnation temperature to static temperature ratio is
dependent on Mach number & specific heat ratio. The Mach number in this
expression is the Mach number of the flow before commencement of isentropic
deceleration.
Since the process is isentropic and we already have derived isentropic relations,
we can find out stagnation pressure to static pressure relation and the same for
density also.

6.2

6.3

From the expression for stagnation pressure to static pressure, it can be seen that
the stagnation pressure and static pressure are almost equal if Mach number is
zero. However for the incompressible flows with Mach number less than 0.3, it
can be evaluated that the difference between static pressure and stagnation
pressure is equal to the dynamic pressure. But this isn't the case for compressible
flows.
Adiabaticity of the flow is sufficient for the definition of total temperature since in
the process of deriving the ratio of stagnation temperature to the static
temperature along with assumtion of steady and inviscid flow. There is no
assumption of reversibility made while deriving the 1D energy equation.
Therefore adiabaticity of the process is sufficient for calculation of the stagnation
to static temperature ratio. Flow past the normal shock (to be learnt soon) is an
irreversible process like friction where we will prove constancy of total
temperature across the normal shock. Unlike stagnation to static temperature
ratio, pressure and density ratios need adiabatic and reversible assumption since
we have used explicit isentropic relations while obtaining these ratios. In this
derivation we have seen that, an imaginary adiabartic or isentropic process of
deceleration should be followed for evaluation of reference quantities at a point
in the flowfield, however actual flowfield might not be adiabatic or isentropic.
Therefore, in reality, stagnation properties of the fluid change from point to point.

Consider an ideal case where flow is decelarated from sonic condition to stagation
conditions. The one dimensional relation when applied to this case give following
relations. Here, we will use a superscript '*' for this special condition named as
stared conditions represented by sonic speed. Hence the ratios for temperature,
pressure and density in terms of stagnatiyon to static propertis at sonic condionns
are as,

Since specific heat ratio for air is 1.4, above equations can be modified for air as

3.6. Normal shock relations

It had already been discussed that the subsonic flow is pre-warned and supersonic
flow is not. The reason behind this fact is that, any small amplitude disturbance
travels with acoustic speed, however speed of fluid particle is more than the speed
of sound in case of supersonic flows. Therefore the message of presence of the
obstacle can not propagate upstream. Hence a messenger gets developed in front
of the obstacle to warn the flow in order to avoid its direct collision with the
obstacle. This messenger is called as shock. In the presence of normal shock, fluid
velocity decreases to the extent where flow Mach number behind the shock attains
value below one. Due to this subsonic speed attainment of the flow, it becomes
aware about the presence of the obstacle well in advance in the narrow space
between shock and obstacle. Herewith we will deal for computation of flow
properties behind the normal shock.

In the presence of a general obstacle the shock pattern is shown here in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.2. Shock pattern for a blunt or bluff obstacle

The shock for the stagnation streamline can be considered as normal to it.
Therefore we can use the earlier derived 1D flow relations along with the
assumptions of flow steady, adiabatic and inviscid flow. Consider a small control
volume around normal shock for application of these relations between two
stations of the control volume, mainly, inlet and outlet as shown in Fig. 6.2.

Lets us examine the reference star properties of the flow in the process to calculate
the flow properties behind the normal shock from the known inlet conditions. We
can take the advantage of using stared temperature since the flow is adiabatic in
nature. Imagine that flow is adiabatically brought to Mach number one on either
sides of the shock independantly. In this case, we should get same stared
temperature on either sides of shock. We can also show that total temperature is
also same on either sides. The explicit formulation using the star temperature and
concerned acoustic speed before the normal shock is,
Applying same strategy at the outlet we get,

However, we can write static enthalpy in terms of acoustic speed as,

Therefore, the energy equation at the inlet becomes,

6.4

Similarly for the outlet station we have

6.5

Let's obtain the expression for velocity using mass and momentum equations to
replace the acustic speed term from equations (6.4) and (6.5).

From 1D mass and momentum conservation equations we have

ρ1u1 = ρ2u2
p1 + ρ1u12 = p2 + ρ2u22

Therefore,
Using equation 6.4 and 6.5, above equation transforms to

Rearranging the terms of above equation, we get

Further rearrengments gives

Necessary rearrangement for the above equation is as given,

 6.6

This expression shows that, M1*2 and M2*2 are reciprocal of each other for a
normal shock. This equation is called as Prandtl’s relation for normal shock which
can be used to prove that Mach number becomes subsonic behind the normal
shock

7.1 Deivation for Mach number based on starred quantities:

The Prandtl's expression gives the relation between the starred acustic speed
based Mach numbers ahead and behind the shock. Using this expression, we can
prove that M1*2 > 1 which leads to M2*2 < 1. Let’s derive the expression initially
for M*
Recall the equation (6.4) and (6.5) and express in general as,

Dividing by square of velocity,

7.1
Which clearly proves that, for M > 1, M* > 1 for M = 1, M* = 1 and M < 1, M* < 1

Therefore, from Prandtl’s relation (6.6)

where M1 > 1 ⇒ M1*2 > 1 & M2 < 1 ⇒ M2*2 < 1

This clearly proves that, any supersonic flow while pass through normal shock
attains subsonic speed behind it.

From known freestream Mach number or the Mach number ahead of the shock
we can calculate the Mach number behind the shock using Prandtl’s relation.

We can derive the expression for the properties behind the shock wave using 1D
conservation equations and know properties ahead the shock.

7.2
This equation gives the density ratio which is function of freestream Mach
number and the specific heat ratio. We can find out the velocity ratio from this
density ratio as,

Let's derive the expression for static presure ratio. For simplicity of derivation,
initially representation of dynamic pressure is necessary and can be expressed as
follows

From definition of Mach number

We know the 1D momentum conservation equation as
p1 + ρ1u12 = p2 + ρ2u22
Replacing the dynamic pressure from either side and rearranging we get

7.3
This equation gives the static pressure ratio which is again function of freestream
Mach number and the specific heat ratio. Temperature ratio can be obtained
from the pressure and density ratio as,

7.4

Expression for static enthalpy ratio across the shock will be same as the static
temperature ratio given by (7.4).

Following things are clear from the property ratios,

 All the ratios are dependant on freestream Mach number and specific heat
ratio (γ), where Mach number is flow property and specific heat ratio is
fluid property.

 Static pressure ratio, , increases with increase in γ for same freestream

Mach number. Hence, will be more for air than carbon-dioxide for the
same Mach number since γ for carbon-dioxide is 1.28 while for air is 1.4.
The variation in γ can occur for the same gas due to dissociation, ionization
or vibrational excitation, combustion, mixing of two gasses of different
specific heat ratios etc.

 increases with increase in Mach number for same γ (for same gas).

 ratio increases with increase in Mach number for same γ (for same gas).
  Density ratio, , increases with decrease in γ, so for carbon-dioxide

although it has lower for a given Mach number and γ, it will have

higher .

 has the same behavior as where it increases with increase in M and

γ.

 Each and → ∞ as M → ∞. However attains a constant value, ,

as M→ ∞. For air ((γ = 1.4) that constant value is 6.
 Mach number behind shock decreases as freestream Mach number

increases. However, as M1→ ∞, M2 a ains a constant value which is

0.378 for air (γ = 1.4)
 Mach number behind the normal shock (M2 ) increases as γ increases for a
given freestream Mach number.
 We know that entropy change in any process can be estimated as,

We can express the static temperature and pressure ratios in terms of freestream
Mach number, Hence,
7.5

From this expression it is clear that the entropy change would be positive if and
only if M1 > 1. That means shock is present only for supersonic flows and not for
subsonic flows according to second law of thermodynamics.
 We know that 1D energy conservation equation is If we
image that the gas is isentropically brought to zero velocity on either side of
the shock then the enthalpies would be stagnation enthalpies.
∴ h01 = h02
∴ CpT01 = CpT02
∴T01 = T02
This expression re-asserts that flowfield is adiabatic since total temperature
of the gas remains constant across the shock. Hence compression through
shock is adiabatic irreversible.
 We can use already derived isentropic relation of total denisty to static
density, eq. (6.3), to obtain the total density ratio across the shock.


7.6


Similarly we can find out the total pressure ratio across the shock using the
isentropc relation given by eq. (6.2).
 7.7


Total pressure and total density ratios are of same magnitude for the ideal
gas conditions, since total temperature remains constant across the shock

This can be proved using ideal gas equation.

 We have derived all the static and total property ratios as function of M1 &
γ, however, we can always express these relations as function of M2 & γ,
since M2 is also function of M1.
 We can calculate the entropy change across the shock given by eq. (7.5)
using the presently derived ratios,
7.8

 If we imagine that the gas element is isentropically brought to zero on

either sides of shock then
 This proves that is less than 1 since Δs is positive for shocked flow. This
expression suggests that the total pressure decreases across the normal
shock.

8.1 Hugoniot equation

Shock wave compression is an adiabatic and irreversible process; hence shock
waves can be treated as irreversible adiabatic compressors. Let’s calculate the
work required for this compression process.

(Mass Conservation)

(Momentum Conservation)

8.1
Similarly

8.2

We know from the energy equation that,

Putting the expression for u1 and u2

The above equation is called as the Hugoniot equation which relates

thermodynamic quantities across the normal shock. This relation is same as the
first law of thermodynamics which states that internal energy change for an
adiabatic process is equal to work done or pressure (average pressure in the
present case) times change in specific volume.

We can plot the Hugoniot curve for the known initial pressure-volume conditions
for various pressure-volume conditions after normal shock. Hence Hugoniot curve,
in principle, joins all the possible points on p-v plane starting from a known point
on p-v plane. To generate such a plot we have to modify the Hugoniot equation by
expressing the internal energy in terms of the pressure and volume as,

Using this expression, we can get all the possible values of v2 for given values P1,
P2 and v1and hence we can plot the p-v diagram or Hugoniot curve for normal
shock. The line joining initial point and any point on the curve specifies particular
massflow rate and hence a particular freestream Mach number.
Now let’s try to understand the basics of normal shock in view of this Hugoniot
relation. The expression for specific volume is a consolidated equation for normal
shock conditions. If we have a normal shock condition due to supersonic velocity
u1 , then as we know from eq. (8.2)

8.3

This expression gives the slope of a straight line joining two points of Hugoniot
curve, mainly initial point and any other point on the Hugoniot curve on p-v
diagram. These two points necessarily define the upstream and downstream
locations of the normal shock respectively. Since this expression is for slope and is
comprised of velocity and density (inverse of specific volume), this line necessarily
corresponds to a particular mass flow rate.
Therefore if we know the mass flow rate and initial conditions we can easilty find
out the post shock conditions. These conditions are given by point of intersection
of Hugoniot curve and the straighline drawn from initial conditions with slope
equation given by eq. (8.2).

In the same figure Hugoniot curve is plotted along with isentropic curve for
compression. These curves originate from the same point. Slope of curve
representing isentropic compression can be calculated as,

This suggests that, at the initial condition is same for isentropic and Hugoniot
curves. This means that the slope of both the curves is same at that point. This
proves that, we have u1 = a1, M1 = 1 at the initial or starting point. Therefore for
sonic flow there is no change in properties across the shock. As freestream Mach
number increases u1 becomes greater than a1 and

slope Therefore slope of

Hugoniot curve is more than the slope for isentroipc curve for supersonic flows.
Hence the graph herewith provides an evidence for the fact that, although
isentropic compression is efficient, compression by normal shock is more effective
since compression by normal shock gives higher pressure rise for same change in
specific volume. Hence shock can also be called as thermodynamic compressor.

ecture 18 : Oblique Shock

  1
 2

18.1 Oblique shocks

Introduction

We have studied the one dimensional compressible flow. The shock encountered
by such flow is the normal shock. Herewith we are going to deal the compressible
flows in two dimensions, 2D. There are two entities which are going to tackle the
expansion and compression of the 2D compressible flow. Such situations are two
situation shown in Fig. 18.1a and Fig. 18.1b which the flow might encounter. If
the flow turns in to itself then the compression of flow takes place through shock
as shown in Fig. 18.1a. Since this shock makes certain angle with the flow, it is
called as the oblique shock. However if the flow turns away from itself then the
expansion of the flow takes place through an expansion fan as shown in Fig.
18.1b. Deriving various relations for anlges or properties ratios for the two
dimensional compressible flows in the presence of shock or expansion fan is the
central objective here onwards.
 Fig 18.1a: Supersonic flow turning into itself in the presence of shock

Fig 18.1b: Supersonic flow turning away fro itself in the presence of expansion
fan

The main reason of having shock or expansion fan at the deflection corners is to
deflect the flow accordingly so as to maintain its parallelism with the wall in order
to avoid the direct collission. Therefore the angle of shock with the wall or
freestream velocity will be dependant on flow deflection angle and freestream
velocity.

18.2 Mach Wave

Lets consider a train traveling along its track from location A to location B. If it
makes a beep sound while leaving station A and at intermediate locations C and D
then the sound wave travels spherically out with the velocity (say) 'a' m/s. The
distance traveled by the sound waves originated from A,C and D locations are given
by the circles drawn, considering respective points as centers. Now if the speed of
the train is less than acustic velocity (a), say v m/s, then the train will always remain
inside the circles. This statement also means that the distance travels by the train
in some time interval is always lower than the distance traveled by the acustic wave
in the same time interval (Fig. 18.2a). Now if we consider the speed of train to be
more than speed of sound then the train will always cross the respective circle of
acustic speed in that time interval. Now if we draw the tangent to all circles,
representing position of acustic wave, from the end location of train (B), then we
can see in Fig. 18.2b that such a tangent makes an angle μ with the train track. The
expression for this angle is as,

Fig 18.2a: Train travelling from A to B at subsonic speed

Fig 18.2b: Train travelling from A to B at supersonic speed

This angle (μ) is called as Mach angle and it becomes the reference angle for our
following discussions. Shock angle which we are going to understand is always
more than the Mach angle

8.3 Oblique Shock

Consider the flow taking place along a wedge as shown in Fig. 18.3. Let θ be the
wedge angle and β be the shock angle with the wall which is parallel to the
approaching freestream.
Fig. 18.3. An oblique shock for a supersonic flow over the wedge.

As we have already proved that shock exists only for supersonic flws, consider a
supersonic flow of Mach number M1 approaching the wedge. In the presence of
the shock, flow deflects by an angle θ which is the wedge angle. Lets solve the mass,
momentum and energy equations for this flow. Consider the control volume as
shown in Fig. 18.3. In this special control volume, inlet and outlet are parallel to the
shock. Other two faces of the control volume are parallel to the streamline hence
these faces will not contribute to the mass, momentum and energy fluxes. Let u be
the velocity normal to the shock and w be the velocity parallel to the shock.
Graphical demonstration of these velocities is given in Fig. 18.3. Station 1
corresponds to inlet or preshock conditions while station 2 corresponds to outlet
or post shock conditions.

Mass conservation in integral form

Lets assume the flow to be steady, hence,

Hence,

(ρu)2 = (ρu)1 or ρ1u1 = ρ2u2 18.1

This is the mass conservation equation for oblique shock conditions expressed in
terms of velocities normal to the shock.

Now consider the momentum conservation equation for the same flow. Since
momentum is the vector equation, we have to consider, two equations, viz,
normal and parallel to the shock. Lets initially consider the momentum equation
in integral form for inviscid flow.

For steady flow,this equation becomes,

Now consider the momentum equation in the direction parallel to the shock wave.
Since there is no pressure difference in this direction, the right hand side will be
zero. Hence,
but using mass conservation Eq (18.1) we can re-write it as,

(w)pre = (w)post or w1 = w2

This expression clearly suggests that velocity parallel to the shock remains
conserved.

Now consider the momentum equation normal to the shock.

(p + ρu2)post = (p + ρu2)post
or
p 1 + ρ 1u 12 = p 2 + ρ 2u 22 18.2

We can clearly see that the momentum equation looks exactly same as that for the
normal shock relations. Here u is the velocity normal to the shock. Therefore only
velocity component normal to the shock wave is responsible for the change in
momentum since momentum and velocity tangential to shock are conserved.

19.1 Oblique Shock

We have already derived the mass and momentum conservation equations for the
oblique shock conditions. Consider the integral form of energy equation for inviscid
compressible flow.
For steady flow,this equation changes to,

But,

Hence the energy equtation can be written as,

Hence,

19.1

Energy equation is also similar as that of energy equation for normal shock. Here
'u' is the velocity normal to the shock. From mass, momentum and energy
equations, it is clear that, only velocity normal to the shock, is responsibile for
change in all the properties. Hence we can still use all the equation of static and
total property ratios derived for normal shock relations by changing the freestream
Mach number to Mach number normal to the shock.

If freestream or upstream Mach number and the shock angle are known, then we
can calculate the Mach number normal to the shock as,

Prandtl's relation for the oblique shock is,

This relation suggests that, for oblique shock, normal Mach number before or
upstream to the shock is supersonic and hence normal Mach number after or
downstream to the shock is subsonic.

The static propety ratios for oblique shock are,

19.2

19.3

19.4

Total property ratios can be re-written in the same way. We can as well calculate
the Mach number behind the shock as,

19.5

19.6

19.2 θ-β-M relation

It has been already observed that the Mach number normal to the shock is
repsonsible for all the property variations for given shock angle. However this shock
angle can be easily calculated from the upstream or freestream Mach number for
given wedge or deflecion angle. Consider the same control volume shown
in Fig.18.3. Reation between velocties and angles before and after the shocks are,

Before the shock

After the shock

But we know that,

w1 = w2
Hence,

But

ρ1u1 = ρ2u2 hence,

Therefore,

From density ratio Eq (5.4), we have

From the expression of upstream Mach number,

19.7

This is the expression between upstream Mach number, shock angle and wedge
angle. In most general case, we need to know the shock angle for given Mach
number and wedge angle. Following figure provides the information about the
same (Fig. 19.1). In this figure, each curve corresponds to various possible shock
angles for a given Mach number and flow deflection angle.
 Fig. 19.1 θ-β-M relation

Following points should be noted from this figure.

1. For a given Mach number and wedge angle, there are two possible shock
angles.The lower shcok angle corresponds to a weak shock solution and higher
shock angle corresponds to strong shock solution. Weak shock solution is the most
familiar solution or situation we encounter in the nature. Higher shock angle values,
obtained out of two possible solutions for the given Mach number and delfection
angle, is referred as the strong shock stolution. The strong shock solution may exist
for a given Mach number and deflection angle if the pressure on the wedge can be
increased independantly. However this situation is most uncommon. Points having
subscript 1 in Fig. 19.1 are the reference points for the known Mach number above
which shock is said to be strong shock and below which shock is said to be weak
shock. Points having subscript 2 in Fig. 19.1 are the reference points for the known
Mach number above which shock flow behind the shock is subsonic and below
which flow behind the shock is supersonic.
2. If we consider the weak shock solution, then for a given Mach number, increase in
deflection angle increases the shock angle. Thus Increased shock angle decreases
the Mach number behind the shock. Hence shock strength increases for a given
 Mach number with increase in deflection angle. For a particular deflection angle,
we get, maximum shock angle for a given Mach numer above which there is no
attached shock solution. Hence there exists no solution or deflection angle for that
Mach number for which shock is attached. This situation is discribed in Fig. 19.2.

Fig. 19.2. Attached and detached shock solutions.

3. If we consider the weak shock solution, then, for a given deflection angle, increase
in Mach number decreases the shock angle and shock becomes weaker.
4. All the curves for various Mach numbers can be seen to meet at 90 degree shock
angle for zero degree delfection angle. This situation corresponds to normal shock.
However, the other solution for
zero degree deflection angle corresponds to Mach angle, μ=sin-1(1/M). Therefore
intersection of the curve with shock angle for weak solution for all the Mach
number is different.
5. 0.1 Shock Polar
6. In this section we are going to discuss about the graphical representation of
pre and post shock velocities. Consider the supersonic flow of Mach number
M1 passing over a wedge of deflection angle θ as shown in Fig. 20.1.

7.
Fig. 20.1.Supersonic flow over a wedge
8. Let Vx be the component of velocity in x-direction while Vy be the component
of velocity in y direction. Hence Vx1 is the x-direction velocity component for
upstream velocity and Vx2 is the x-direction velocity component for post
shock velocity. Simillary Vy1 and Vy2 are the is the y-direction velocity
component for upstream and post shock velocities respectively. If the
upstream velocity is parallel to x axis then Vy1 is equal to zero since Vx1 is
equal to V1. Now lets plot velocities along their respective directions as
shown in Fig. 20.2. Here the resultant veloocity V1 is parallel to x axis while
V2 makes an angle θ with x-axis, which is the flow delfection angle.
9.
Fig. 20.2 Velocity plot for shocked flow
10.Now if we increase the deflection angle then Vx2 will decrease and Vy2 will
increase since in such cases resultant velocity V2 will have to make an
increased angle θ with the x-axis. Figure 20.3 represents the same process.
In the same way if we change the wedge angle for all possible attached shock
solutions and join them together then such a plot is called as hodograph.
11.
12.Fig. 20.3 Velocity plot for various shocked flows
13.In the same way we can plot for various freestream Mach number for all the
possible deflection angles. However, if we increase the freestream Mach
number by increasing freestream velocity then it becomes impossible to plot
such a graph when Vx1 becomes ∞ for M1 equal to ∞. To make such a plot
possible, lets divide x axis and y axis by a* which is the reference or stared
quantity. This non-dimensionalsiation makes it possible to represent
Vx1 since it will be represented by M1*. We can divide by a* to post shock
velocities as well, since a* is constant in the flowfield for an adiabtic flow.
Hence V2 gets transformed to M2* which will make an angle equal to the flow
deflection angle with the x-axis. This plot is called as shock polar. Such a
shock polar can be plotted for very high Mach numbers M1 also due to the
fact that, if M1 is equal to ∞, M1* is equal to 2.54. Therefore this plot is
equally helpful for reprerenting the pre and post shock velocities, flow
delfection angle and the shock angle. Typical shock polar is shown in Fig.
20.4.
14.
15.Fig. 20.4 Typical Shock Polar

16.0.2 Analysis of Shock Polar

Shock polar can be used as a tool to evaluate the post shock properties from
known pre shock conditions. We can calculate a* and hence M1* which is the
required pre shock input condition from the known freestream conditions,.
Hence using flow deflection angle θ and M1*, we can evaluate the post shock
condition as, M2* using a given shock polar. Consider a shock polar given
in Fig. 20.4. Any line, say OXY, drawn from origin which intersects the given
shock ploar at two locations, X and Y. Point Y of line OXY represents higher
value of M2* than the point X. Hence point Y represents the weak shock
solution while point X on shock polar represents the strong shock solution.
Angle made by line OXY gives the flow deflection angle. To find out the shock
 angle, we have to draw a line AY and extend the same same till it intersects
a line (OZ) drawn from the origin at 90 degree. The angle made by line OZ
with x-axis is the shock angle since this arrangement satisfies the constraint
of equality of component of veleocity parallel to the shock before and after
the shock. If we draw any line OM, tangent to the shock polar, then the angle
made by the line OM with x-axis represents maximum deflection angle
possible for the given freestream Mach number. If we draw a circle of radius
equal to a* then such a circle cuts the shock polar at N which represents the
Mach number equal 1 behind the shock.

Shock polar for various Mach numbers is shown in Fig. 20.5.

17.
18.Fig. 20.5. Shock polar for various Mach numbers

2.1 Shock-Shock Interaction

Interaction of two shocks is of great interest for various reasons. The major reason
is the prediction of the flow field after interaction. This flowfield is greately
dependant on the the family of the shock (right running or left running) and
strength of the shocks in turn freestream properties. Aerodynamics of the body
higly dependant on the shock-shock (S/S) interation. Edney* has defined six types
of shock shock interactions based on family and strength of the interacting shocks
and post shock flowfield. Herewith, basics of the shock shock interation are
mentioned.

* B. Edney, Anomalous heat transfer and pressure distributions on blunt bodies at

hypersonic speeds in the presence of an impinging shock, Aeronautical Research
Institute of Sweden, Report 115, Stockholm (1968).

22.2 Ineraction of shocks of differet family

Lets consider the situation given in Fig.22.1 to understand the S/S interaction for
shocks from two different families.

Fig, 22.1. Typical example of S/S interaction of shocks of different families and same
strength.

Here the righ running shock originated from the top wedge interacts with the left
running shock originated from the bottom wedge, hence this is the S/S interaction
for shocks of different families. For simplicity we have considered flow delfection
angles to be same (θ) for both the wedges.The top wedge, in this situation, is
responsible for right running shock wave while bottom wedge is responsible for left
running shock wave. Now consider ths streamline ABC passing through the right
running shock and PQR passing through the left running shock. The right running
shock wave induces negative deflection to the streamline ABC at B, while left
running shock wave induces positive deflection to the streamline PQR at Q. The
corresponding increase in pressure associated with the flow turning are shown
in Fig. 22.2 using the P- θ diagram. Here we can clearly see that points A & P are
identical in this plot, since both the point are in the region upstream of shocks.
Since streamline ABC gets negative deflection and streamline PQR gets positive
deflection of same magnetude, points B and Q represent same pressure but
different delfections of same magnetude. Suppose, both the shocks are weak
enough to keep the flow supersonic in the region given by points B and Q of the
streamlines. The flow properties will be indentical donwstream of the first shocks
(at B and Q), except the y-direction velocity. After interaction we can see that two
different shocks originate from the interaction point. The main reason for this
shock formation is to avoid the collision and intersection of streamlines ABC and
PQR. Therefore, streamline ABC passes through a left running shock and streamline
PQR passes through the right running shock wave. Hence the further pressure rise
is evident in Fig. 22.2 in the presence of post interaction shocks.

Fig, 22.2. Pressure deflection diagram for S/S interaction of shocks of different
families and same strength.

Moreover, these shocks cancel out the deflection so as to make the both the
streamlines parallel to each other without avoiding their crossing. For flow
downstream of first shock, we have to draw the pressure-deflection diagram from
points B & Q respectively corresponding to their Mach numbers (which are identical
in the present situation). Again it can be seen that, points C and R represent same
pressure and deflection.

22.2 Ineraction of shocks of differet family

Now consider the same S/S interaction problem for shocks of different strengths.
As shown in Fig. 22.3 wedge angles and hence the flow deflection angles are shown
different to imitate the two different shock strength for S/S interaction
understanding.,/

Fig, 22.3. Typical example of S/S interaction of shocks of different families and
dfiferent strength.

Here the wedge angles are θ1 and θ2 for top wedge and bottom wedge respectively,
where θ1 > θ2 in magnitude. Similar to the earlier situation, the top wedge is
responsible for right running shock wave while bottom wedge is responsible for left
running shock wave. Consider the streamlines ABC passing through the right
running shock originated from top wedge and streamline PQR passing through the
left running shock originated from bottom wedge. Initial deflection acquired by
both the streamlines will be different in this case since the flow delfection angles
are different. Flow deflection angles and corresponding pressures at point B and Q
are shown using the P-θ diagram in Fig. 22.4. Here we can clearly see that points A
& P are identical due to the fact that both the points belong to the region upstream
of shocks.
Fig, 22.4. Pressure deflection diagram for S/S interaction of shocks of different
families and dfiferent strength.

In this situation, streamline ABC gets negative deflection of higher magnitude at

points B in comparison with the defelction of streamline PQR at point Q. Due to
higher strength of the right running shock, pressure at point B will be more than
that of point Q. Therefore unlike earlier situation, all the flow properties will be
different downstream of the first shocks at B and Q. Suppose, both the shocks are
weak enough to keep the flow supsonic in the region given by points B and Q of the
streamlines. However, when both (right and left running) shocks intersect, we can
see similar interaction from where two new shocks originate. The reason for
presence of these two shocks is to make the flows (passing over top wedge and
passing over bottom wedge) parallel to each other. Streamline ABC which has
higher deflection, now passes through the left running shock but can not cancel the
earlier deflection completely. Hence, the part of the flow passed from the top
wedge ratains certain negetaive deflection in the region of point C. At the same
time, the part of the flow passing from the bottom wedge, which has positive
deflection with respective passes though the right running shock which intern
cancels its positive deflection and induces negative deflection in the region of point
R so that streamlines ABC and PQR become parallel to each other at the end of the
interaction region. Hence the strength of the shock encountered by the streamline
PQR while passing from Q to R is higher than the strength of the shock encountered
by the streamline ABC while passing from B to C. The new entity which we can
observe is the slip line (shown by dotted line) which originates from the point of
intersection of the shocks. The main purpose of this line is to avoid mixing of two
flows passing from two differnt shock patterns which have different entropies.
However pressure and direction of velocity remains conserved across this line.
Therefore the final points C and R shown in Fig. 22.4 portray finite amount of same
deflection and pressure.

23.1 Comparison of Shock Wave and Mach Wave

Consider a supersonic flow over a wedge as shown in Fig. 23.1. This wedge makes
an angle with the upstream or freestream flow.

Fig. 23.1 Supersonic flow over wedge

The shock originated from the corner of the wedge makes an angle shock angle β
with the upstream or freestream flow. We have already seen that the components
of velocity upstream of the shock can be expressed as
where, u1, v1 are components of upstream velocity in the direction normal and
parallel to the shock. Hence we can express the shock angle as,

23.1

Consider a Mach wave oriniating from any point A upstream of the shock. For this
Mach wave we have,

23.2

where µ1 is the angle made by the Mach wave with the local velocity vector.
Comparing equation (23.1) and (23.2) we get, β > µ1 since µ1 > a1 (component of
upstream velocity normal to the shock is always supersonic). This expression also
portrays that shock angle is always greater than the Mach angle or angle made by
the Mach line.

23.2 Proof for the interaction of shocks of same family.

Initially we will prove that two shocks of same family intersect each other if they
are originated from the same double wedge conifiguration. Therefore consider the
same situation as displayed by the Fig. 23.1.

Lets express the post shock conditions as,

Hence,
 23.3

Consider a Mach wave oriniating from any point B downstram of the shock. For this
Mach wave we have,

23.4

where, u2, v2 are components of downstream velcoity in the direction normal and
parallel to the shock and µ2 is the angle made by the Mach line with the local
velocity vector which is presently the slant face of wedges.Comparing equations
(23.3) and (23.4) we can see that (β - θ) < µ2 since it has been already proved that
the compenent of downstream velocity normal to the shock is subsonic, hence µ2 <
a2. Therefore both (upstream and downstream) Mach lines or waves intersect with
the shock. Now cosider the supersonic flow over double wedge as shown in Fig.
23.2. In this way we can prove that the two shock originating from two corners of
wedges given in Fig. 23.2 should intersect with each other. The main reason behind
this interaction is that the downstream Mach line intersects with the first shock. It
is also known to us that the shock angle is always greater than the local Mach angle,
therefore the next shock angle will be necessarily greater than µ 2. This logical
derivation proves the fact that two shock of same family should intersect with each
other for the double wedge configuration.

23.3 Interaction of shocks of same family

Consider a supersonic flow over a double wedge as shown in Fig. 23.2. Lets
understand the flowfield in the presence of this S/S interaction for same family
shocks (left running) originating from the corners of the same wedge. This double
wedge under consideration initially makes an angle θ1 with freestream velocity
vector and then θ2 with the same. For this shock interaction studies, it is mandetory
to have θ1 < θ2. However if θ1 > θ2 then there will not be any inward deflection of
the flow after passing through the first shock originating from the first corner which
intern avoids the apperance of the second shock originating from the second
corner. Consider two streamlines viz. ABCD and PQ in the flow. Streamline ABCD
initally gets deflected by and angel θ1 in the presence of first left running shock
which makes the flow parallel to the first wedge at region B. The same streamline
gets further delfected by an angle equal to θ2 - θ1 due to the shock at the second
corner which makes the flow parallel to the second wedge in the region C. Therfore
after passing through two left running shocks, streamline ABC acquires a deflection
equal to θ2 in the region C. Now consider the streamline PQ which passes through
only single left running shock which has been originated from the point of
interaction of two left running shocks. Therefore the deflection incurred by the
streamline PQ in the region Q may or may not be equal to θ2 acquired by streamline
ABCD in region C. In turn streamlines ABCD and PQ might not be parallel to each
other downstream of the interaction point. Therefore to avoid this condition and
streamline crossing, a wave (shock or expansion) originates from the interaction
point through which the stream line ABCD passes and the onwards attains the same
deflection as that of streamline PQ. Possibility of shock or expansion wave depends
on the downstream pressures. However a slipline necessarily originates from the
interaction point to seperate the two parts of flow of different entropies keeping
their direction of velocity and pressure same.

24.1 Shock Reflection

Reflection of shock wave from the wall is mainly of two types, regular reflection
and irregular or Mach reflection. These reflection patterns are shown in Fig.
24.1 and Fig. 24.2.

Fig. 24.1 Typical regular reflection of shock wave

Fig. 24.2 Typical Mach reflection of shock wave

The shock that originates from the corner of the compression wedge makes an
angle β with the freestream velocity vector. Flow behind this shock gets deflected
by angle θ and becomes parallel to the wedge. However, when the shock hits the
top wall, the part of the flow which was parallel to the top wall, upstream of the
shock, also gets deflected by angle θ. Hence the flow downstream of the shock does
not remain parallel to the top wall. This contradicts the necessary condiction of
formation of shock, hence the primary shock gets reflected from the top wall to
cancel out the deflection of the flow and to make it parallel to the wall. In this
process shock reflection can be observed as the reflection of light ray, however the
incident and relfection angle of shock are dependant on shock upstream Mach
number. Therefore this reflection is called as the regular reflection. Typical pressure
deflection diagram for the streamline ABC is shown in Fig. 24.3.
Fig. 24.3 Pressure deflection diagram for the regular reflection case

Providing equal and opposite deflection to the flow as that provided by incident
shock is the objective of refleted shock. However possibility of such a deflection
behind the reflected shock depends on the Mach number behind the incident shock
or Mach number upstream to the reflected shock (in region B of Fig. 24.3). If the
deflection required is more than the maximum possible delfection for that Mach
number then the reflection of shock does not remain as regular reflection since the
reflected shock gets detached from the wall.

24.2 Mach Reflection

Typical Mach reflection situation is shown in Fig 24.2. Lets understand the reason
for deviation from regular reflection to Mach reflection.We know from Fig.
24.1 that the presence of reflected shock is mainly to deflect the flow in region B
and make it parallel with the wall. The amount of this flow deflection expected from
the reflected shock is same as that from the primary or incident shock. However,
regular reflection ensures that this deflection is less than the maximum possible
defection corresponding to the Mach number in region B in the same figure. A
situation has been shown in Fig. 24.3 which shows the possibility of where the
expected deflection using reflected shock more than the maximum deflection
possible corresponding to Mach number in region B.
Fig. 24.3 Reason for Mach reflection using pressure deflection diagram.

Therefore, since refelcted shock can not provide the necessary deflection to the
flow so as to make it parallel to the wall, the incident or primary shock does not
reflect like the ray of light or regular reflection. This is the main reason for the Mach
reflection shown in Fig 24.2.

25.1. Expansion Fan

We have already seen that compression of supersonic flow takes while passing
through the shock. In other words, when the supersonic flow turns into itself then
it undergoes the compression through a shock. Exactly opposite situation can be
encountered when the supersonic flow tuns out of itself where, expansion of the
supersonic flow takes place. This expansion unlike compression takes place
smoothly through infinite expansion waves hence called as expansion fan. This
expansion fan is comprised of infinte number of expansion waves or Mach waves
where every wave is responsible for infinitesimal amount of delfection. iTypical
expansion fan in the supersonic flow is shown in Fig. 25.1. where supersonic flow
tuns outward by an angle θ.
Fig. 25.1 Expansion of supersonic flow

For better understanding of expansion of supersonic flow, consider that p 1, T1 and

M1 be the properties of flow before expansion or upstream of the expansion fan
and p2, T2 and M2 be the properties of the flow after expansion or downstream of
the expansion fan due to outward deflection by an angle θ. For the know upstream
flow properties and deflection angle it should be possible for us to calculate the
downstream flow properties. Since the expansion is the continuous and smooth
process carried out via infinite Mach waves, lets consider one such wave across
upstream of which velocity is V and Mach number is M. Angle made by this Mach
wave with the upstream velocity vector is μ. Lets consider dV be the change in
velocity brought by the Mach wave by turning through an angle dθ. Hence V+dV is
downstream velcoity and M+dM is the downstream Mach number. If we construct
the velocity triangle as shown in Fig. 25.2 then we can use the sin law for traingle
as,
Fig. 25.2 Velocity triangle across a typical Mach wave during supersonic expansion

25.1

But we know that

and

Hence we can re-write Eq. (25.1) as,

25.2

We can approximate as
sin dθ ≈ dθ and cos dθ ≈ 1, Therefore Eq. (25.2) can be simplified as,

25.3

since dθ tan μ < 1, lets recall the expansion for x<1,

Neglecting higher order term, we can express Eq. (25.3) as,

But we know that

and hence
Hence above equation becomes,

Fig. 23.2. Shock-Shock interafction for same family shocks

25.1. Prandtl Meyer Function

We can see that since for positive value of dθ, we get positive dV which leads to
expansion. This formula is also valid for small angles for compression where we
get negetive dV. If we integrate this formula for the toal expansion angle then we
can get the downstream Mach number.
 25.4

Before integrating we can express the integrant in Mach number,

V = Ma
ln V = ln M + ln a

25.5

We can express here the second term on right hand side in terms of Mach number
using the isentropic relations as,

25.6

Using Eq. (25.5) and (25.6) we can re-write Eq. (25.4) as,

Intergration of right hand side is as,

Here, v is called as the Prandtl-Meyer function.

θ = v(M2) - v(M1) 25.7

Therefore upstream Mach number (M1) we can calculate the upstream Prandtl-
Meyer function. Hence for known flow deflection angle and upstream Mach
number we can get the downstream Prandtl-Meyer function and hence the
downstream Mach number.
Process of expansion of supersonic flow is an isentropic process. However, while
passing through the expansion fan, pressure, temperature and density of the flow
decreases while Mach number and velocity increases for the supersonic flow.
Moreover, all the total properties remain constant. We can calculate the total
pressure, temperature and density upstream of the expansion using isentropic
relations for the known flow Mach number. From the calculated downstream Mach
number, we can calculate all the static flow properties from known stagnation or
total properties.

Rayleigh flow
11.1 One dimensional flow with heat addition
Consider the control volume as shown in Fig. 11.1 for 1D flow with heat addition.
The fluid flow of this kind is called as Raylaigh flow. Here station 1 is
representative station before heat addition while station 2 is representative
station after heat addition. This control volume is necessarily a constant cross-
section pipe hence variation is the inviscid flow properties is expected in the
direction of the flow due to addition of heat.

Fig.11.1: Typical Control volume for 1D flow with heat addition.

Assume the flow to be inviscid and steady between these two stations. Therefore
the mass and momentum conservation equations (5.1 and 5.2) remain unaltered
from the normal shock case but energy equation will have a term corresponding
to external heat addition in comparison with equation (5.3). Hence the 1D
conservation equations for flow with heat addition are as follows.

Here ‘q’ is amount of heat added per unit mass. Hence,

However, we know that

q = ho2 - ho1 = cp(To2 - To1) 11.1

This equation suggests that change in total temperature takes place due to heat
addition between two stations.
Lets represent the ratios of static and total properties in terms of upstream
(station 1) and downstream (station 2) Mach number and specific heat ratio. Lets
consider the momentum equation,

11.2
Also from ideal gas assumption

But ρ1u1 = ρ2u2

, , Therefore,

Hence from Eq. (4.2) we get,

11.3

Therefore,
 11.4

For ratio of total properties,

11.5

Similarly
 11.6

From these two ratios we can find out as

11.2 Reference conditions for flows with heat addition

We have represented all the ratios in terms of upstream and down stream Mach
numbers. If we consider a perticular case where heat addition leads to
downstream Mach number eqaul to one or post heat addition Mach number is
unity, then equations (11.2) to (11.6) can be written as,

Since M2 = 1 & p2 = p* & p1 = p∞ & M1 = M∞. Here flow properties after heat
addition are the stared quantities due to unity of the local Mach number. Hence
these quantities are of very much of importance since can be used as reference
quantities.
Similarly

From all the ratios for 1D flow with heat addition, following conclusions can be
drawn for supersonic and subsonic flows.

1. Addition of heat in supersonci flows

 Decreases Mach number
 Increases static pressure
 Increases static temperature
 Decreases total pressure
 Increases total temperature
 Decreases velocity
2. Addition of heat in subsonic flow
 Increases Mach number
 Decreases static pressure

 Increases static temperature if and decreases if

 Decreases total pressure
 Increases total temperature
  Increases velocity
Hence supersonic flow decelerates towards sonic value while subsonic flow
accelerates towards the same due to heat addition. In a way, having a subsonic
flow to start with we can keep on adding heat to reach sonic and then remove
heat to attain required supersonic flow conditions. Exactly reverse procedure
needs to be followed if given flow is supersonic and the target is to attain
specified subsonic condition.

It had been shown that addition of heat in subsonic flow increases the static

temperature till and decreases afterwards. Main reason for this

phenomenon is explained herewith. Addition of heat to subsonic flow increases
the velocity and temperature initially for small amount of heat addition.
Therefore both Kinetic energy (KE) and Internal energy (IE) of the flow increase
due to externally added heat in subsonic flow. However for a given mass flow
rate, rate of increase of KE is more than IE for given amount of heat addition.
Therefore after particular amount of addition of external heat, it becomes
impossible to increase IE (hence temperature) and KE (hence velocity) both
keeping mass flow rate same. As a result beyond perticular amount of heat
addition for a given mass flow rate condition, temperature (hence IE) decreases
but velocity (hence KE) continues to increase. We can as well interprete the same
phenomenon as, after certain critcal amount of heat addition in subsonic flow
added external heat becomes insufficient to increase the velocity (hence KE)
while keeping the mass flow rate same, hence required extra energy is supplied
by the flow itself from its internal energy, by virtue of which temperature
decrease though we add heat in subsonic flow.

From the above mentioned formulae for sonic conditions or ‘star’ properties, we
can calculate total temperature of the sonic flow after heat addition from any
given initial conditions and hence the amount of heat required to be added to
reach sonic condition from any given initial conditions. The properties at this sonic
conditions for a given mass flow rate remain indepandant of upstream or
freestream Mach number. Therefore, we can use this concept or these properties
as reference propertiesfor handling 1D flows with heat addition.
If the amount of heat added in the flow is more than the critical heat required to
reach sonic conndition, then flow cannot accommodate this heat. The main
reason for this fact is the anchoring of conditions after heat addition to sonic
point. Hence to accomodate the added extra heat, upstream conditions of the
flow change from supersonic to subsonic or from subsonic to lower subsonic for
which the externally added heat is the heat required to reach sonic condition.

15.1 Flow with friction

Consider a flow through constant area pipe as shown in Fig. 15.1. A subsonic or
supersonic flow enters in the pipe at section 1 and leaves at section 2.
Thermodynamic properties along with the velocity of the flow change from their
initial value at station 1 to the station 2 in the presence of friction force. This 1D
flow with friction is called as Fanno flow. Analysis of this flow would lead to
prediction of properties of the flow at the exit for known inlet conditions and pipe
configuration.

Here we will be considering the effect of friction between pipe wall and fluid.
However this assumption will be used only in momentum equation. Hence total
temperature can be considered to be constant in the flow process. The 1D
governing equations for this flow are ,

ρ1u1 = ρ2u2 (mass conservation)

And

(energy conservation)

The main change takes place in momentum equation. Therefore consider the
integral form of momentum equation for 1D flow.

Lets assume the flow to be steady through the pipe. Hence,

For integration of pressure and momentum terms, area is the cross sectional area
while for the shear stress term area s the circumferential area of the pipe.
Therefore the wetted area for shear stress includes diameter and length of the
pipe. Negative sign should be associated with the shear stress term since shear acts
in the direction opposite to the flow. Hence the momentum equation is,

p1 + ρu12 = p1 + ρu12 + F

where term F corresponds the frictional force and can be expressed in terms of
pipe dimensions and friction coefficient.

Lets try to express the change in static and total properties of the flow from station
1 and 2 of the pipe due to consideration of wall shear or friction.

Since total temperature is constant, we can express the static temperature ratio as

Hence,
 15.1

From, mass conservation equation, we can get,

ρ 1u 1 = ρ 2u 2

But,

Substituing this expression in mass conservation equation, we get,

15.2

We can use ideal gas equation to calculate the density ratio from pressure and
temperature ratio.
The earlier equation (15.1 to 15.3) are for static property ratios. For total property
ratios between two stations we have,

15.4

These expression provide the ratios of therodynamic properties for the known
Mach number at station 1 and 2.
15.2 Reference conditions for Fanno flow

If the inlet flow, either subsonic or supersonic, attains Mach number equal to 1 or
sonic condition, at the station 2, then such a condition is taken as reference for
calculations of Fanno flow. The corresponding length of the pipe is termes as
critical length of the pipe. We can use the reference conditions for frictional pipe
flow analysis. The expressions for property ratios are then given as,
Since M2 is equal to 1, the Mach number at station 1 (M1) is the freestream Mach
number (M∞).